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E N C Y C L O P E D I A of
ENCYCLOPEDIA
of GEOCHEMISTRY
A COMPREHENSIVE REFERENCE
SOURCE ON THE CHEMISTRY
Associate Editors
William H. Casey
University of California
Department of Chemistry and Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences
Davis, CA, USA
Bernard Marty
Centre de Recherches Pétrographiques et Géochimiques (CRPG), CNRS
Institut Universitaire de France, Ecole Nationale Supérieure de Géologie
Vandoeuvre-les-Nancy, France
Hisayoshi Yurimoto
Hokkaido University
Natural History Sciences
Sapporo, Japan
ENCYCLOPEDIA of
GEOCHEMISTRY
A Comprehensive Reference Source on the
Chemistry of the Earth
edited by
WILLIAM M. WHITE
Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
WILLIAM H. CASEY
University of California, Davis, CA, USA
BERNARD MARTY
CNRS Institut Universitaire de France, Vandoeuvre-les-Nancy, France
HISAYOSHI YURIMOTO
Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
Library of Congress Control Number: 2018930990
ISBN: 978-3-319-39311-7
This publication is available also as:
Electronic publication under ISBN 978-3-319-39312-4 and
Print and electronic bundle under ISBN 978-3-319-39313-1
Cover illustration: The poly-extreme hydrothermal terraces of Dallol, Afar Triangle, Ethiopia.
Hydrothermal chimneys and miniature geysers discharge high temperature (105–108 C), oxygen-free, hyper-acidic
(pH ~ 0), and Fe-rich (26 g/L of Fe) brines, creating a series of colorful terraces and pools. Unlike other hydrothermal
sites where the colors are related to the presence of microorganisms, the color palette of Dallol results from the slow
oxidation of aqueous ferrous species and precipitation of Fe(III)-chlorides/-oxyhydroxides/-sulfates. Photograph was
taken during the fieldtrip of 2017 in the framework of the ERC grant Prometheus. Electra Kotopoulou, Spanish National
Research Council (IACT-CSIC-UGR), Spain.
Every effort has been made to contact the copyright holders of the figures and tables which have been reproduced from
other sources. Anyone who has not been properly credited is requested to contact the publishers, so that due
acknowledgement may be made in subsequent editions.
All rights reserved for the contributions: Acid Deposition; Alkali and Alkaline Earth Metals; Atomic Number, Mass
Number, and Isotopes; Ferromanganese Crusts and Nodules: Rocks that Grow; Oklo Natural Nuclear Reactors; Oil
Shale; Potassium; Refractory Inclusions in Chondritic Meteorites.
This Springer imprint is published by Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature.
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
Contents
Antimony 37 Beryllium 93
Jacqueline R. Houston Jeffrey G. Ryan
vi CONTENTS
Formation and Evolution of the Earth 498 Giant Impact Hypothesis 617
Francis Albarède Hidenori Genda
Organic Matter Degradation and Preservation 1094 Partitioning and Partition Coefficients 1186
Sandra Arndt and Douglas Edward LaRowe Chenguang Sun
Slimane Bekki
LATMOS-IPSL (Laboratoire Atmosphères, Milieux, Jean-François Boily
Observations Spatiales) Department of Chemistry
Sorbonne Universités-UPMC, Paris Saclay-UVSQ, CNRS Umeå University
Paris, France Umeå, SE, Sweden
R. Alexander Bentley
Comparative Cultural Studies and Hobby School of Public Magali Bonifacie
Affairs Institut de Physique du Globe de Paris
University of Houston, McElhinney Hall Sorbonne Paris Cité, Université Paris Diderot
Houston, TX, USA Paris, France
Bridget A. Bergquist
Department of Earth Sciences Bernard Bourdon
University of Toronto Laboratoire de Géologie de Lyon
Toronto, ON, Canada Université de Lyon
Lyon, France
and
Barry R. Bickmore ENS-Lyon
Department of Geological Sciences Université Lyon 1, CNRS, UMR 5276 LGLTPE
Brigham Young University Lyon, France
Provo, UT, USA
Ian C. Bourg
Paul R. Bierman Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering and
Department of Geology Princeton Environmental Institute
University of Vermont Princeton University
Burlington, VT, USA Princeton, NJ, USA
CONTRIBUTORS xvii
Anthony Chappaz
James M. Brenan Department of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences
Department of Earth Sciences Central Michigan University
Dalhousie University Mount Pleasant, MI, USA
Halifax, NS, Canada
Mathieu Chassé
Institut de minéralogie, de physique des matériaux, et de
James G. Brophy cosmochimie (IMPMC)
Department of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences Sorbonne universités – UPMC
Indiana University Paris, France
Bloomington, IN, USA
Catherine Chauvel
ISTerre
Joël Brugger University Grenoble Alpes, CNRS
School of Earth, Atmosphere and the Environment Grenoble, France
Monash University
Clayton, Australia
Allan R. Chivas
GeoQuEST Research Centre, School of Earth and
James R. Budahn Environmental Sciences
U.S.Geological Survey University of Wollongong
Denver, CO, USA Wollongong, NSW, Australia
and
Department of Earth Sciences
Hélène Bureau University of Adelaide
Institut de Minéralogie, de Physique desMatériaux et de Adelaide, SA, Australia
Cosmochimie (IMPMC)
Sorbonne Universités – UPMCUniv. Paris 06, CNRSUMR
7590, MuséumNational d’Histoire Naturelle Andrew G. Christy
Paris, France School of Earth and Environmental Sciences
University of Queensland
Vincent Busigny St Lucia, QLD, Australia
Institut de Physique du Globe de Paris and
Sorbonne Paris Cité, Université Paris Diderot Geosciences
Paris, France Queensland Museum
Hendra, QLD, Australia
Elizabeth A. Canuel
Department of Physical Science, Virginia Institute of Norbert Clauer
Marine Science Laboratoire d’Hydrologie et de Géochimie de Strasbourg
College of William & Mary CNRS - Université de Strasbourg
Gloucester Point, VA, USA Strasbourg, France
Louis A. Derry
Christopher A. Colla Department of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences
Department of Chemistry and Department of Earth and Cornell University
Planetary Sciences Ithaca, NY, USA
University of California
Davis, CA, USA
Aline Dia
Géosciences Rennes
Rennes, France
Caitlin Colleary
Department of Geosciences
Virginia Tech David A. Dixon
Blacksburg, VA, USA Department of Chemistry
University of Alabama
Tuscaloosa, AL, USA
Nigel J. Cook
School of Chemical Engineering Ann G. Dunlea
The University of Adelaide Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution
Adelaide, SA, Australia Woods Hole, MA, USA
Cortland F. Eble
Michel Cuney Kentucky Geological Survey
GeoRessources University of Kentucky
University of Lorraine, CNRS, CREGU Lexington, KY, USA
Vandoeuvre les Nancy, France
Kay-Christian Emeis
Department of Earth Sciences
Joan E. Curry Hamburg University
Department of Soil, Water and Environmental Science Hamburg, Germany
University of Arizona
Tucson, AZ, USA Giuseppe Etiope
Sezione Roma 2
Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e Vulcanologia
Andrew D. Czaja Rome, Italy
Department of Geology
University of Cincinnati
Cincinnati, OH, USA Juraj Farkaš
Department of Earth Sciences, School of Physical Sciences
University of Adelaide
Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
James M. D. Day
and
Scripps Institution of Oceanography
Department of Geochemistry
University of California San Diego
Czech Geological Survey
La Jolla, CA, USA
Prague, Czech Republic
Jérôme Gaillardet
Institut de Physique du Globe de Paris Stephen F. Greb
Paris, France Kentucky Geological Survey
University of Kentucky
Heinz Gamsjäger Lexington, KY, USA
Leoben, Austria
Eleanor C. R. Green
Charles A. Geiger Institute of Geochemistry and Petrology
Department of Chemistry and Physics of Materials ETH Zürich
Section Mineralogy Zürich, Switzerland
University of Salzburg
Salzburg, Austria
Richard Greenwood
Hidenori Genda Planetary and Space Sciences, Department of Physical
Earth-Life Science Institute (ELSI) Sciences
Tokyo Institute of Technology The Open University
Tokyo, Japan Milton Keynes, UK
xx CONTRIBUTORS
Norman E. Holden
Karen Harpp National Nuclear Data Center
Department of Geology Brookhaven National Laboratory
Colgate University Upton, New York, USA
Hamilton, NY, USA
Greg Holland
School of Earth and Environmental Sciences
Hilairy Ellen Hartnett
University of Manchester
School of Earth and Space Exploration and School of
Manchester, UK
Molecular Sciences
Arizona State University
Tempe, AZ, USA Masahiko Honda
Research School of Earth Sciences
The Australian National University
Adam J. Hawkins Canberra, ACT, Australia
Earth and Atmospheric Sciences
Cornell University Peter Hoppe
Ithaca, NY, USA Particle Chemistry Department
Max Planck Institute for Chemistry
Mainz, Germany
Meng He
Department of Geological and Environmental Sciences
Stanford University Jacqueline R. Houston
Stanford, CA, USA CSUS – California State University
Sacramento, CA, USA
Fred T. Mackenzie
Department of Oceanography, School of Ocean and Earth Patricia M. Medeiros
Science and Technology Department of Marine Sciences
University of Hawai‘i at Manoa University of Georgia
Honolulu, HI, USA Athens, GA, USA
Sujoy Mukhopadhyay
Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences May Nyman
University of California Davis Department of Chemistry
Davis, CA, USA Oregon State University
Corvallis, OR, USA
Carsten Münker
Institut für Geologie und Mineralogie C. André Ohlin
Universität zu Köln Department of Chemistry
Köln, Germany Umeå University
Umeå, Sweden
Richard W. Murray
Department of Earth and Environment Priscia Oliva
Boston University CNRS/IRD
Boston, MA, USA Paul Sabatier University
Toulouse, France
A. D. Muscente
Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences Anna F. Oliveri
Harvard University Department of Chemistry, Department of Earth and
Cambridge, MA, USA Planetary Sciences
University of California
Davis, CA, USA
B. D. A. Naafs
Organic Geochemistry Unit, School of Chemistry
University of Bristol and Cabot Institute Hugh StC O’Neill
Bristol, UK Research School of Earth Sciences
Australian National University
Acton, Australia
Patrick Nadoll
GeoZentrum Nordbayern, Geochemistry – Economic
Geology Herbert Palme
Friedrich-Alexander-University Erlangen-Nuremberg Forschungsinstitut und Naturmuseum Senckenberg
Erlangen, Germany Frankfurt am Main, Germany
CONTRIBUTORS xxv
R.D. Pancost
Organic Geochemistry Unit, School of Chemistry Don Porcelli
University of Bristol and Cabot Institute Department of Earth Sciences
Bristol, UK Oxford University
Oxford, UK
Ann Pearson
Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences Eric W. Portenga
Harvard University Department of Geography and Geology
Cambridge, MA, USA Eastern Michigan University
Ypsilanti, MI, USA
Michael Perfit
Department of Geological Sciences
University of Florida Olivier Pourret
Gainesville, FL, USA UniLaSalle
Beauvais Cedex, France
Kenneth E. Peters
Schlumberger
Mill Valley, CA, USA Julie Prytulak
and Department of Earth Science and Engineering
Department of Geological Sciences Imperial College London
Stanford University London, UK
Stanford, CA, USA
Igor S. Puchtel
Larry C. Peterson Department of Geology
Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science University of Maryland
University of Miami College Park, MD, USA
Miami, FL, USA
Keith Putirka
Steven Petsch Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences
Department of Geosciences California State University – Fresno
University of Massachusetts Amherst Fresno, CA, USA
Amherst, MA, USA
Wilhelm Püttmann
R. Paul Philp Institute for Atmospheric and Environmental Sciences
ConocoPhillips School of Geology and Geophysics Department of Environmental Analytical Chemistry
University of Oklahoma Goethe University
Norman, OK, USA Frankfurt am Main, Germany
Corey D. Pilgrim
Department of Chemistry Liping Qin
University of California, Davis Department of Earth and Space Science
Davis, CA, USA China University of Science and Technology
Hefei, Hubei, China
Daniele L. Pinti
GEOTOP, Research Center on the Dynamics of Earth Patrick Reardon
System Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Facility
Université du Québec à Montréal Oregon State University
Montréal, QC, Canada Corvallis, OR, USA
H. Tsunakawa
Chenguang Sun Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences
Department of Earth, Environmental and Planetary Tokyo Institute of Technology
Sciences Tokyo, Japan
Rice University
Houston, TX, USA Philippe Ungerer
Materials Design S.A.R.L.
Yoshio Takahashi Montrouge, France
Graduate School of Science
The University of Tokyo Steven M. A. C. van Heuven
Tokyo, Japan NIOZ Royal Netherlands Institute for Sea Research
Department of Ocean Systems (OCS), and Utrecht
Asrarur Talukder University
CSIRO Earth Science and Resource Engineering (CESRE) Den Burg, Texel, The Netherlands
Kensington, NSW, Australia
Monica Vasiliu
Fang-Zhen Teng Department of Chemistry
Isotope Laboratory, Department of Earth and Space University of Alabama
Sciences Tuscaloosa, AL, USA
University of Washington
Seattle, WA, USA Jeff Vervoort
Geological Sciences
Jefferson W. Tester School of the Environment, Washington State University
Earth and Atmospheric Sciences Pullman, WA, USA
Cornell University
Ithaca, NY, USA Jérôme Viers
and CNRS/IRD
School of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering Paul Sabatier University
Cornell University Toulouse, France
Ithaca, NY, USA
John K. Volkman
Jay B. Thomas Oceans and Atmosphere Flagship
Department of Earth Sciences, 204 Heroy Geology CSIRO
Laboratory Hobart, TAS, Australia
Syracuse University
Syracuse, NY, USA
J. H. L. Voncken
Faculty of Civil Engineering and Geosciences, Department
John F. H. Thompson of Geosciences and Engineering, Section Resource
Department of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences Engineering
Cornell University Delft University of Technology
Ithaca, NY, USA Delft, The Netherlands
CONTRIBUTORS xxix
The trade has now far outstripped its former limits. To a young
country, a profit of some £200,000 a year divided between the
merchants and producers on the one side and the Government on
the other by means of royalties and railway receipts is no mean
advantage.
As for the other former exports, the trade in ostrich feathers from
Kordofan and Darfur has begun again, and there seems no reason
why it should not be developed. Ostriches are farmed successfully in
Egypt near Cairo, and the conditions are even more favourable for
their establishment in the Soudan. Nor is it unlikely that the Soudan
will be able to supply a part of her own tobacco and sugar, which
now bulks so largely in the imports. In former days the sugar-cane
was cultivated largely in Dongola and along the Nile in Berber
Province. The fertile plains around Kassala bore crops both of sugar-
cane and tobacco. The district of Fazokhl, beyond Rosaires on the
Blue Nile, used to produce 1,000 kantars of tobacco per year. It is
also found in Fashoda; and in the south-western part of Kordofan,
where the soil is the richest in the province, both tobacco and sugar-
cane grow easily wherever there is water, to say nothing of the Bahr
el Ghazal. The coffee came principally from that part of the country
which has since been taken over by Italy or Abyssinia, and, though it
is grown in Kassala, the trade in it is not likely to come to very much.
This coffee, however, which is of the Abyssinian kind, and not a first-
class coffee, is still quoted in the London market at about 50s. per
cwt.
But the most promising feature in the old returns is the 20,000
kantars of cotton, even though as yet the trade has not revived.
Though the figure is in itself insignificant, it is a proof that the thing
can be done. Cotton is indigenous in the Soudan. It grows wild in
Fashoda, although the native Shilluks seem never to have taken
advantage of this circumstance, preferring to go completely naked.
Most of the former cotton export came from Kassala. The Khor
Gash, a tributary of the Atbara, comes down in flood during July and
August, and partly inundates the plain, leaving behind a rich alluvial
deposit—splendid cotton soil. There was formerly a cotton factory in
Kassala town. In the districts of Gallabat and Gedaref cotton is now
actually being grown, and it is proving the foundation of increasing
trade with Abyssinia. Abyssinian merchants eagerly buy up all that
can be grown. Further south, in Sennar Province, the valleys of the
Dinder and the Rahad were once very famous for cotton, which was
also largely imported into Abyssinia. Here, too, the cultivation is
increasing as the people settle down. The district of Tokar, near
Suakin, along the Khor Baraka, produces, perhaps, the best quality
of all the cotton in the Soudan. It, too, in former days produced very
much more than now. While along the Nile itself, in the
neighbourhood of Khartoum and in Berber and Dongola Provinces,
enough cotton is grown to supply small local industries, in which a
rough white cloth is woven, one of the few local manufactures in the
Soudan. Beyond a doubt, not only is there a great deal of land
admirably suited to grow cotton in the Soudan, but also the climatic
conditions, given only water, are peculiarly favourable.
Cotton and its culture are thus no novelties to the inhabitants of
the Soudan. The point is the water; it all comes back to water and
irrigation. If the Soudan is to be of any real interest to the cotton-
spinners of Lancashire, its export must be counted not by a few
paltry tens of thousands of kantars, but by hundreds of thousands,
perhaps by millions. And for that there must be irrigation works on a
large scale. The soil is there in the Ghezireh and elsewhere, the
climate is there, the water is there, and the irrigation works will come.
But once again, there is no need for hurry. The interests of the whole
Valley of the Nile have to be considered. The undertaking is too large
to be gone into without the utmost care and patient deliberation.
It is eminently satisfactory that the Government is fully alive to all
the possibilities. They have started an experimental farm at Shendi,
where trials are being made of different sorts of cotton, of different
methods of culture, and of different periods of sowing, as well as
calculations of the cost of production and of carriage to the ginning
factories in Egypt. Already some most interesting and important
results have been obtained. It has been definitely shown that the
cotton which is sown in June and July promises better, both in quality
and quantity, than that sown in the autumn or in March and April. At
that time the heat is not so great, and the river is rising, so that the
cultivator gets his water during the most necessary time at the least
cost, because with the least effort. If this is confirmed, it is extremely
important, for the water will be taken at a time when the Nile is high,
and when, therefore, Egypt can afford to allow it to be used without
suffering in the least degree, apart altogether from new Reservoir
works.
As regards quality, it appears that the cotton grown, if not so good
as the very best kinds of Delta cotton, is at least as good as, or
better than, the best American, both in colour and staple. It is
calculated that at the present time 1 acre producing 4 kantars will
produce gross receipts of 1,060 piastres, against an expenditure of
1,000 piastres, showing a profit of 60 piastres, or 12s. 6d. per acre.
But when the new railway has reduced the cost of fuel for the
pumps, and also the cost of carriage, the expenses will be no more
than 700 piastres, showing a profit of 360 piastres per acre, or 75s. It
is estimated that the new railway will reduce the cost of freight by 50
piastres per kantar, and, wherever the Soudan has its own ginning
factories, the profits will, of course, be all the greater, because only
the prepared product will be carried. There is at present sufficient
local demand for cotton to make it generally more profitable to sell it
on the spot than to carry it to Egypt, but as the production increases
it will soon outstrip the local demand. Any private capitalist investing
money in cotton in the Soudan would be able to buy and clear land
on the river in Berber or Dongola at from £5 to £6 per acre, so that
he would get a very reasonable return on his investment. He would
have the further advantage that in the Soudan two of the worst
cotton diseases, ‘worm’ and ‘hog,’ are unknown.
Cotton and corn are the two great foundations on which the hopes
of commercial prosperity in the Soudan are founded. The Negro
Soudan is still comparatively unexplored, and its resources cannot
be estimated. There is, however, a chance that the Bahr el Ghazal
will do great things in rubber. Rubber-trees are known to be plentiful;
rubber has already been produced in small quantities, and
specimens of absolutely first-class quality have been obtained. But it
has yet to be shown that the best kind of creepers are numerous,
and also that they can be successfully tapped without killing the
plants. So far, it does not seem likely that the Soudan has any great
sources of wealth underground. Iron is found and worked in small
quantities in the Bahr el Ghazal, and at least two ore beds are known
in Kordofan, but there is no fuel to work them, and no means of
transporting the ore. As for gold and the precious metals, several
prospecting licenses have been issued and search is being eagerly
made, but, except the copper mines of Hofrat-en-Nahas, nothing has
been discovered at present. The only known gold-bearing district,
the Beni-Shangul, is now included within the territories of Abyssinia.
Gold was formerly worked in this district by the Egyptians, not at a
profit, and perhaps, in any case, it is no great loss to the Soudan
(even if it had not already been occupied by the Abyssinians), for
that gold may not be discovered in the Soudan is the earnest prayer
of every official in the country. The true wealth of the Soudan, such
as it is, lies in its water and its soil. A find of coal would be a very
different matter, and much more valuable than gold, but, though
discoveries are constantly being rumoured, coal is not yet.
No account of the commerce of the Soudan would be complete
without a mention of those wonderful people the Greek traders.
It is well known how, on the day after the Battle of Omdurman, a
Greek arrived in the town and opened a store with all kinds of goods
brought somehow from Suakin. This man is now a prosperous and
wealthy merchant, with large shops in Khartoum and Halfa, and a
finger in every sort of commercial undertaking. He is no longer alone
in the field. Whether it be true or not that trade follows the flag,
undoubtedly the Greek trader follows the British flag. They are said
to be principally Ionian Islanders, so perhaps they have a hereditary
liking for it. Just as from Alexandria to Halfa every town in Egypt has
its Greek traders, carrying on business as storekeepers, dealers,
and innkeepers, so, from Halfa to Gondokoro, from Suakin to El
Obeid, every town in the Soudan has its Greeks. They are
ubiquitous; in Khartoum and Omdurman alone they number about
800. One wonders what they were all doing before the Soudan was
open. Some of them, no doubt, stayed on right through the Khalifa’s
time.
As a vulture scents carrion from afar, so the Greek scents any
possible opening for trade with the natives. The gum trade, the
feather trade, the corn trade, all are in his hands. There is nothing
that a native wants, however humble, from beads and kerosene-tins
to silver, that he will not sell, exactly in the form required. Naturally a
gambler, there is no speculation that he will not undertake, no risk he
will not run. He can stand any climate, he can live in native huts, and
eat native food. He may be unscrupulous in his dealings, and he has
to be sharply watched by those in authority, but as a trade pioneer in
a new country he is invaluable, and his enterprise contributes largely
to make life possible for more exacting Europeans in desolate
places. Some day, perhaps, when the Arab has mastered his
methods of trade, he will find his match, but at present he holds the
field.
CHAPTER XXI
TAXATION, REVENUE, AND EXPENDITURE
But these receipts are far from being any criterion of the actual
amount of work done. They exclude all that was done on
Government account. Up till 1903 all passengers, goods, and
messages on behalf of Government were carried free of charge. But
it was found that this system tended to extravagance. A department,
for example, wishing to buy dhurra for Khartoum, was apt to buy it at
Dongola, possibly at a cheaper rate, and have it brought by rail for
nothing, rather than buy it locally and disburse something for the cost
of local camel or mule transport. This was good business for the
department, which had only a certain credit allotted to it, but waste
from the point of view of the railway, by which the cost of transport
was borne. Now each department is charged in the books of the
railway or post-office for all services actually rendered. The change
is, of course, only one of book-keeping, but it is a good instance of
the way in which good book-keeping works towards economy. With
this alteration the working of the profit-earning departments makes a
much better appearance. The estimates for 1903 are:
Receipts. Expenditure.
£E. £E.
Railways 143,970 143,777
Post and telegraphs 24,428 34,800
Steamers and boats 69,028 86,223
Expenditure.
Military (including
Civil. Total.
Gunboats, etc.)
£E. £E. £E.
1899 230,000 281,000 511,000
1900 271,000 282,000 553,000
1901 330,000 222,000 552,000
1902 350,000 193,000 543,000
1903 380,000 193,000 573,000