Agrochemicals

What are Agrochemicals

•An agrochemical or agrichemical, a contraction of agricultural chemical, is a chemical product used in
agriculture to prevent, destroy, or repel pests. Pests can be insects, mice and other animals, weeds, fungi, or
microorganisms such as bacteria and viruses. Some examples of pests are termites causing damage to our
homes, dandelions in the lawn, and fleas on our dogs and cats.

• An agrochemical is any substance that farmer use to help in the management of an agricultural ecosystem.
• Different variations on agrochemicals have been used to improve crop yields and control the populations of
agricultural pests.
•The use of agrochemicals is an increasingly prominent aspect of modern agriculture. As farms have become
massive in size, the challenges in keeping the crop free of damage have increased. Hand-tilling weeds has
become impractical. Thus, agrochemicals have become widely used.
•The use of agrochemicals has been critically important in increasing the yield of agricultural crops. However,
some uses of agrochemicals cause environmental and ecological damage, which detracts significantly from the
benefits gained by the use of these materials.
• However, it is estimated that up to 40% of the world’s crops are spoiled by plant pests and diseases – even
with the effective implementation of pesticides.
 History
•The earliest known use of agrochemicals dates to roughly 2500 B.C. when Sumerian
farmers relied on Sulphur (S) compounds to reduce insect populations and the
subsequent risk of pest-related famine. Additionally, the Chinese from about 3200 years
ago used mercury and arsenic compounds to control body lice.
•Agrochemicals were introduced to protect crops from pests and enhance crop yields.
The most common agrochemicals include pesticides and fertilizers.
•Throughout the 1970s through 1980s, pesticide research continued into producing
more selective agrochemicals. Due to the adaptation of pests to these chemicals, more
and new agrochemicals were being used.
•Now-a-days about 300 different insecticides are now in use, along with about 290
herbicides, 165 fungicides, and other pesticides. However, each specific pesticidal
chemical (also known as the “active ingredient”) may be marketed in a variety of
formulations, which contain additional substances that act to increase the efficacy of
the actual pesticide. In total, more than 3,000 different pesticide formulations exist.
 What is pesticide?
Pesticide is a substance used for destroying insects or other organisms harmful to cultivated plants or to
animals.
•Pesticides are chemical substances that are meant to kill pests. In general, a pesticide is a chemical or a
biological agent such as a virus, bacterium, antimicrobial, or disinfectant that deters, incapacitates, kills, pests.
The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) has defined pesticide as:
•Any substance or mixture of substances intended for preventing, destroying or controlling any pest, including
vectors of human or animal disease, unwanted species of plants or animals, causing harm during or otherwise
interfering with the production, processing, storage, transport, or marketing of food, agricultural
commodities, wood and wood products or animal feedstuffs, or substances that may be administered to
animals for the control of insects, arachnids, or other pests in or on their bodies.
•This use of pesticides is so common that the term pesticide is often treated as synonymous with plant
protection product.
•It is commonly used to eliminate or control a variety of agricultural pests that can damage crops and livestock
and reduce farm productivity.
•The most commonly applied pesticides are insecticides, herbicides , rodenticides and fungicides.
 Types of pesticides
These are grouped according to the types of pests which they kill, how
biodegradable they are and chemically-related pesticides.
Grouped by Types of Pests They Kill:
•Insecticides (substances used to kill insects),
•Herbicides(substances used to control unwanted plants),
•Fungicides(substances used to kill parasitic fungi or their spores),
•Algaecides(used to kill and prevent the growth of algae),
•Rodenticides(used to kill rodents i.e. rats, squirrels, chipmunks),
•Molluscicides(used to control gastropod pests like slugs and snails),
•Nematicides(used to kill plant-parasitic nematodes).
 Based on how biodegradable they are
Pesticides can also be considered as:
•Biodegradable:
The biodegradable kind is those which can be broken down by microbes and
other living beings into harmless compounds.
•Persistent:
While the persistent ones are those which may take months or years to
break down.
 Chemically-related pesticides
Pesticides can be classified according to four distinctive functions, namely, stomach
poisoning, contact poisoning, fumigation or systemic action.
•Stomach poisoning – the pesticide enters the body of pests via their mouthpart and
digestive system and causes death by poisoning. Pesticides that function in this way are
known as stomach poison.
•Contact poisoning - the pesticide enters the body of pests via their epidermis upon contact
and causes death by poisoning. Pesticides that function in this way are known as contact
poison.
•Fumigation - the pesticide in gas form enters the body of pests via their respiration system
and causes death by poisoning.
•Systemic action - pesticides consumed by a host organism will stay in its body fluids. Pests
feeding on the body fluids of the host organism will then be killed by poisoning.
 Pesticides can be classified by their chemical nature:
1.Organochlorine Pesticides:
They are the synthetic organic pesticides that are earliest discovered and used. Their characteristics are broad-
spectrum, long residual effect and relatively low toxicity. However, due to their stable chemical nature, they are
hard to break down in the natural environment. Prolonged use in large quantities will easily lead to
environmental pollution and accumulation in mammals, resulting in cumulative poisoning or damage.
Organochlorine pesticides are therefore banned under general circumstances and gradually replaced by other
pesticides.
2.Organophosphate Pesticides:
Organophosphate pesticides are characterised by their multiple functions and the capacity of controlling a
broad spectrum of pests. They are nerve poisons that can be used not only as stomach poison but also as
contact poison and fumigant. These pesticides are also biodegradable, cause minimum environmental pollution
and slow pest resistance. Temephos and F enitrothion are examples of organophosphate pesticides.
3.Carbamates:
Carbamate pesticides work on the same principle as organophosphate pesticides by affecting the transmission
of nerve signals resulting in the death of the pest by poisoning. They can be used as stomach and contact
poisons as well as fumigant. Moreover, as their molecular structures are largely similar to that of natural organic
substances, they can be degraded easily in a natural manner with minimum environmental pollution. Propoxur
is an example of carbamate pesticides.
 Continued…
4.Synthetic-pyrethroid Pesticides:
Synthetic-pyrethroid pesticides are a pesticide synthesized by imitating the structure of natural pyrethrins.
They are comparatively more stable with longer residual effects than natural pyrethrins. Synthetic-pyrethroid
pesticides are highly toxic to insects but of only slight toxicity to mammals. A llethrin and Permethrin are
examples of synthetic-pyrethroid pesticides.
5.Microbial Insecticides:
Microbial insecticides control pests by means of pathogenic micro-organisms including bacteria, fungus and
viruses. Bacillus thuringiensis israelensis (B.t.i.) is an example of microbial insecticides.
6.Insect Growth Regulators:
Insect growth regulators are compounds developed by copying insect juvenile hormone. The main functions
are to interfere with the growth and hatching of larvae into adults, and to prevent the formation of exoskeleton
so as to prohibit the growth of the insect. As its ability to live as a living organism is curtailed, the insect may
die eventually as well as the whole insect population. Methoprene is an example of insect growth regulators.
 Continued…
7.Sulfonylurea herbicides:
The sulfonylureas herbicides have been commercialized for weed control such as
pyrithiobac-sodium, cyclosulfamuron, bispyribac-sodium, terbacil, sulfometuron-methyl
Sulfosulfuron, rimsulfuron, pyrazosulfuron-ethyl, imazosulfuron, nicosulfuron,
oxasulfuron, nicosulfuron, flazasulfuron, primisulfuron-methyl, halosulfuron-methyl,
flupyrsulfuron-methyl-sodium, ethoxysulfuron, chlorimuron-ethyl, bensulfuron-methyl,
azimsulfuron, and amidosulfuron.
8.Biopesticides:
The biopesticides are certain types of pesticides derived from such natural materials as
animals, plants, bacteria, and certain minerals.
•Examples of pesticides
Examples of specific synthetic chemical pesticides are glyphosate, Acephate, Deet,
Propoxur, Metaldehyde, Boric Acid, Diazinon, Dursban, DDT, Malathion, etc.
 Application of Pesticides
When using pesticides, one should choose the suitable type and formulation according to the target pest and the purpose.
The chosen pesticide should then be applied by suitable methods.
Application methods can be generally classified as follows:
1. Spraying
There are broadly two kinds of spraying: space spraying and residual spraying. Liquid pesticides are released
from various types of sprayers, forming small droplets that float in the air or settle on object surfaces with which the passing
insects will come into contact. Space spraying is to apply knockdown pesticide over the space where there are pest
activities. It is mainly used to combat flying insects like mosquitoes, midges, flies and wasps. Residual spraying is to apply
residual pesticide over the object surfaces on which there are pest activities. It is mainly used to combat crawling insects or
those staying on an object surface for a long period of time, e.g. cockroaches, fleas, ticks and ants.
2. Dusting
A duster is used to spray or scatter powder pesticides in areas needed to be treated. The body of pests will be
stained with the powder as they pass through it. Powder pesticides are especially suitable for treating those areas / objects
that cannot be wetted, such as carpet surface and books. By using the right nozzle, powder pesticides can be sprayed into the
cracks and crevices or holes. Attention should be paid to the weather and situation on the ground during the application.
Dusting should not be conducted outdoors under windy conditions. Dustable powder should not be applied on rainy days nor
can it be applied in moist or damp areas. Dusting is suitable for controlling fleas, cockroaches, centipedes and the larvae of
certain insects.
 Continued…
3. Fumigation
Gas pesticides are used in fumigation. Its advantage lies in the small molecules which have a strong penetration
force than any other pesticides. It is especially suitable for treating areas with many cracks and crevices where pests like to
shelter. Another advantage of fumigation is the easy dispersion of gas, which will not leave any residue on the surface of
treated objects. However, due to its strong penetration force, preparation must be thorough before fumigation is
conducted, and the area to be treated must be completely enclosed to avoid leakage of pesticide. There is also a need to
ensure that the pesticide is dispersed completely after application before the treated area is unsealed. Also, certain
fumigant gas pesticides are highly toxic and are not suitable for use in places where there are human and animal activities.
4. Baiting
In general, no special equipment is required for baiting. Only a simple device, such as a rodent bait box or
cockroach bait box, is needed to put in the baits. It is most important to choose a suitable location for placing the baits. The
baits should be placed:
1. near to active runways / activity areas of pests so that the baits can be easily discovered;
2. in areas not easily accessible to humans and non-target organisms;
3. far away from food, utensils and food processing area
 Continued…
5.Granules
Granules particles are larger in size than those of dusts (particle size range of 250-1250 microns, or 0.25-2.38
mm in diameter). Granules may be applied to soil for controlling weeds, nematodes, and soil-dwelling insects.
The active ingredient is released slowly and may require moisture or soil incorporation. A disadvantage is that
non-target organisms can mistakenly consume granules.
6.Aerosols
Aerosols are pesticides purchased in pressurized containers in a ready-to-use form. Aerosol cans create tiny
droplets of pesticide and can be used in localized areas.
 Sprayers
Sprayers are the most commonly used pest control equipment. They are light, convenient and come in various types,
suitable for indoor and outdoor small scale / local control operations to eradicate pests of public health importance, e.g.
mosquitoes, flies and cockroaches. Sprayers available on the market include manual sprayers and compression sprayers.
1. Hand Pump
A handpump operates on a simple piston principle whereby the pesticide is drawn out from the solution cylinder.
The holding capacity of the solution cylinder is usually about 0.5 to 1 liter. When the piston is pulled backward, the pesticide
will be drawn out from the cylinder. When the piston is pushed forward, the pesticide will be released from the nozzle.
Manual sprayers are usually used in small scale knockdown operations.
2.Compression Sprayers
A compression sprayer is composed primarily of three parts, including the solution tank , the pressurized device
(piston) and the nozzle system (control / tube / resonator / nozzle). Air inside the solution tanks is compressed and
pressurized by using the piston. When the trigger on / off (valve) is released, the liquid pesticide is pushed into the tube by
high pressure and transferred to the nozzle system where it will be broken up into droplets, each with a volume diameter of
about 100 to 400 microns.
The length of the application wand of the compression sprayer can be adjusted according to need. Its nozzle can
also be replaced or adjusted to suit various spraying purposes -
• Fan nozzle : offering the widest spraying angle, s uitable for residual spraying.
• Cone nozzle : suitable for general sp ace spraying, such as the elimination of flies.
• Jet : the cone nozzle can be adjusted to spray jet, allowing the liquid pesticide to reach its target (such as a wasp
nest high up) at a far distance.
 Continued…
3.Thermal Foggers
A thermal fogger is composed primarily of two parts including the pulse-jet engine and the formulation
system. The pulse-jet engine generates a high temperature air stream, evaporating the formulation which will
then be released through the resonator. When come into contact with cold air, the vapour will immediately
condensed into small droplets. With a diameter of less than 50 microns, these droplets are highly effective in
penetration, diffusion and adhesion, suitable for outdoor pest control work covering a large area. The fog
produced by a thermal fogger is highly visible, facilitating the monitoring of aerosol diffusion and penetration.
4. Cold Foggers
A cold fogger is composed primarily of three parts including the driver (engine and air compressor), the
solution tank and the nozzle system. Activated by the two-stroke petrol engine, the centrifugal fan of the fogger
generates a high speed air stream channelling the fogging solution into the nozzle system via a delivery tube.
The pesticide solution will then be broken up into droplets with a diameter of about 50 to 100 microns by the
centrifugal force of a high-spin atomiser. The cold fogger is a high performance spraying machine with wide
coverage. With a light breeze, the insecticide mist can cover 70 to 100 metres. The cold fogger is suitable for
outdoor pest control work involving a large area, and can be fitted with different nozzle orifices to adjust the
speed of fogging and droplet size.
 Continued…
5.Ultra Low Volume (ULV) Sprayers
The structure and operating principle of ULV sprayers are the same as those of cold foggers. The size of
droplets generated by an ULV sprayer may vary from several cubic microns (the tiniest) to less than a hundred
cubic microns (the largest). Droplets of this size have strong penetration force and are most effective in
controlling pests such as mosquitoes. In comparison with other cold foggers, ULV sprayers are more effective as
they can deliver the correct-sized droplets with high uniformity.

Environmental conditions such as temperature, wind direction and wind speed should be noted when
spraying is conducted, in particular during fogging applications. The size of droplets also has an important
bearing on the effectiveness of spraying operations. Droplets with a big diameter will not be able to remain
suspended in the air, and their contact with insects in flight will be reduced. Droplets with a small diameter will
be susceptible to the turbulence created by insects in flight or other air currents. This will also reduce their
contact with insects. In outdoor applications, most droplets will be carried away by the rising air current and
dissipate in the atmosphere. The droplet size also affects the ability to penetrate into vegetation and other
objects.
 What are pesticide formulations?
A pesticide formulation is a mixture of chemicals which effectively controls a pest. Formulating a pesticide
involves processing it to improve its storage, handling, safety, application, or effectiveness.
What makes up a formulation?
The pesticide formulation is a mixture of active and other ingredients (called inert ingredients). An active
ingredient is a substance that prevents, kills, or repels a pest or acts as a plant regulator, desiccant, defoliant,
synergist, or nitrogen stabilizer. Pesticides come in many different formulations due to variations in the active
ingredient’s solubility, ability to control the pest, and ease of handling and transport.
Synergists are a type of active ingredient that are sometimes added to formulations. They enhance another
active ingredient’s ability to kill the pest while using the minimum amount of active ingredient, but do not
themselves possess pesticidal properties. For example, insecticides containing the active ingredient pyrethrins
often contain piperonyl butoxide or n-octyl bicycloheptane dicarboximide as a synergist.
Other (or inert) ingredients may aid in the application of the active ingredient. Other ingredients can be solvents,
carriers, adjuvants, or any other compound, besides the active ingredient, which is intentionally added. There are
many types of other ingredients: solvents are liquids that dissolve the active ingredient, carriers are liquids or
solid chemicals that are added to a pesticide product to aid in the delivery of the active ingredient, and adjuvants
often help make the pesticide stick to or spread out on the application surface (i.e., leaves). Other adjuvants aid
in the mixing of some formulations when they are diluted for application.
 What do manufacturers consider when
creating a formulation?
The type of surface, training, equipment, runoff, drift, habits of the pest, and safety are all considered when a manufacturer
designs a pesticide formulation.
Type of surface
Some formulations are more effective on certain surfaces than others. Discoloration or pitting of the surface of plants or
other surfaces may occur with some formulations.
Training and equipment
Many pesticide products that the public purchases and uses are ready-to-use (RTU) formulations which require no dilution
and can be applied quickly and conveniently. Examples of ready-to-use formulations used by homeowners are granules for
insect and weed control and baits for rodent control.
Many of the formulations used by farmers and commercial applicators (like pest control companies) need to be applied with
certain equipment. These formulations may also require certification or training for individuals performing the application.
For example, termiticide applicators may be required by the Department of Agriculture in each state to complete specific
training in the use of termiticides.
Some liquid pesticide formulations commonly used by farmers and commercial applicators are applied with a compressed air
sprayer, fogger, or soil injector. Other liquid pesticide formulations used by farmers may require the use of aircraft, low
pressure boom sprayer, high-pressure sprayer, or ultra-low-volume sprayer.
 What is Toxicity?
The toxicity of a substance is its capacity to cause injury to a living system. A living system can be many things: a human body,
or parts of the body (such as the lungs or the respiratory system); a pond, a forest and those creatures that live there. Toxicity
represents the kind and extent of damage that can be done by a chemical.
Pesticide applicators should understand the hazards and risks associated with the pesticides they use. Pesticides vary greatly
in toxicity. Toxicity depends on the chemical and physical properties of a substance, and may be defined as the quality of
being poisonous or harmful to animals or plants. Pesticides have many different modes of action, but in general cause
biochemical changes which interfere with normal cell functions.
The toxicity of any compound is related to the dose. A highly toxic substance causes severe symptoms of poisoning with small
doses. A substance with a low toxicity generally requires large doses to produce mild symptoms. Even common substances
like coffee or salt become poisons if large amounts are consumed.
The toxicity of a particular pesticide is determined by subjecting test animals to varying dosages of the active ingredient (a.i.)
and each of its formulated products. The active ingredient is the chemical component in the pesticide product that controls
the pest.
Dose-Time Relationship
The effect of a pesticide, or any substance for that matter, is dependent on a number of factors. The most important factor is
the dose-time relationship. Dose is the quantity of a substance that a surface, plant, or animal is exposed to. Time means
how often the exposure occurs. Thus, the dose- time relationship is how much of the substance is involved and how often
the exposure to the substance occurs.
 Kinds of Toxicity
The two types of toxicity are acute and chronic.
Acute toxicity:
It is the ability of a substance to cause harmful effects which develop rapidly following exposure, i.e. a few hours or a day.
Acute toxicity of a pesticide refers to the chemical's ability to cause injury to a person or animal from a single exposure,
generally of short duration. The four routes of exposure are dermal (skin), inhalation (lungs), oral (mouth), and eyes. Acute
toxicity is determined by examining the dermal toxicity, inhalation toxicity, and oral toxicity of test animals. In addition, eye
and skin irritation are also examined.
Chronic toxicity:
It is the ability of a substance to cause adverse health effects resulting from long-term exposure to a substance. The chronic
toxicity of a pesticide is determined by subjecting test animals to long-term exposure to the active ingredient. Any harmful
effects that occur from small doses repeated over a period of time are termed chronic effects. Chronic toxicity of pesticides
concerns the general public, as well as those working directly with pesticides because of potential exposure to pesticides
on/in food products, water, and the air. It is measured in experimental conditions after three months of either continuous or
occasional exposure.Some of the suspected chronic effects from exposure to certain pesticides include birth defects,
production of tumors, blood disorders, and neurotoxic effects (nerve disorders). The chronic toxicity of a pesticide is more
difficult to determine through laboratory analysis than acute toxicity.
 Continued…
A material that has high acute toxicity does not necessarily have high chronic toxicity. Nor does a
chemical with low acute toxicity necessarily have low chronic toxicity. For many pesticides, the toxic
effects following single acute exposures are quite different from those produced by chronic exposure. If,
for example, large amounts of the pesticide cryolite are eaten by rats at one time little or no harmful
effects will be observed. It quickly passes through the intestinal tract and is eliminated without harmful
effects. However, if rats are fed small amounts of cryolite every day in their feed, they become ill and die.
Cryolite is a very insoluble compound, meaning that it does not readily dissolve. The small amount of
chemical that is absorbed from a one-time exposure is not sufficient to cause illness, but absorption of
the same small amount every day, day after day, can cause chronic illness and death. The effects of both
acute toxicity and chronic toxicity are dose-related; the greater the dose, the greater the effect.
While one cannot change the inherent toxicity of pesticides, one can limit the possibility of poisoning by
preventing and/or limiting exposure. In other words, the risk of harm from pesticide exposure is equal to
how poisonous the pesticide is, multiplied by the amount and route of exposure to the pesticide, or:
RISK = TOXICITY X EXPOSURE
There is a great range in the toxicity of pesticides to humans. The relative hazard of a pesticide is
dependent upon the toxicity of the pesticide, the dose and the length of time exposed. The hazard in
using a pesticide is related to the likelihood of exposure to harmful amounts of the pesticide. The toxicity
of a pesticide can’t be changed but the risk of exposure can be reduced with the use of proper personal
protective equipment (PPE), proper handling and application procedures.
 Routes of Entry
There are three specific ways in which pesticides may enter your body. You may be poisoned no matter how they enter.
Sometimes you can even be poisoned without knowing it, especially if the pesticide enters through the skin or lungs.
Dermal Route:
Wet, dry, or gaseous forms of pesticides can be absorbed through the skin. This may occur if pesticides are allowed to get on
the skin while mixing or applying, or if pesticide-contaminated clothing is not removed promptly and properly cleaned before
being worn again. Oil or paste forms allow greater absorption through the skin than water-based pesticides. Some pesticides
do not pass through the skin very readily. Others are quickly absorbed through the skin and can be as dangerous as if they
were swallowed. Skin varies in its capacity to act as a barrier to pesticide absorption. The eyes, ear drums, scalp and groin
area absorb pesticides more quickly than other areas on the body. Damaged or open skin can be penetrated by a pesticide
much more readily than healthy, intact skin. Once they are absorbed through skin, pesticides enter the blood stream and are
carried throughout the body.
Inhalation Route:
Whether as dusts, spray mist, or fumes, pesticides can be drawn into your lungs as you breathe. Inhalation of pesticides can
occur during the mixing of wettable powders, dusts, or granules. Poisoning can also occur while fumigating or spraying
without a self contained breathing apparatus or a proper respirator in enclosed or poorly ventilated areas such as
greenhouses, apartments, or grain bins. The largest particles that are inhaled tend to stay on the surface of the throat and
nasal passages, and do not enter the lungs. Smaller particles can be inhaled directly into the lungs. The number of particles
needed to poison by inhalation depends upon the concentration of the chemical in the particles. Even inhalation of dilute
pesticides can result in poisoning. Once they are absorbed through the surfaces of the lungs, chemicals enter the blood
stream and are distributed to the rest of the body.
 Continued…
Oral Route:
Pesticides can enter the body through the mouth (also called ingestion). This can occur when hands are not properly washed
before eating or smoking. They may be swallowed by mistake, if they are improperly stored in food containers. Ingested
materials can be absorbed anywhere along the gastrointestinal tract; the major absorption site is the small intestine. Once
absorbed, they eventually enter the blood stream by one of several means, and circulate throughout the body.
Which Route Is More Important?
One can be poisoned no matter which way pesticides enter your body. While there are few chemicals that are equally
poisonous by all routes of entry, some pesticides can enter all three ways and poison the body. (For example, parathion is
toxic regardless of how it is absorbed).
The dermal and inhalation routes of pesticide entry are likely to be the most important routes of pesticide applicator
exposure. It is unlikely that one would purposely eat or drink the chemicals using, but one may breathe them in, splash them
on the skin, or expose oneself to pesticide "fallout."
Healthy skin can slow the absorption of a pesticide when dermal contact occurs. Liquid pesticides containing solvents and oil
based pesticides are absorbed quickly compared to dry pesticides. The applicator must know that damaged skin (chapped,
cut, or abraded) has lost its ability to slow the entry of a pesticide into the body.
 The Qualities of the Exposed Individual
The qualities of the exposed individual influence the toxicity of a pesticide since different individual characteristics will affect
how the person responds to a pesticide. Some examples of these individual qualities include:

• Health conditions: heredity, pregnancy, and disease may cause individuals to respond differently.
• Age: youngest and oldest individuals tend to be most sensitive.
• Gender/sex: male and female individuals may respond very differently.
• Environment: exposure to other toxic substances in food, air, water, etc.
• Health behaviors: customs or habits such as smoking, dietary practices, drug use, personal hygiene, etc.
• Body size: the effect of a dose is closely related to body weight. The heavier the individual, the more poison needed to
cause an effect.
 Effects of Toxicity
In addition to being acute or chronic, toxic effects can be any of the following:
• Local or systemic (Both effects can occur with some pesticides.)
Local effects refer to those that take place at the site of contact with a material. Examples of this include: skin inflammation
on the hand, in response to hand contact with a pesticide; or irritation of the mucous membrane lining the lungs, due to
inhalation of toxic fumes.
Systemic effects are quite different because they occur away from the original point of contact. Systemic effects may occur
when pesticides are distributed throughout the body, or "system". An example of a systemic effect is the blocking of an
essential chemical of the nervous system, called "cholinesterase" upon exposure to some types of pesticides.
• Immediate or delayed (Both effects can occur with some materials.)
Immediate toxic effects are those which are experienced upon or shortly after exposure. (For example, a sneezing attack in
response to inhaling pesticides during mixing).
Delayed effects occur after some time has passed. While they may not be obvious, such as long term reproductive effects,
delayed effects can result from a single exposure. Tumors may not be observed in chronically exposed people for 20 to 30
years after the original exposure to a cancer-causing or "carcinogenic" chemical.
• Reversible or irreversible
Reversible effects are not permanent and can be changed or remedied. Skin rash, nausea, eye irritation, dizziness, etc. are all
considered reversible toxic effects. Injury to the liver is usually reversible since this organ has an ability to regenerate itself.
Irreversible effects are permanent and cannot be changed once they have occurred. Injury to the nervous system is usually
irreversible since its cells cannot divide and be replaced. Irreversible effects include birth defects, mutations, and cancer.
 Continued…
Additive, antagonistic, or synergistic
An additive effect is one in which the combined effect of two pesticides is equal to the sum of the effects of each (i.e. 2 + 2 =
4.)
An antagonistic effect occurs when the toxic effect of the combination of pesticides is less than what would be predicted from
the individual toxicities. Antagonism is like adding 2 + 2 and getting 3 as the result.
A synergistic effect occurs when the combined toxic effect of two pesticides is much greater, or worse, than the sum of the
effects of each by itself. Synergism is similar to adding 2 + 2 and getting 5 as the result.

Exposure to pesticides may also result in the following:

• Reproductive effects: effects on the reproductive system or on the ability to produce healthy offspring.
• Teratogenic effects: effects on unborn offspring, such as birth defects.
• Carcinogenic effects: produces cancer in living animal tissues.
• Oncogenic effects: tumor-forming effects (not necessarily cancerous.)
• Mutagenic effects: permanent effects on genetic material that can be inherited.
• Neurotoxicity: poisoning of the nervous system, including the brain.
• Immunosuppression: blocking of natural responses of the immune system responsible for protecting the body.
 Measuring Toxicity
It is quite difficult to figure out the exact toxicity of a pesticide for humans. Animal testing is the primary way we measure
toxicity. Many types of animals are used to test pesticide toxicity, including rats, rabbits, mice, guinea pigs and dogs. However,
due to some differences between the way our bodies and the bodies of animals work, results of animal tests cannot always be
applied or "extrapolated" to humans. In other words, a pesticide may be more or less toxic to humans than to the animals in
which it was tested. Similarly, something that appears to be extremely toxic to test animals may not necessarily be poisonous in
humans. Toxicity studies are just guidelines for estimating and comparing toxic effects of pesticides. The word "detected" is
important when talking about measuring toxic effects. We can only talk about what we can see or observe. The term "No
Observable Effect Level", or NOEL, means that at the stated dose, no effects were observed in test animals.
Acute Toxicity Measures
To figure out how acutely toxic a pesticide is, scientists give laboratory animals short-term exposure to doses of the pesticide
being tested. Experimental doses are given orally, as well as put on the eyes, skin, and in the air that the test animals breathe.
The animals are then observed carefully for changes.
Lethal Dose Fifty (LD50)
"Lethal Dose Fifty" (LD50) is one way the toxicity of chemicals are measured. LD50 is the amount of a pesticide that has killed half
of the animals in a laboratory test. The LD50 is found for both dermal and oral routes of exposure. For example, an acute oral
LD50 indicates the amount of pesticide swallowed that has killed half of the animals tested.
The smaller the LD50 value, the less chemical required to kill half of the test animals, and the more poisonous the pesticide. So, a
pesticide with a dermal LD50 of 25 is more poisonous than a pesticide with a dermal LD50 of 2000 . LD50's do not tell us how a
chemical acts, nor do they tell us how sensitive different organs within an animal or human might be. They simply tell us how
much of the chemical it takes to kill half of the test animals. LD50's for different chemicals can only be compared if the same test
animal was used, and even then it cannot be taken as an indication of the ful toxic potential of either chemical.
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Milligrams per kilogram (mg/kg)

Pesticide LD50 values are measured in units of weight called "milligrams" per "kilogram" (mg/kg). A single paper clip weighs
about one gram. Cutting the clip into 1000 equal parts will make pieces that weigh one milligram each. There are
approximately 28,000 milligrams in an ounce. A kilogram is about equal to 2.2 pounds. The LD50 value refers to the number of
milligrams of pesticide that was needed to kill half of the test animals for each kilogram of the animal's body weight. For
example, an acute oral LD50 of 5 mg/kg for pesticide A (rats) indicates that it is toxic when there are 5 mg of this chemical
given orally for every kilogram (or 2.2 pounds) of the animal's weight.

Parts per million (ppm)

Another way of expressing how much pesticide is involved in toxic doses is referred to as "parts per million", abbreviated
"ppm". One part per million means that for every million parts of a solution or mixture, there is one part of the substance
being measured. The measures mg/kg and ppm are used interchangably since a milligram is one millionth of a kilogram. Other
measures that you might come across when looking at the toxicity of a pesticide include: "parts per billion" (ppb) and "parts
per trillion" (ppt).
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Lethal Concentration Fifty (LC50)
To figure out the "acute inhalation toxicity" of a pesticide, scientists add a known amount of the pesticide to air. The amount
that causes half of the animals to die is the "Lethal Concentration Fifty" (LC50) of the pesticide. The lower the LC50 value, the
more poisonous the pesticide. Lethal Concentration Fifty is measured in milligrams per liter (mg/l) or ppm and sometimes in
milligrams per cubic meter (mg/m3).
Chronic Toxicity Measures
There is no standard measure like LD50 for chronic toxicity studies. Often the length of the experiment is in days, months, or
years and the amount of each dose is stated. For example, a study of chronic oral toxicity might look like this: " 8 milligrams of
pesticide were fed to rats daily for two years. No symptoms of poisoning appeared."
Two classes of pesticides, the organophosphates and carbamates, can slowly poison by attacking an essential body chemical
called "cholinesterase". The chronic exposure to organophosphate pesticides can be measured by monitoring changes in
blood cholinesterase levels. In humans, decreased blood cholinesterase levels are a sure sign that exposure to these types of
pesticides should be avoided until the level is measured as being normal again.
Acute Toxicity Label Warning Statements
Based on the LD50 and the results of other acute tests, each pesticide is classified into a "toxicity category" and given an
associated "signal word". A signal word must appear on every product label so that pesticide users are alerted to the
pesticide's acute toxicity. Toxicity categories are based on the acute oral, dermal, and inhalation toxicities, as well as eye and
skin irritation effects of each pesticide. A pesticide is categorized by its highest level of toxicity. For example, if the acute oral
toxicity and acute dermal toxicity of a pesticide are in the slightly toxic category, but its acute inhalation toxicity is in the highly
toxic category, the pesticide label will have the signal words for a highly toxic pesticide.