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 E N C Y C L O P E D I A of
ENCYCLOPEDIA
of GEOCHEMISTRY
A COMPREHENSIVE REFERENCE
SOURCE ON THE CHEMISTRY

EARTH SCIENCES SERIES

OF THE EARTH
Edited by
William M. White
Associate Editors
William H. Casey
Bernard Marty
Hisayoshi Yurimoto
ENCYCLOPEDIA of
GEOCHEMISTRY
 Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF GEOCHEMISTRY
Volume Editor
After receiving his B.A. in geology from the University of California, Berkeley, William White earned a Ph.D. in oceanography from the
University of Rhode Island in 1977. White did postdoctoral work at the Carnegie Institution of Washington and at the US Geological Survey in
Denver between 1977 and 1980. From 1980 to 1985 he was a staff scientist at the Max Planck Institut für Chemie in Mainz, Germany, and then
spent a year as associate professor in the College of Oceanography at Oregon State University. White joined the Cornell faculty in 1986 where he
currently serves as professor of earth and atmospheric sciences. He spent 7 months of 1995 as a visiting professor at the École Normale Supérieure
de Lyon and the Université de Rennes, served as a visiting professor at the Université de Brest in 2001–2002, and was a Merle Tuve Senior Fellow
at Carnegie Institution of Washington in 2002. White is a fellow of the Geochemical Society and the American Geophysical Union. He served as
founding editor of the electronic journal Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems (G-cubed) from 1999 to 2005.

Associate Editors
William H. Casey
University of California
Department of Chemistry and Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences
Davis, CA, USA
Bernard Marty
Centre de Recherches Pétrographiques et Géochimiques (CRPG), CNRS
Institut Universitaire de France, Ecole Nationale Supérieure de Géologie
Vandoeuvre-les-Nancy, France
Hisayoshi Yurimoto
Hokkaido University
Natural History Sciences
Sapporo, Japan

Aims of the Series

The Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series provides comprehensive and authoritative coverage of all the main areas in the Earth Sciences. Each
volume comprises a focused and carefully chosen collection of contributions from leading names in the subject, with copious illustrations and
reference lists.
These books represent one of the world’s leading resources for the Earth Sciences community. Previous volumes are being updated and new works
published so that the volumes will continue to be essential reading for all professional earth scientists, geologists, geophysicists, climatologists, and
oceanographers as well as for teachers and students. See the back of this volume for a current list of titles in the Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences
Series. Go to http://www.springerlink.com/reference-works/ to visit the “Earth Sciences Series” online.

About the Series Editor

Professor Charles W. Finkl has edited and/or contributed to more than eight volumes in the Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series. He has been the
Executive Director of the Coastal Education and Research Foundation and Editor-in-Chief of the international Journal of Coastal Research for the
past 35 years. He is also the Series Editor of the Coastal Research Library (Springer). In addition to these duties, he is Distinguished University
Professor Emeritus at Florida Atlantic University (FAU) (Boca Raton, Florida). He is a graduate of Oregon State University (Corvallis) and the
University of Western Australia (Perth). Work experience includes the International Nickel Company of Australia (Perth), Coastal Planning &
Engineering (Boca Raton, Florida), and Technos Geophysical Consulting (Miami, Florida). He has published numerous peer-reviewed technical
research papers and edited or co-edited and contributed to many books. Dr. Finkl is a Certified Professional Geological Scientist (Arvada,
Colorado), a Certified Professional Soil Scientist (Madison, Wisconsin), a Certified Wetland Scientist (Lawrence, Kansas), and a Chartered Marine
Scientist (London). Academically, he served as a Demonstrator at the University of Western Australia, Courtesy Professor at Florida International
University (Miami), Program Professor and Director of the Institute of Coastal and Marine Studies at Nova Southeastern University (Port
Everglades, Florida), and Full Professor at FAU. During his career, he acquired field experience in Australia; the Bahamas; Puerto Rico, Jamaica;
Brazil; Papua New Guinea and other SW Pacific islands; southern Africa; Western Europe; and the Pacific Northwest, Midwest, and Southeast
USA. Dr. Finkl is a member of several professional societies including the Geological Society of America; Soil Science Society of America;
Institute of Marine Engineering, Science and Technology; and the Society of Wetland Specialists. He is a recipient of the International Beach
Advocacy Award (Florida Shore & Beach Preservation Association), Certificate of George V. Chilingar Medal of Honor (Russian Academy of
Natural Sciences), and Lifetime Commitment to Coastal Science Award (International Coastal Symposium).

Founding Series Editor

Professor Rhodes W. Fairbridge (deceased) has edited more than 24 Encyclopedias in the Earth Sciences Series. During his career he has worked as
a petroleum geologist in the Middle East, been a WWII intelligence officer in the SW Pacific, and led expeditions to the Sahara, Arctic Canada,
Arctic Scandinavia, Brazil, and New Guinea. He was Emeritus Professor of Geology at Columbia University and was affiliated with the Goddard
Institute for Space Studies.
 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF EARTH SCIENCES SERIES

ENCYCLOPEDIA of
GEOCHEMISTRY
A Comprehensive Reference Source on the
Chemistry of the Earth

edited by

WILLIAM M. WHITE
Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA

With Associate Editors

WILLIAM H. CASEY
University of California, Davis, CA, USA

BERNARD MARTY
CNRS Institut Universitaire de France, Vandoeuvre-les-Nancy, France

HISAYOSHI YURIMOTO
Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
Library of Congress Control Number: 2018930990

ISBN: 978-3-319-39311-7
This publication is available also as:
Electronic publication under ISBN 978-3-319-39312-4 and
Print and electronic bundle under ISBN 978-3-319-39313-1

Cover illustration: The poly-extreme hydrothermal terraces of Dallol, Afar Triangle, Ethiopia.
Hydrothermal chimneys and miniature geysers discharge high temperature (105–108  C), oxygen-free, hyper-acidic
(pH ~ 0), and Fe-rich (26 g/L of Fe) brines, creating a series of colorful terraces and pools. Unlike other hydrothermal
sites where the colors are related to the presence of microorganisms, the color palette of Dallol results from the slow
oxidation of aqueous ferrous species and precipitation of Fe(III)-chlorides/-oxyhydroxides/-sulfates. Photograph was
taken during the fieldtrip of 2017 in the framework of the ERC grant Prometheus. Electra Kotopoulou, Spanish National
Research Council (IACT-CSIC-UGR), Spain.

Every effort has been made to contact the copyright holders of the figures and tables which have been reproduced from
other sources. Anyone who has not been properly credited is requested to contact the publishers, so that due
acknowledgement may be made in subsequent editions.

All rights reserved for the contributions: Acid Deposition; Alkali and Alkaline Earth Metals; Atomic Number, Mass
Number, and Isotopes; Ferromanganese Crusts and Nodules: Rocks that Grow; Oklo Natural Nuclear Reactors; Oil
Shale; Potassium; Refractory Inclusions in Chondritic Meteorites.

# Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2018

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is
concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on
microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation,
computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are
believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a
warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have
been made.

Printed on acid-free paper

This Springer imprint is published by Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature.
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
 Contents

Contributors xv Aqueous Solutions 39

Barry R. Bickmore and Matthew C. F. Wander
Preface xxxi
Archeological Geochemistry 42
Acknowledgments xxxiii Patrick Degryse and R. Alexander Bentley

Ab Initio Calculations 1 Argon 53

David A. Dixon Mark A. Kendrick

Achondrites 7 Argon Isotopes 56

Akira Yamaguchi, Jean-Alix Barrat and Philippe Sarda
Richard Greenwood
Arsenic 58
Acid Deposition 12 Monica Vasiliu and David A. Dixon
Gregory B. Lawrence
Astatine 59
Acid–Base Reactions 15 Monica Vasiliu and David A. Dixon
Carl O. Moses
Atmophile Elements 60
Activation Parameters: Energy, Enthalpy, Entropy, Daniele L. Pinti
and Volume 19
William H. Casey and C. André Ohlin Atmospheric Evolution 62
Colin Goldblatt
Activity and Activity Coefficients 21
Barry R. Bickmore and Matthew C. F. Wander Atomic Absorption, Inductively Coupled Plasma
Optical Emission Spectroscopy, and Infrared
Alkali and Alkaline Earth Metals 23 Spectroscopy 76
Ricardo Arevalo Jr. Michael A. Rutzke

Aluminum 27 Atomic Number, Mass Number, and Isotopes 83

Mainak Mookherjee Russell S. Harmon

Analytical Techniques 29 Authigenesis 85

William M. White Norbert Clauer

Anthropogenic CO2 34 Barium 91

Klaus S. Lackner William M. White

Antimony 37 Beryllium 93
Jacqueline R. Houston Jeffrey G. Ryan
vi CONTENTS

Beryllium Isotopes 95 Carbon Isotopes 194

Paul R. Bierman and Eric W. Portenga Thomas Wagner, Clayton R. Magill
and Jens O. Herrle
Biogenic Methane 100
Dariusz Strąpoć Carbonate Compensation Depth 204
Ryan J. Woosley
Biogeochemistry 107
Hilairy Ellen Hartnett Carbonate Minerals and the CO2-Carbonic Acid
System 206
Biological Pump 111 Abraham Lerman and Fred T. Mackenzie
Sarah L. C. Giering and Matthew P. Humphreys

Biomarker: Assessment of Thermal Maturity 116 Cerium 226

Kenneth E. Peters and J. Michael Moldowan Catherine Chauvel

Biomarkers: Coal 123 Chalcophile Elements 229

Achim Bechtel and Wilhelm Püttmann Sarah-Jane Barnes

Biomarkers: Petroleum 136 Chelation 233

Meng He, J. Michael Moldowan and Corey D. Pilgrim
Kenneth E. Peters
Chemical Bonds 234
Biopolymers and Macromolecules 148 Barry R. Bickmore and Matthew C. F. Wander
Markus Kleber and Patrick Reardon
Chemical Weathering 237
Bismuth 153 Jérôme Viers and Priscia Oliva
Cristiana L. Ciobanu and Nigel J. Cook
Chlorine 241
Black Shales and Sapropels 155 Mark A. Kendrick
Kay-Christian Emeis
Chlorine Isotopes 244
Boron 156 Magali Bonifacie
Christophe Lécuyer
Chondrites 248
Boron Stable Isotopes 162 Sara Russell
Gavin L. Foster, Christophe Lécuyer and
Horst R. Marschall Chondrules 251
Rhian Jones
Bromine 167
Hélène Bureau Chromium 255
Monica Vasiliu and David A. Dixon
Cadmium 171
Monica Vasiliu and David A. Dixon Chromium Isotopes 256
Devon B. Cole, Xiangli Wang, Liping Qin,
Caesium 172 Noah J. Planavsky and Christopher T. Reinhard
Gray E. Bebout
Clapeyron’s Equation 262
Calcium 177 Masaki Akaogi
Christophe Lécuyer
Clay Membranes 263
Calcium Isotopes 181 Ian C. Bourg
Juraj Farkaš
Clay Minerals 265
Calorimetry 186 Josh Wimpenny
Masaki Akaogi
Coal 275
Carbon 187 Stephen F. Greb, Cortland F. Eble
Adrian Jones and James C. Hower

Carbon Cycle 191 Cobalt 291

Elizabeth A. Canuel and Amber K. Hardison Olivier Pourret and Michel-Pierre Faucon
 CONTENTS vii

Colloids 294 Earth’s Core 418

Jean-François Boily William F. McDonough

Complexes 297 Earth’s Oceanic Crust 430

Jay R. Black Michael Perfit

Compound-Specific Isotope Analysis 300 Electron Probe Microanalysis (EPMA) 439

Yi Ge Zhang Stuart Kearns

Copper 303 Electronegativity 442

Xingcheng Liu and Xiaolin Xiong Barry R. Bickmore and Matthew C. F. Wander

Copper Isotopes 305 Elements: Metalloids 445

Paul Savage David A. Dixon and Monica Vasiliu

Cosmic Elemental Abundances 310 Enthalpy 446

Herbert Palme Carl O. Moses

Cosmogenic Nuclides 317 Entropy 447

Rainer Wieler Carl O. Moses

Critical Points 325 Epigenesis 453

William H. Casey and Peter A. Rock Jamie J. Wilkinson

Critical Zone 326 Equilibrium 455

Justin B. Richardson Heinz Gamsjäger

Crystal Chemistry 331 Equilibrium Constant 456

Dana T. Griffen Erich Königsberger

Crystal Field Theory 340 Erbium 460

Hans Keppler Scott M. McLennan
Debye-Hückel Equation 345 Europium 462
Jay R. Black Matthias Willbold
Density Functional Theory 347
David A. Dixon Evaporites 464
John Warren
Diagenesis 353
Isabel P. Montañez and Laura J. Crossey Experimental Mineralogy and Petrology 471
Charles A. Geiger and Tatsuhiko Kawamoto
Diffusion 363
Yan Liang Ferromanganese Crusts and Nodules: Rocks That
Grow 477
Dissolved Organic Matter (DOM) 375 Kira Mizell and James R. Hein
Hilairy Ellen Hartnett
Fick’s Law 483
Dolomite and Dolomitization 378 Isao Sakaguchi
Jennifer A. Roberts
Fission Track Analysis 484
Dysprosium 381 Stuart N. Thomson
Scott M. McLennan
Fluid Inclusions 488
Earth’s Atmosphere 383 Robert J. Bodnar
Daniele L. Pinti
Fluid–Rock Interaction 492
Earth’s Continental Crust 392 William E. Glassley, Laura J. Crossey and
Roberta L. Rudnick Isabel P. Montanez
viii CONTENTS

Fluorine 495 Germanium 615

Kenneth T. Koga and Estelle F. Rose-Koga Louis A. Derry

Formation and Evolution of the Earth 498 Giant Impact Hypothesis 617
Francis Albarède Hidenori Genda

Fractional Crystallization and Assimilation 513 Gibbs-Duhem Equation 620

Frank Spera and Melissa Scruggs William H. Casey and Peter A. Rock

Free Energy 518 Gold 622

Carl O. Moses Monica Vasiliu and David A. Dixon
Fugacity 521 Gouy-Chapman Theory 623
Christopher A. Colla and William H. Casey Garrison Sposito
Gadolinium 525 Hafnium 629
Scott M. McLennan Janne Blichert-Toft
Gallium 526 Hafnium Isotopes 631
Munir Humayun Janne Blichert-Toft
Gas Chromatography–Mass Spectrometry Halide Minerals 636
(GC–MS) 530 John Warren
Patricia M. Medeiros

Gas Hydrates 535 Halogens 645

Rajnish Kumar and Praveen Linga Mark A. Kendrick

Gas Source Mass Spectrometry (GS-MS) 541 Heat Capacity 649

Masahiko Honda and Allan R. Chivas Brian F. Woodfield

Geochemical Classification of Elements 545 Heat-Producing Elements (HPEs) 652

Cin-Ty Lee Hugh StC O’Neill

Geochemical Exploration 549 Helium 657

John F. H. Thompson Yuji Sano

Geochemical Reference Materials 553 Helium Isotopes 659

Thomas C. Meisel Yuji Sano

Geochemical Thermodynamics 554 Henry’s Law 663

William H. Casey and Peter A. Rock William M. White

Geochemistry 561 High Field Strength Elements 664

William M. White Vincent J. M. Salters

Geochronology and Radiogenic Isotopes 571 High-Resolution Mass Spectrometry 666

Jeff Vervoort Elizabeth B. Kujawinski

Geologic Time Scale 586 History of Geochemistry 670

Mark D. Schmitz William M. White

Geoneutrinos 589 Holmium 683

William F. McDonough Scott M. McLennan

Geothermal Systems 592 Hydrocarbons 685

Adam J. Hawkins and Jefferson W. Tester John K. Volkman

Geothermometry and Geobarometry 597 Hydrogen 693

Keith Putirka James G. Brophy and Arndt Schimmelmann
 CONTENTS ix

Hydrogen Isotopes 696 Kinetics of Geochemical Processes 775

Arndt Schimmelmann and Peter E. Sauer Don Sparks

Hydrologic Cycle 701 Krypton 784

Giuseppe Mascaro Greg Holland
Hydrothermal Alteration 704 Laboratory Simulations of Organic Geochemical
Andri Stefánsson and Barbara I. Kleine Processes at Elevated Temperatures 789
Jeffrey S. Seewald
Hydrothermal Solutions 706
Jean-François Boily
Lanthanide Rare Earths 792
Hydrothermal Vents 711 Scott M. McLennan
Wolfgang Bach and Eoghan P. Reeves
Lanthanum 799
Hypogene 715 Catherine Chauvel
Barbara I. Kleine and Andri Stefánsson
Large-Ion Lithophile Elements 800
Incompatible Elements 719 Catherine Chauvel and Roberta L. Rudnick
Catherine Chauvel
Laser Ablation – Inductively Coupled Plasma
Indium 721 Mass Spectrometry 801
Monica Vasiliu and David A. Dixon Takafumi Hirata

Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry Lead 811

(ICP-MS) 723 Dominique Weis
Maria Schönbächler
Lead Isotopes 813
Iodine 728 Dominique Weis
Hélène Bureau
Lipids (Bacteria and Archaea) 818
Ion Exchange Chromatography 731 Ann Pearson
Maria Schönbächler
Lithium 822
Ion Microprobe 736 Jeffrey G. Ryan
Kazuhide Nagashima
Lithium Isotopes 824
Ionic Radii 738 Jeffrey G. Ryan
Hugh Rollinson and Jacob Adetunji

Iridium 743 Lithophile Elements 827

Thomas C. Meisel Frances E. Jenner and Hugh StC O’Neill

Iron 745 Low-Temperature Geochemistry 828

Munir Humayun Tori Z. Forbes

Iron Formations 751 Luminescence 835

Clark M. Johnson Tori Z. Forbes

Iron Isotopes 756 Lutetium 839

Noah J. Planavsky and Vincent Busigny Scott M. McLennan

Iron Meteorites 762 Magmatic Process Modeling 841

Henning Haack Mark Ghiorso

Isotope Dilution 767 Magnesium 853

Jon Woodhead Fang-Zhen Teng

Kerogen 771 Magnesium Isotopes 856

Steven Petsch Fang-Zhen Teng
x CONTENTS

Magnetism 860 Neon 973

H. Tsunakawa and Y. Yamamoto Manuel Moreira

Manganese 864 Neon Isotopes 975

Tammie L. Gerke and Brenda J. Little Moreira Manuel
Mantle Geochemistry 867 Neutron Activation Analysis 978
Andreas Stracke James R. Budahn
Marine Sediment 878
Ann G. Dunlea, Rachel P. Scudder Nickel 980
and Richard W. Murray William L. Griffin and Mathieu Chassé

Mass Transfer 892 Niobium 983

Peter C. Lichtner Carsten Münker

Mercury 895 Nitrogen 985

Charles N. Alpers Pierre Cartigny

Mercury Isotopes 900 Nitrogen Cycle 987

Bridget A. Bergquist Monica M. Palta and Hilairy Ellen Hartnett
Metamorphic Reactions and Processes 906 Nitrogen Isotopes 991
Eleanor C. R. Green Pierre Cartigny and Vincent Busigny
Meteorites 917 Noble Gases 1003
Michael K. Weisberg Chris J. Ballentine and Peter H. Barry
Mid-Ocean Ridge Basalts (MORB) 924 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance 1009
Charles H. Langmuir Corey D. Pilgrim
Mineral Defects 932 Nucleosynthesis 1014
Kurt Schwartz and Maik Lang Jitendra Nath Goswami
Mineral Genesis 936 Nutrients 1019
Alain J. Baronnet J. A. Brandes
Mineralogy 943 Ocean Biochemical Cycling and Trace Elements 1023
Michael F. Hochella Jr. Hein J. W. de Baar, Steven M. A. C. van Heuven
and Rob Middag
Molybdenum 947
Anthony Chappaz, Jennifer B. Glass and Ocean Salinity, Major Elements, and
Timothy W. Lyons Thermohaline Circulation 1042
Hein J. W. de Baar, Steven M. A. C. van Heuven
Molybdenum Isotopes 950 and Rob Middag
Jane Barling, Jie Yang and
Yu-Hsuan Crystal Liang
Oceanic Island Basalts 1048
Native Minerals 957 Matthew Gerard Jackson
Satoshi Matsubara
Oil Seeps and Coastal Bitumen 1052
Natural Gas 961 David McKirdy, Andrew Ross and
Giuseppe Etiope Asrarur Talukder

Neodymium 965 Oil Shale 1055

Michael Bizimis and Howie D. Scher Justin E. Birdwell

Neodymium Isotopes 967 Oil-Oil and Oil-Source Rock Correlations 1057

Michael Bizimis and Howie D. Scher Norelis D. Rodriguez
 CONTENTS xi

Oklo Natural Nuclear Reactors 1059 Paleotemperatures 1166

Mark J. Rigali Jennifer E. Hertzberg and Matthew W. Schmidt

Onuma Diagrams 1062 Palladium 1172

Chenguang Sun James M. Brenan

Ore Deposits 1063 Paragenesis 1175

Michel Cuney Denton S. Ebel and Robert J. Kamilli

Organic Facies 1075 Partial Melting 1180

R. Paul Philp Paul D. Asimow

Organic Geochemistry 1081 Particle-Induced X-Ray Emission (PIXE) 1185

John K. Volkman Masanori Kurosawa

Organic Matter Degradation and Preservation 1094 Partitioning and Partition Coefficients 1186
Sandra Arndt and Douglas Edward LaRowe Chenguang Sun

Organic Matter in Fossils 1099 Peat 1197

A. D. Muscente, Andrew D. Czaja, Thomas J. Kelly, Ian T. Lawson and
Leigh Anne Riedman and Caitlin Colleary Lydia E. S. Cole

Organics: Sources and Depositional Periodic Table 1201

Environments 1103 Karen Harpp
Elisabeth Sikes
Petroleum 1207
Osmium 1109 Philippe Ungerer
Richard J. Walker
Phase Equilibria 1220
Robert W. Luth
Osmium Isotopes 1111
Richard J. Walker Phosphorus 1231
Karl B. Föllmi
Oxidation-Reduction Reactions and Eh-pH
(Pourbaix) Diagrams 1115 Platinum 1233
William H. Casey James M. Brenan

Oxide Minerals 1120 Platinum Group Elements 1236

Patrick Nadoll Igor S. Puchtel

Oxygen 1124 Poisson-Boltzmann Equation 1240

Edward D. Young Joan E. Curry

Oxygen Isotopes 1129 Polonium 1241

Hisayoshi Yurimoto Monica Vasiliu and David A. Dixon

Polyoxometalates and Other Metal-Oxo

Ozone and Stratospheric Chemistry 1135 Clusters in Nature 1242
Slimane Bekki and Joël Savarino May Nyman
Paleoclimatology 1147 Porphyrins 1247
Larry C. Peterson J. William Louda
Paleoenvironments 1160 Potassium 1253
B. D. A Naafs and R. D. Pancost Ricardo Arevalo Jr.

Paleoproductivity 1163 Praseodymium 1257

Gerold Wefer Scott M. McLennan
xii CONTENTS

Precambrian Geochemistry 1258 Silicate Melts 1330

Tsuyoshi Komiya Pascal Richet

Precambrian Organic Matter 1266 Silicate Minerals 1334

Roger Summons Ritsuro Miyawaki

Presolar Grains 1273 Silicon 1335

Peter Hoppe Monica Vasiliu and David A. Dixon

Programmed Temperature Pyrolysis 1276 Silicon Isotopes 1337

Kenneth E. Peters and Anat Shahar
Leonardo Briceño Rodriguez
Silver 1340
Promethium 1286 Helen Mango
Scott M. McLennan
Sodium 1344
Protactinium 1287 Jérôme Gaillardet
Julie Prytulak
Soils 1347
Quantum Numbers 1291 Johannes Lehmann
David A. Dixon
Solid Solution/Exsolution 1352
Radioactivity 1295 C. Noguera and B. Fritz
Don Porcelli
Solubility 1359
Radium 1298 Jean-François Boily
William M. White
Stable Isotope Geochemistry 1367
Radon 1301 William M. White
Don Porcelli
Standard States 1374
Raman Microspectroscopy 1303 William H. Casey and Peter A. Rock
András Gorzsás
Stoichiometry 1376
Refractory Inclusions in Chondritic Meteorites 1307 Anna F. Oliveri
Alexander N. Krot and Glenn J. MacPherson
Strontium 1377
Rhenium 1312 Oliver Nebel
James M. Brenan
Strontium Isotopes 1379
Rhodium 1314 Oliver Nebel and Jessica A. Stammeier
Thomas C. Meisel
Subduction Zone Geochemistry 1384
Rubidium 1316 Terry Plank
Oliver Nebel
Sulfate Minerals 1392
Ruthenium 1318 Andrew G. Christy
Thomas C. Meisel
Sulfide Minerals 1394
Samarium 1321 Andrew G. Tomkins and
Michael Bizimis and Howie D. Scher Bree Morgan

Scandium 1323 Sulfur 1397

Iain M. Samson and Mathieu Chassé James Farquhar

Selenium 1326 Sulfur Cycle 1399

Monica Vasiliu and David A. Dixon Martin A. Schoonen

Siderophile Elements 1328 Sulfur Isotopes 1402

James M. D. Day James Farquhar
 CONTENTS xiii

Supergene 1409 Unified Atomic Mass Unit, Avogadro Constant,

Martin Reich and Mole 1463
Norman E. Holden
Surface Geochemistry 1410
Christian Ludwig and William H. Casey Uranium 1464
Vincent J. M. Salters
Synchrotron X-Ray Fluorescence Analysis 1415
Juan S. Lezama Pacheco and Scott E. Fendorf Uranium Decay Series 1468
Bernard Bourdon
Tantalum 1419
Carsten Münker Van der Waals Force 1473
Taku Tsuchiya
Technetium 1421
Yoshio Takahashi Vanadium 1474
Olivier Pourret and Aline Dia
Tellurium 1423
Yoshio Takahashi Volcanic Gases 1476
Alessandro Aiuppa and Fabrice Gaillard
Terbium 1425
Scott M. McLennan Volcanism 1480
Nick Rogers
Thallium 1426
Josh Wimpenny Water 1487
Carl O. Moses
Thallium Isotopes 1429
Sune G. Nielsen Xenon 1497
Sujoy Mukhopadhyay
Thermal Ionization Mass Spectrometry 1433
John C. Lassiter Xenon Isotopes 1500
Sujoy Mukhopadhyay
Thermogravimetry 1435
Jiri Kucerik X-Ray Diffraction 1508
Tori Z. Forbes
Thorium 1439
Vincent J. M. Salters X-Ray Fluorescence Analysis 1511
Izumi Nakai
Thulium 1441
Scott M. McLennan Ytterbium 1517
J. H. L. Voncken
Tin 1443
William M. White Yttrium 1518
J. H. L. Voncken
Titanium 1445
Jay B. Thomas Zinc 1521
Joël Brugger
Trace Elements 1451
William M. White Zinc Isotopes 1524
Frédéric Moynier
Transition Elements 1452
Dante Canil Zirconium 1528
Carsten Münker
Tungsten 1455
George R. Helz Author Index 1531

Tungsten Isotopes 1458 Subject Index 1533

Thorsten Kleine
 Contributors

Jacob Adetunji Sandra Arndt

Geoscience BGeosys, Department Geoscience, Environment and
University of Derby Society (DGES)
Derby, UK Université Libre de Bruxelles
Bruxelles, Belgium
Alessandro Aiuppa
Dipartimento DiSTeM
Università di Palermo Paul D. Asimow
Palermo, Italy Division of Geological and Planetary Sciences
and California Institute of Technology
Sezione di Palermo Pasadena, CA, USA
Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e Vulcanologia
Palermo, Italy
Wolfgang Bach
Department of Geosciences and MARUM Center for
Masaki Akaogi Marine Environmental Research
Department of Chemistry University of Bremen
Gakushuin University Bremen, Germany
Tokyo, Japan

Francis Albarède Chris J. Ballentine

Laboratoire de Géologie de Lyon Department of Earth Sciences
Ecole Normale Supérieure de Lyon University of Oxford
Lyon Cedex 7, France Oxford, UK

Charles N. Alpers Jane Barling

U.S. Geological Survey Department of Earth Sciences
California Water Science Center University of Oxford
Sacramento, CA, USA Oxford, UK

Ricardo Arevalo Jr. Sarah-Jane Barnes

Planetary Environments Lab Sciences de la Terre
NASA Goddard Space Flight Center Université du Québec à Chicoutimi
Greenbelt, MD, USA Chicoutimi, QC, Canada
xvi CONTRIBUTORS

Alain J. Baronnet Justin E. Birdwell

Aix-Marseille Université, CNRS, CINAM Central Energy Resources Science Center
Campus Luminy U.S. Geological Survey
Marseille, France Denver, CO, USA

Jean-Alix Barrat Michael Bizimis

U.B.O.-I.U.E.M Earth and Ocean Sciences
CNRS UMR 6538 (Domaines Océaniques) University of South Carolina
Plouzané, France Columbia, SC, USA

Peter H. Barry Jay R. Black

Department of Earth Sciences School of Earth Sciences
University of Oxford The University of Melbourne
Oxford, UK Melbourne, VIC, Australia

Gray E. Bebout Janne Blichert-Toft

Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences Laboratoire de Géologie de Lyon
Lehigh University Ecole Normale Supérieure de Lyon, Université Claude
Bethlehem, PA, USA Bernard Lyon 1, CNRS
Lyon, France
Achim Bechtel
Department of Applied Geoscience and Geophysics Robert J. Bodnar
Petroleum Geology Department of Geosciences
Montanuniversitaet Leoben Virginia Tech
Leoben, Austria Blacksburg, VA, USA

Slimane Bekki
LATMOS-IPSL (Laboratoire Atmosphères, Milieux, Jean-François Boily
Observations Spatiales) Department of Chemistry
Sorbonne Universités-UPMC, Paris Saclay-UVSQ, CNRS Umeå University
Paris, France Umeå, SE, Sweden

R. Alexander Bentley
Comparative Cultural Studies and Hobby School of Public Magali Bonifacie
Affairs Institut de Physique du Globe de Paris
University of Houston, McElhinney Hall Sorbonne Paris Cité, Université Paris Diderot
Houston, TX, USA Paris, France

Bridget A. Bergquist
Department of Earth Sciences Bernard Bourdon
University of Toronto Laboratoire de Géologie de Lyon
Toronto, ON, Canada Université de Lyon
Lyon, France
and
Barry R. Bickmore ENS-Lyon
Department of Geological Sciences Université Lyon 1, CNRS, UMR 5276 LGLTPE
Brigham Young University Lyon, France
Provo, UT, USA
Ian C. Bourg
Paul R. Bierman Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering and
Department of Geology Princeton Environmental Institute
University of Vermont Princeton University
Burlington, VT, USA Princeton, NJ, USA
 CONTRIBUTORS xvii

J. A. Brandes William H. Casey

Skidaway Institute of Oceanography and Department of Department of Chemistry and Department of Earth and
Marine Science Planetary Sciences
University of Georgia University of California
Savannah, GA, USA Davis, CA, USA

Anthony Chappaz
James M. Brenan Department of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences
Department of Earth Sciences Central Michigan University
Dalhousie University Mount Pleasant, MI, USA
Halifax, NS, Canada
Mathieu Chassé
Institut de minéralogie, de physique des matériaux, et de
James G. Brophy cosmochimie (IMPMC)
Department of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences Sorbonne universités – UPMC
Indiana University Paris, France
Bloomington, IN, USA
Catherine Chauvel
ISTerre
Joël Brugger University Grenoble Alpes, CNRS
School of Earth, Atmosphere and the Environment Grenoble, France
Monash University
Clayton, Australia
Allan R. Chivas
GeoQuEST Research Centre, School of Earth and
James R. Budahn Environmental Sciences
U.S.Geological Survey University of Wollongong
Denver, CO, USA Wollongong, NSW, Australia
and
Department of Earth Sciences
Hélène Bureau University of Adelaide
Institut de Minéralogie, de Physique desMatériaux et de Adelaide, SA, Australia
Cosmochimie (IMPMC)
Sorbonne Universités – UPMCUniv. Paris 06, CNRSUMR
7590, MuséumNational d’Histoire Naturelle Andrew G. Christy
Paris, France School of Earth and Environmental Sciences
University of Queensland
Vincent Busigny St Lucia, QLD, Australia
Institut de Physique du Globe de Paris and
Sorbonne Paris Cité, Université Paris Diderot Geosciences
Paris, France Queensland Museum
Hendra, QLD, Australia

Dante Canil Cristiana L. Ciobanu

School of Earth and Ocean Sciences School of Chemical Engineering
University of Victoria The University of Adelaide
Victoria, BC, Canada Adelaide, SA, Australia

Elizabeth A. Canuel
Department of Physical Science, Virginia Institute of Norbert Clauer
Marine Science Laboratoire d’Hydrologie et de Géochimie de Strasbourg
College of William & Mary CNRS - Université de Strasbourg
Gloucester Point, VA, USA Strasbourg, France

Pierre Cartigny Devon B. Cole

Institut de Physique du Globe de Paris Department of Geology and Geophysics
Sorbonne Paris Cité, Université Paris Diderot Yale University
Paris, France New Haven, CT, USA
xviii CONTRIBUTORS

Lydia E. S. Cole Patrick Degryse

Department of Zoology, Biodiversity Institute Earth and Environmental Sciences, Division Geology
University of Oxford Centre for Archaeological Sciences, KU Leuven
Oxford, UK Leuven, Belgium

Louis A. Derry
Christopher A. Colla Department of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences
Department of Chemistry and Department of Earth and Cornell University
Planetary Sciences Ithaca, NY, USA
University of California
Davis, CA, USA
Aline Dia
Géosciences Rennes
Rennes, France
Caitlin Colleary
Department of Geosciences
Virginia Tech David A. Dixon
Blacksburg, VA, USA Department of Chemistry
University of Alabama
Tuscaloosa, AL, USA
Nigel J. Cook
School of Chemical Engineering Ann G. Dunlea
The University of Adelaide Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution
Adelaide, SA, Australia Woods Hole, MA, USA

Laura J. Crossey Denton S. Ebel

Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences
University of New Mexico Columbia University
Albuquerque, NM, USA New York, NY, USA

Cortland F. Eble
Michel Cuney Kentucky Geological Survey
GeoRessources University of Kentucky
University of Lorraine, CNRS, CREGU Lexington, KY, USA
Vandoeuvre les Nancy, France
Kay-Christian Emeis
Department of Earth Sciences
Joan E. Curry Hamburg University
Department of Soil, Water and Environmental Science Hamburg, Germany
University of Arizona
Tucson, AZ, USA Giuseppe Etiope
Sezione Roma 2
Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e Vulcanologia
Andrew D. Czaja Rome, Italy
Department of Geology
University of Cincinnati
Cincinnati, OH, USA Juraj Farkaš
Department of Earth Sciences, School of Physical Sciences
University of Adelaide
Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
James M. D. Day
and
Scripps Institution of Oceanography
Department of Geochemistry
University of California San Diego
Czech Geological Survey
La Jolla, CA, USA
Prague, Czech Republic

Hein J. W. de Baar James Farquhar

NIOZ Royal Netherlands Institute for Sea Research Department of Geology and Earth System Science
Department of Ocean Systems (OCS), and Utrecht Interdisciplinary Center
University University of Maryland
Den Burg, The Netherlands College Park, MD, USA
 CONTRIBUTORS xix

Michel-Pierre Faucon Tammie L. Gerke

UniLaSalle Department of Geology and Environmental Earth Science
Beauvais Cedex, France Miami University Middletown
Middletown, OH, USA

Scott E. Fendorf Mark Ghiorso

Department of Geology OFM Research
Stanford University Seattle, WA, USA
Menlo Park, CA, USA
Sarah L. C. Giering
Ocean Biogeochemistry and Ecosystems
Karl B. Föllmi
National Oceanography Centre
Institute of Earth Sciences
Southampton, UK
University of Lausanne
Lausanne, Switzerland
Jennifer B. Glass
School of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences
Tori Z. Forbes Georgia Institute of Technology
Department of Chemistry Atlanta, GA, USA
University of Iowa
Iowa City, IA, USA William E. Glassley
Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences
University of California
Gavin L. Foster Davis, USA
Ocean and Earth Science, National Oceanography Centre
Southampton
University of Southampton Colin Goldblatt
Southampton, UK School of Earth and Ocean Sciences
University of Victoria
Victoria, BC, Canada
B. Fritz
Laboratoire d’Hydrologie et Géochimie de Strasbourg
Université de Strasbourg/EOST, CNRS András Gorzsás
Strasbourg Cedex, France Department of Chemistry
Umeå University
Umeå, Sweden
Fabrice Gaillard
Institut des Sciences de la Terre
Université d’Orléans-BRGM Jitendra Nath Goswami
Orléans, France Physical Research Laboratory
Ahmedabad, India

Jérôme Gaillardet
Institut de Physique du Globe de Paris Stephen F. Greb
Paris, France Kentucky Geological Survey
University of Kentucky
Heinz Gamsjäger Lexington, KY, USA
Leoben, Austria
Eleanor C. R. Green
Charles A. Geiger Institute of Geochemistry and Petrology
Department of Chemistry and Physics of Materials ETH Zürich
Section Mineralogy Zürich, Switzerland
University of Salzburg
Salzburg, Austria
Richard Greenwood
Hidenori Genda Planetary and Space Sciences, Department of Physical
Earth-Life Science Institute (ELSI) Sciences
Tokyo Institute of Technology The Open University
Tokyo, Japan Milton Keynes, UK
xx CONTRIBUTORS

Dana T. Griffen Jens O. Herrle

Geology Department Institute of Geosciences
Brigham Young University Goethe University Frankfurt
Provo, UT, USA Frankfurt, Germany

William L. Griffin Jennifer E. Hertzberg

Earth and Planetary Sciences Department of Marine Sciences
Macquarie University University of Connecticut
North Ryde, NSW, Australia Groton, CT, USA

Henning Haack Takafumi Hirata

Maine Mineral and Gem Museum Geochemical Research Center
Bethel, ME, USA The University of Tokyo
Tokyo, Japan
Amber K. Hardison
Marine Science Institute Michael F. Hochella Jr.
The University of Texas at Austin Department of Geosciences
Port Aransas, TX, USA Virginia Tech
Blacksburg, VA, USA
and
Russell S. Harmon Geosciences Group
North Carolina State University Pacific Northwest National Laboratory
Raleigh, NC, USA Richland, WA, USA

Norman E. Holden
Karen Harpp National Nuclear Data Center
Department of Geology Brookhaven National Laboratory
Colgate University Upton, New York, USA
Hamilton, NY, USA
Greg Holland
School of Earth and Environmental Sciences
Hilairy Ellen Hartnett
University of Manchester
School of Earth and Space Exploration and School of
Manchester, UK
Molecular Sciences
Arizona State University
Tempe, AZ, USA Masahiko Honda
Research School of Earth Sciences
The Australian National University
Adam J. Hawkins Canberra, ACT, Australia
Earth and Atmospheric Sciences
Cornell University Peter Hoppe
Ithaca, NY, USA Particle Chemistry Department
Max Planck Institute for Chemistry
Mainz, Germany
Meng He
Department of Geological and Environmental Sciences
Stanford University Jacqueline R. Houston
Stanford, CA, USA CSUS – California State University
Sacramento, CA, USA

James R. Hein James C. Hower

Pacific Coastal and Marine Science Center Center for Applied Energy Research
U.S. Geological Survey University of Kentucky
Santa Cruz, CA, USA Lexington, KY, USA

George R. Helz Munir Humayun

Departments of Geology and Chemistry Department of Earth, Ocean and Atmospheric Science
University of Maryland Florida State University
College Park, MD, USA Tallahassee, FL, USA
 CONTRIBUTORS xxi

Matthew P. Humphreys Hans Keppler

Ocean and Earth Science Bayerisches Geoinstitut
University of Southampton University of Bayreuth
Southampton, UK Bayreuth, Germany

Matthew Gerard Jackson Markus Kleber

Department of Earth Science Department of Crop and Soil Science
University of California Santa Barbara Oregon State University
Santa Barbara, CA, USA Corvallis, OR, USA

Frances E. Jenner Barbara I. Kleine

Department of Environment, Earth and Ecosystems Institute of Earth Sciences
The Open University University of Iceland
Milton Keynes, Buckinghamshire, UK Reykjavík, Iceland

Clark M. Johnson Thorsten Kleine

Department of Geoscience Institut für Planetologie
University of Wisconsin University of Münster
Madison, WI, USA Münster, Germany

Adrian Jones Kenneth T. Koga

Department of Earth Sciences Laboratoire Magmas et Volcans
University College London Université Blaise Pascal – CNRS
London, UK Clermont-Ferrand, France

Rhian Jones Tsuyoshi Komiya

School of Earth and Environmental Sciences Department of Earth Science and Astronomy
The University of Manchester The University of Tokyo
Manchester, UK Tokyo, Japan

Robert J. Kamilli Erich Königsberger

Tucson Office – Geology, Minerals, Energy and Chemical and Metallurgical Engineering and Chemistry
Geophysics Science Center School of Engineering and Information Technology
U.S. Geological Survey Murdoch University
Tucson, Arizona, USA Murdoch, WA, Australia

Tatsuhiko Kawamoto Alexander N. Krot

Institute for Geothermal Sciences, Graduate School of Hawai‘i Institute of Geophysics and Planetology
Science University of Hawai‘i at Mānoa
Kyoto University Honolulu, HI, USA
Kyoto, Japan
Jiri Kucerik
Stuart Kearns Institute of Chemistry and Technology of Environmental
School of Earth Sciences Protection, Faculty of Chemistry
University of Bristol Brno University of Technology
Bristol, UK Brno, Czech Republic

Thomas J. Kelly Elizabeth B. Kujawinski

School of Geography Marine Chemistry and Geochemistry
University of Leeds Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution
Leeds, UK Woods Hole, MA, USA

Mark A. Kendrick Rajnish Kumar

Research School of Earth Sciences Department of Chemical Engineering
Australian National University Indian Institute of Technology
Canberra, ACT, Australia Chennai, India
xxii CONTRIBUTORS

Masanori Kurosawa Abraham Lerman

Faculty of Life and Environmental Sciences Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences
University of Tsukuba Northwestern University
Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan Evanston, IL, USA

Klaus S. Lackner Juan S. Lezama Pacheco

School of Sustainable Engineering and the Built School of Earth, Energy, and Environmental Sciences
Environment Stanford University
Arizona State University Menlo Park, CA, USA
Tempe, AZ, USA

Maik Lang Yan Liang

Department of Nuclear Engineering Department of Earth, Environmental and Planetary
University of Tennessee Sciences
Knoxville, TN, USA Brown University
Providence, RI, USA
Charles H. Langmuir
Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences
Harvard University Yu-Hsuan Crystal Liang
Cambridge, MA, USA Institute of Earth Sciences
Academia Sinica
Nangang, Taipei, TAIWAN
Douglas Edward LaRowe
Department of Earth Sciences
University of Southern California
Los Angeles, CA, USA Peter C. Lichtner
OFM Research—Southwest
Santa Fe, NM, USA
John C. Lassiter
Department of Geological Sciences, Jackson School of
Geosciences Praveen Linga
University of Texas at Austin Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering
Austin, TX, USA National University of Singapore
Singapore, Singapore
Gregory B. Lawrence
New York Water Science Center Brenda J. Little
U.S. Geological Survey Naval Research Laboratory
Troy, NY, USA Stennis Space Center
Hancock County, MS, USA
Ian T. Lawson
Department of Geography and Sustainable Development
University of St Andrews Xingcheng Liu
Edinburg, Scotland, UK Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry
Chinese Academy of Sciences
Christophe Lécuyer Guangzhou, China
Laboratoire de Géologie de Lyon, LGL-TPE
CNRS UMR 5276, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1 and J. William Louda
Institut Universitaire de France Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry and the
Lyon, France Environmental Sciences Program
Florida Atlantic University
Cin-Ty Lee Boca Raton, FL, USA
Department of Earth Science MS-126
Rice University
Houston, TX, USA Christian Ludwig
Paul Scherrer Institute (PSI)
Johannes Lehmann Villigen, Switzerland
Soil and Crop Science, School of Integrative Plant Science and
Cornell University École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL)
Ithaca, NY, USA Lausanne, Switzerland
 CONTRIBUTORS xxiii

Robert W. Luth David McKirdy

Department of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences Department of Earth Sciences, School of Physical Sciences
University of Alberta The University of Adelaide
Edmonton, AB, Canada Adelaide, SA, Australia

Timothy W. Lyons Scott M. McLennan

Department of Earth Sciences Department of Geosciences
University of California – Riverside Stony Brook University
Riverside, CA, USA Stony Brook, NY, USA

Fred T. Mackenzie
Department of Oceanography, School of Ocean and Earth Patricia M. Medeiros
Science and Technology Department of Marine Sciences
University of Hawai‘i at Manoa University of Georgia
Honolulu, HI, USA Athens, GA, USA

Glenn J. MacPherson Thomas C. Meisel

Smithsonian Institution General and Analytical Chemistry
Washington, DC, USA Montanuniversität Leoben
Leoben, Austria
Clayton R. Magill
Lyell Centre for Marine and Earth Science and Technology
Rob Middag
Heriot-Watt University
NIOZ Royal Netherlands Institute for Sea Research
Edinburgh, UK
Department of Ocean Systems (OCS), and Utrecht
University
Helen Mango Den Burg, The Netherlands
Department of Natural Sciences
Castleton University
Castleton, VT, USA Ritsuro Miyawaki
Department of Geology
National Museum of Nature and Science
Horst R. Marschall Tokyo, Japan
Department of Geology and Geophysics
Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution
Wood Hole, MA, USA Kira Mizell
and Pacific Coastal and Marine Science Center
Institut für Geowissenschaften U.S. Geological Survey
Goethe-Universität Frankfurt Santa Cruz, CA, USA
Frankfurt am Main, Germany and
Department of Ocean Sciences
University of California, Santa Cruz
Giuseppe Mascaro Santa Cruz, CA, USA
School of Sustainable Engineering and the Built
Environment
Arizona State University J. Michael Moldowan
Tempe, AZ, USA Biomarker Technologies, Inc.
Rohnert Park, CA, USA
Satoshi Matsubara
Department of Geology and Paleontology Isabel P. Montañez
National Museum of Nature and Science Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences
Tokyo, Japan University of California
Davis, CA, USA

William F. McDonough Mainak Mookherjee

Department of Geology Earth, Ocean and Atmospheric Sciences
University of Maryland Florida State University
College Park, MD, USA Tallahassee, FL, USA
xxiv CONTRIBUTORS

Manuel Moreira Kazuhide Nagashima

Institut de Physique du Globe de Paris Hawai‘i Institute of Geophysics and Planetology
Sorbonne Paris Cité, UMR CNRS 7154, Université Paris University of Hawai‘i at Mānoa
Diderot Honolulu, HI, USA
Paris, France
Izumi Nakai
Department of Applied Chemistry
Bree Morgan Tokyo University of Science
School of Geosciences Tokyo, Japan
The University of Sydney
Camperdown, NSW, Australia Oliver Nebel
School of Earth, Atmosphere and Environment
Carl O. Moses Monash University
Provost and Vice President for Academic Affairs Clayton/Melbourne, VIC, Australia
Grand View University
Des Moines, IA, USA
Sune G. Nielsen
Department of Geology and Geophysics
Frédéric Moynier Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution
Institut de Physique du Globe de Paris Woods Hole, MA, USA
Université Paris Diderot, Sorbonne Paris Cité
Paris, France
and C. Noguera
Institut Universitaire de France Institut des Nanosciences de Paris
Paris, France CNRS-Sorbonne Universités, UPMC University Paris 06
Paris, France

Sujoy Mukhopadhyay
Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences May Nyman
University of California Davis Department of Chemistry
Davis, CA, USA Oregon State University
Corvallis, OR, USA
Carsten Münker
Institut für Geologie und Mineralogie C. André Ohlin
Universität zu Köln Department of Chemistry
Köln, Germany Umeå University
Umeå, Sweden
Richard W. Murray
Department of Earth and Environment Priscia Oliva
Boston University CNRS/IRD
Boston, MA, USA Paul Sabatier University
Toulouse, France
A. D. Muscente
Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences Anna F. Oliveri
Harvard University Department of Chemistry, Department of Earth and
Cambridge, MA, USA Planetary Sciences
University of California
Davis, CA, USA
B. D. A. Naafs
Organic Geochemistry Unit, School of Chemistry
University of Bristol and Cabot Institute Hugh StC O’Neill
Bristol, UK Research School of Earth Sciences
Australian National University
Acton, Australia
Patrick Nadoll
GeoZentrum Nordbayern, Geochemistry – Economic
Geology Herbert Palme
Friedrich-Alexander-University Erlangen-Nuremberg Forschungsinstitut und Naturmuseum Senckenberg
Erlangen, Germany Frankfurt am Main, Germany
 CONTRIBUTORS xxv

Monica M. Palta Terry Plank

Department of Environmental Studies and Science Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory
Pace University Columbia University
New York, NY, USA Palisades, NY, USA

R.D. Pancost
Organic Geochemistry Unit, School of Chemistry Don Porcelli
University of Bristol and Cabot Institute Department of Earth Sciences
Bristol, UK Oxford University
Oxford, UK
Ann Pearson
Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences Eric W. Portenga
Harvard University Department of Geography and Geology
Cambridge, MA, USA Eastern Michigan University
Ypsilanti, MI, USA
Michael Perfit
Department of Geological Sciences
University of Florida Olivier Pourret
Gainesville, FL, USA UniLaSalle
Beauvais Cedex, France
Kenneth E. Peters
Schlumberger
Mill Valley, CA, USA Julie Prytulak
and Department of Earth Science and Engineering
Department of Geological Sciences Imperial College London
Stanford University London, UK
Stanford, CA, USA
Igor S. Puchtel
Larry C. Peterson Department of Geology
Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science University of Maryland
University of Miami College Park, MD, USA
Miami, FL, USA
Keith Putirka
Steven Petsch Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences
Department of Geosciences California State University – Fresno
University of Massachusetts Amherst Fresno, CA, USA
Amherst, MA, USA
Wilhelm Püttmann
R. Paul Philp Institute for Atmospheric and Environmental Sciences
ConocoPhillips School of Geology and Geophysics Department of Environmental Analytical Chemistry
University of Oklahoma Goethe University
Norman, OK, USA Frankfurt am Main, Germany
Corey D. Pilgrim
Department of Chemistry Liping Qin
University of California, Davis Department of Earth and Space Science
Davis, CA, USA China University of Science and Technology
Hefei, Hubei, China
Daniele L. Pinti
GEOTOP, Research Center on the Dynamics of Earth Patrick Reardon
System Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Facility
Université du Québec à Montréal Oregon State University
Montréal, QC, Canada Corvallis, OR, USA

Noah J. Planavsky Eoghan P. Reeves

Department of Geology and Geophysics Department of Earth Science and Centre for Geobiology
Yale University University of Bergen
New Haven, CT, USA Bergen, Norway
xxvi CONTRIBUTORS

Martin Reich Estelle F. Rose-Koga

Department of Geology and Andean Geothermal Center of Laboratoire Magmas et Volcans
Excellence (CEGA), FCFM Université Blaise Pascal – CNRS
Universidad de Chile Clermont-Ferrand, France
Santiago, Chile
Andrew Ross
Christopher T. Reinhard CSIRO Earth Science and Resource Engineering (CESRE)
School of Earth and Atmospheric Science Kensington, NSW, Australia
Georgia Institute of Technology
Atlanta, GA, USA
Roberta L. Rudnick
Justin B. Richardson Department of Earth Science
Dept. of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences University of California
Cornell University Santa Barbara, CA, USA
Ithaca, NY, USA and
Department of Geology
Pascal Richet University of Maryland
Institut de Physique du Globe de Paris College Park, MD, USA
Paris, France

Leigh Anne Riedman Sara Russell

Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences Department of Earth Sciences
Harvard University The Natural History Museum
Cambridge, MA, USA London, UK

Mark J. Rigali Michael A. Rutzke

Sandia National Laboratories College of Agriculture and Life Sciences Nutrient Analysis
Albuquerque, NM, USA Lab
Cornell University
Jennifer A. Roberts Ithaca, NY, USA
Department of Geology
University of Kansas
Lawrence, KS, USA Jeffrey G. Ryan
School of Geosciences
University of South Florida
Peter A. Rock Tampa, FL, USA
College of Math and Physical Sciences, Department of
Chemistry
University of California Isao Sakaguchi
Davis, CA, USA National Institute for Materials Science
Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan
Leonardo Briceño Rodriguez
Schlumberger Vincent J. M. Salters
Mexico City, Mexico National High Magnetic Field Laboratory and Department
of Earth, Ocean and Atmospheric Sciences
Norelis D. Rodriguez Florida State University
Chevron Energy Technology Company Tallahassee, FL, USA
Houston, TX, USA
Iain M. Samson
Nick Rogers
Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences
School of Environment, Earth and Ecosystem Sciences
University of Windsor
The Open University
Windsor, ON, Canada
Milton Keynes, UK

Hugh Rollinson Yuji Sano

Geoscience Atmosphere and Ocean Research Institute
University of Derby Univertsity of Tokyo
Derby, UK Kashiwa, Japan
 CONTRIBUTORS xxvii

Philippe Sarda Kurt Schwartz

GEOPS, Univ. Paris-Sud, CNRS GSI Helmholtz Center for Heavy Ion Research
Université Paris-Saclay, Rue du Belvédère Darmstadt, Germany
Orsay, France
Melissa Scruggs
Department of Earth Science
Peter E. Sauer University of California Santa Barbara
Department of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences Santa Barbara, CA, USA
Indiana University
Bloomington, IN, USA Rachel P. Scudder
Texas A&M University
College Station, TX, USA
Paul Savage
Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences
University of St Andrews Jeffrey S. Seewald
St Andrews, UK Marine Chemistry and Geochemistry Department
Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution
Woods Hole, MA, USA
Joël Savarino
Laboratoire de Glaciologie et Géophysique de
l’Environnement Anat Shahar
Université Grenoble-Alpes, UMRCNTS/UGA Geophysical Laboratory
Grenoble, France Carnegie Institution for Science
Washington, DC, USA
Howie D. Scher
Earth and Ocean Sciences
University of South Carolina Elisabeth Sikes
Columbia, SC, USA Department of Marine and Coastal Sciences
Rutgers the State University of New Jersey
New Brunswick, NJ, USA
Arndt Schimmelmann
Department of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences
Indiana University Don Sparks
Bloomington, IN, USA Department of Plant and Soil Sciences
University of Delaware
Newark, DE, USA
Matthew W. Schmidt
Department of Ocean, Earth and Atmospheric Sciences
Old Dominion University Frank Spera
Norfolk, VA, USA Department of Earth Science
University of California Santa Barbara
Mark D. Schmitz Santa Barbara, CA, USA
Department of Geosciences
Boise State University
Boise, ID, USA Garrison Sposito
Environmental Science, Policy and Management
University of California
Maria Schönbächler Berkeley, CA, USA
Institute of Geochemistry and Petrology
ETH
Zurich, Switzerland Jessica A. Stammeier
Institute of Applied Geosciences
Graz University of Technology
Martin A. Schoonen Graz, Austria
Brookhaven National Laboratory
Upton, NY, USA
and Andri Stefánsson
Department of Geosciences Institute of Earth Sciences
Stony Brook University University of Iceland
Stony Brook, NY, USA Reykjavík, Iceland
xxviii CONTRIBUTORS

Andreas Stracke Stuart N. Thomson

Institut für Mineralogie Department of Geosciences
Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität University of Arizona
Münster, Germany Tucson, AZ, USA

Dariusz Strąpoć Andrew G. Tomkins

Geoservices School of Earth, Atmosphere and Environment
Schlumberger Monash University
Roissy, France Melbourne, VIC, Australia

Roger Summons Taku Tsuchiya

Earth, Atmospheric, and Planetary Sciences Department Geodynamics Research Center
Massachusetts Institute of Technology Ehime University
Cambridge, MA, USA Matsuyama, Ehime, Japan

H. Tsunakawa
Chenguang Sun Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences
Department of Earth, Environmental and Planetary Tokyo Institute of Technology
Sciences Tokyo, Japan
Rice University
Houston, TX, USA Philippe Ungerer
Materials Design S.A.R.L.
Yoshio Takahashi Montrouge, France
Graduate School of Science
The University of Tokyo Steven M. A. C. van Heuven
Tokyo, Japan NIOZ Royal Netherlands Institute for Sea Research
Department of Ocean Systems (OCS), and Utrecht
Asrarur Talukder University
CSIRO Earth Science and Resource Engineering (CESRE) Den Burg, Texel, The Netherlands
Kensington, NSW, Australia
Monica Vasiliu
Fang-Zhen Teng Department of Chemistry
Isotope Laboratory, Department of Earth and Space University of Alabama
Sciences Tuscaloosa, AL, USA
University of Washington
Seattle, WA, USA Jeff Vervoort
Geological Sciences
Jefferson W. Tester School of the Environment, Washington State University
Earth and Atmospheric Sciences Pullman, WA, USA
Cornell University
Ithaca, NY, USA Jérôme Viers
and CNRS/IRD
School of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering Paul Sabatier University
Cornell University Toulouse, France
Ithaca, NY, USA
John K. Volkman
Jay B. Thomas Oceans and Atmosphere Flagship
Department of Earth Sciences, 204 Heroy Geology CSIRO
Laboratory Hobart, TAS, Australia
Syracuse University
Syracuse, NY, USA
J. H. L. Voncken
Faculty of Civil Engineering and Geosciences, Department
John F. H. Thompson of Geosciences and Engineering, Section Resource
Department of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences Engineering
Cornell University Delft University of Technology
Ithaca, NY, USA Delft, The Netherlands
 CONTRIBUTORS xxix

Thomas Wagner Jamie J. Wilkinson

Lyell Centre for Marine and Earth Science and Technology Department of Earth Sciences
Heriot-Watt University Natural History Museum
Edinburgh, UK London, UK
and
Department of Earth Science and Engineering
Richard J. Walker Imperial College
Department of Geology London, UK
University of Maryland
College Park, MD, USA Matthias Willbold
School of Earth, Atmospheric and Environmental Sciences
University of Manchester
Matthew C. F. Wander Manchester, UK
Department of Geological Sciences
Brigham Young University
Provo, UT, USA Josh Wimpenny
Nuclear and Chemical Sciences Division
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory
Xiangli Wang Livermore, CA, USA
Department of Geology and Geophysics
Yale University Brian F. Woodfield
New Haven, CT, USA Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry
Brigham Young University
Provo, UT, USA
John Warren
Petroleum Geoscience Prog.
Chulalongkorn University Jon Woodhead
Bangkok, Thailand School of Earth Sciences
The University of Melbourne
Melbourne, VIC, Australia
Gerold Wefer
MARUM – Center for Marine Environmental Sciences Ryan J. Woosley
University of Bremen Department of Ocean Science
Bremen, Germany University of Miami, Rosenstiel School of Marine and
Atmospheric Sciences
Miami, FL, USA
Dominique Weis
Pacific Centre for Isotopic and Geochemical Research
Earth, Ocean and Atmospheric Sciences Xiaolin Xiong
University of British Columbia Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry
Vancouver, BC, Canada Chinese Academy of Sciences
Guangzhou, China
Michael K. Weisberg Akira Yamaguchi
Department of Physical Sciences, Earth and Planetary Antarctic Meteorite Research Center
Sciences, Kingsborough Community College and National Institute of Polar Research
Graduate Center Tokyo, Japan
City University of New York and
New York, USA Department of Polar Science
School of Multidisciplinary Science, SOKENDAI (The
Graduate University for Advanced Studies)
William M. White Tokyo, Japan
Department of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences
Cornell University Y. Yamamoto
Ithaca, NY, USA Center for Advanced Marine Core Research
Kochi University
Kochi, Japan
Rainer Wieler
Department of Earth Sciences, Institute of Geochemistry Jie Yang
and Petrology School of Earth and Environmental Sciences
ETH Zürich University of St Andrews
Zürich, Switzerland Fife, UK
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 In 1901 the imports of cotton goods had already reached their
former level, amounting to about 28,000 kantars. But the trade is
growing rapidly: in 1902 the imports had risen to 38,000 kantars.
Considering that the population is no more than a third of what it was
in 1881, this is striking testimony of the good effects produced by just
government and a railway. The imports from India have, of course,
fallen away. Scents are far below their former figure, but the imports
of flour and rice have risen; 343 tons of flour and 43 tons of rice were
carried in 1901, and 733 tons of flour and 108 tons of rice in 1902.
Tobacco, oil, and petroleum are also increasing. There is also a very
important article of import which reflects both the improved
purchasing power of the Soudan and the increased production in
Egypt; this is sugar. The railway carried 1,700 tons in 1901, and
nearly 3,000 tons in 1902. Soap, likewise of Egyptian manufacture,
also appears in the returns to the extent of some 140 tons a year.
As for imports so for exports Suakin was the chief channel of
trade before the rebellion. But a good deal also went by Korosko and
the Nile, principally gum, senna, coffee, and ostrich feathers. An
inappreciable amount, probably, also filtered through to Egypt by
Assouan or Assiout. Far the biggest item of the recorded trade was
gum. The export for three years was—
Kantars.
1879 144,706
1880 135,646
1881 150,861

Next came cotton, cleaned and uncleaned, averaging about

20,000 kantars per annum. Coffee amounted to about 7,000 kantars,
principally from Kassala and the Abyssinian frontier. The Soudan is a
land of strange diseases, but it is also a land of medicines. Besides
tamarinds, as much as 3,300 kantars of senna was exported in
1880. Ostrich feathers from Kordofan and Darfur came to about 200
kantars, and there was also about half that amount of guttapercha
from the Bahr el Ghazal. Miscellaneous exports included skins and
hides, mother-of-pearl from the coast, mats from Kassala, and ivory.
 To-day gum-arabic is still easily first among the exports. The best
kind of gum is the white gum produced from the gray-barked acacia,
called hashab; there are also inferior kinds called talh, or latch,
produced from the red-barked acacia. The gum is used for giving a
glaze to linens and other woven fabrics, for stiffening cotton-stuffs
and calicoes, and for making sweets and chewing mixtures.
Kordofan is the home of the gum trade; a good deal, but chiefly the
inferior kinds, comes from the forests of Sennar and Kassala, but
nearly all the best white gum comes from Kordofan, especially the
part round Taiara between Duem and El Obeid. Here there are
limitless forests of hashab. The taking of the gum does not
permanently injure the tree, and the only obstacles to its gathering
are the distances to be travelled without water, and the lack of
labour. Every new well means a fresh productive area, and people
migrate temporarily from other parts of the Soudan for the gum
harvest. Most of it is brought down by boat from Duem, some directly
on camels from El Obeid to Khartoum, where it is sorted on the
beach. Of this first-rate white gum the Soudan has practically a
monopoly, and when the Soudan was closed to trade its price went
up enormously. This naturally brought out substitutes: inferior gum
from West Africa came into use, and glucose also took its place. Still,
there was a good demand for it after the re-occupation of the
Soudan, and in 1900 the price was still 65s. per cwt. Since then the
production has gone up by leaps and bounds, but, unfortunately, this
has been accompanied by a great fall in prices, at one time as low
as 27s. 6d. per cwt. The figures of the export trade are:
Kantars.
1899 41,963
1900 60,912
1901 170,781
1902 220,000

The trade has now far outstripped its former limits. To a young
country, a profit of some £200,000 a year divided between the
merchants and producers on the one side and the Government on
the other by means of royalties and railway receipts is no mean
advantage.
 As for the other former exports, the trade in ostrich feathers from
Kordofan and Darfur has begun again, and there seems no reason
why it should not be developed. Ostriches are farmed successfully in
Egypt near Cairo, and the conditions are even more favourable for
their establishment in the Soudan. Nor is it unlikely that the Soudan
will be able to supply a part of her own tobacco and sugar, which
now bulks so largely in the imports. In former days the sugar-cane
was cultivated largely in Dongola and along the Nile in Berber
Province. The fertile plains around Kassala bore crops both of sugar-
cane and tobacco. The district of Fazokhl, beyond Rosaires on the
Blue Nile, used to produce 1,000 kantars of tobacco per year. It is
also found in Fashoda; and in the south-western part of Kordofan,
where the soil is the richest in the province, both tobacco and sugar-
cane grow easily wherever there is water, to say nothing of the Bahr
el Ghazal. The coffee came principally from that part of the country
which has since been taken over by Italy or Abyssinia, and, though it
is grown in Kassala, the trade in it is not likely to come to very much.
This coffee, however, which is of the Abyssinian kind, and not a first-
class coffee, is still quoted in the London market at about 50s. per
cwt.
But the most promising feature in the old returns is the 20,000
kantars of cotton, even though as yet the trade has not revived.
Though the figure is in itself insignificant, it is a proof that the thing
can be done. Cotton is indigenous in the Soudan. It grows wild in
Fashoda, although the native Shilluks seem never to have taken
advantage of this circumstance, preferring to go completely naked.
Most of the former cotton export came from Kassala. The Khor
Gash, a tributary of the Atbara, comes down in flood during July and
August, and partly inundates the plain, leaving behind a rich alluvial
deposit—splendid cotton soil. There was formerly a cotton factory in
Kassala town. In the districts of Gallabat and Gedaref cotton is now
actually being grown, and it is proving the foundation of increasing
trade with Abyssinia. Abyssinian merchants eagerly buy up all that
can be grown. Further south, in Sennar Province, the valleys of the
Dinder and the Rahad were once very famous for cotton, which was
also largely imported into Abyssinia. Here, too, the cultivation is
increasing as the people settle down. The district of Tokar, near
Suakin, along the Khor Baraka, produces, perhaps, the best quality
of all the cotton in the Soudan. It, too, in former days produced very
much more than now. While along the Nile itself, in the
neighbourhood of Khartoum and in Berber and Dongola Provinces,
enough cotton is grown to supply small local industries, in which a
rough white cloth is woven, one of the few local manufactures in the
Soudan. Beyond a doubt, not only is there a great deal of land
admirably suited to grow cotton in the Soudan, but also the climatic
conditions, given only water, are peculiarly favourable.
Cotton and its culture are thus no novelties to the inhabitants of
the Soudan. The point is the water; it all comes back to water and
irrigation. If the Soudan is to be of any real interest to the cotton-
spinners of Lancashire, its export must be counted not by a few
paltry tens of thousands of kantars, but by hundreds of thousands,
perhaps by millions. And for that there must be irrigation works on a
large scale. The soil is there in the Ghezireh and elsewhere, the
climate is there, the water is there, and the irrigation works will come.
But once again, there is no need for hurry. The interests of the whole
Valley of the Nile have to be considered. The undertaking is too large
to be gone into without the utmost care and patient deliberation.
It is eminently satisfactory that the Government is fully alive to all
the possibilities. They have started an experimental farm at Shendi,
where trials are being made of different sorts of cotton, of different
methods of culture, and of different periods of sowing, as well as
calculations of the cost of production and of carriage to the ginning
factories in Egypt. Already some most interesting and important
results have been obtained. It has been definitely shown that the
cotton which is sown in June and July promises better, both in quality
and quantity, than that sown in the autumn or in March and April. At
that time the heat is not so great, and the river is rising, so that the
cultivator gets his water during the most necessary time at the least
cost, because with the least effort. If this is confirmed, it is extremely
important, for the water will be taken at a time when the Nile is high,
and when, therefore, Egypt can afford to allow it to be used without
suffering in the least degree, apart altogether from new Reservoir
works.
 As regards quality, it appears that the cotton grown, if not so good
as the very best kinds of Delta cotton, is at least as good as, or
better than, the best American, both in colour and staple. It is
calculated that at the present time 1 acre producing 4 kantars will
produce gross receipts of 1,060 piastres, against an expenditure of
1,000 piastres, showing a profit of 60 piastres, or 12s. 6d. per acre.
But when the new railway has reduced the cost of fuel for the
pumps, and also the cost of carriage, the expenses will be no more
than 700 piastres, showing a profit of 360 piastres per acre, or 75s. It
is estimated that the new railway will reduce the cost of freight by 50
piastres per kantar, and, wherever the Soudan has its own ginning
factories, the profits will, of course, be all the greater, because only
the prepared product will be carried. There is at present sufficient
local demand for cotton to make it generally more profitable to sell it
on the spot than to carry it to Egypt, but as the production increases
it will soon outstrip the local demand. Any private capitalist investing
money in cotton in the Soudan would be able to buy and clear land
on the river in Berber or Dongola at from £5 to £6 per acre, so that
he would get a very reasonable return on his investment. He would
have the further advantage that in the Soudan two of the worst
cotton diseases, ‘worm’ and ‘hog,’ are unknown.
Cotton and corn are the two great foundations on which the hopes
of commercial prosperity in the Soudan are founded. The Negro
Soudan is still comparatively unexplored, and its resources cannot
be estimated. There is, however, a chance that the Bahr el Ghazal
will do great things in rubber. Rubber-trees are known to be plentiful;
rubber has already been produced in small quantities, and
specimens of absolutely first-class quality have been obtained. But it
has yet to be shown that the best kind of creepers are numerous,
and also that they can be successfully tapped without killing the
plants. So far, it does not seem likely that the Soudan has any great
sources of wealth underground. Iron is found and worked in small
quantities in the Bahr el Ghazal, and at least two ore beds are known
in Kordofan, but there is no fuel to work them, and no means of
transporting the ore. As for gold and the precious metals, several
prospecting licenses have been issued and search is being eagerly
made, but, except the copper mines of Hofrat-en-Nahas, nothing has
been discovered at present. The only known gold-bearing district,
the Beni-Shangul, is now included within the territories of Abyssinia.
Gold was formerly worked in this district by the Egyptians, not at a
profit, and perhaps, in any case, it is no great loss to the Soudan
(even if it had not already been occupied by the Abyssinians), for
that gold may not be discovered in the Soudan is the earnest prayer
of every official in the country. The true wealth of the Soudan, such
as it is, lies in its water and its soil. A find of coal would be a very
different matter, and much more valuable than gold, but, though
discoveries are constantly being rumoured, coal is not yet.
No account of the commerce of the Soudan would be complete
without a mention of those wonderful people the Greek traders.
It is well known how, on the day after the Battle of Omdurman, a
Greek arrived in the town and opened a store with all kinds of goods
brought somehow from Suakin. This man is now a prosperous and
wealthy merchant, with large shops in Khartoum and Halfa, and a
finger in every sort of commercial undertaking. He is no longer alone
in the field. Whether it be true or not that trade follows the flag,
undoubtedly the Greek trader follows the British flag. They are said
to be principally Ionian Islanders, so perhaps they have a hereditary
liking for it. Just as from Alexandria to Halfa every town in Egypt has
its Greek traders, carrying on business as storekeepers, dealers,
and innkeepers, so, from Halfa to Gondokoro, from Suakin to El
Obeid, every town in the Soudan has its Greeks. They are
ubiquitous; in Khartoum and Omdurman alone they number about
800. One wonders what they were all doing before the Soudan was
open. Some of them, no doubt, stayed on right through the Khalifa’s
time.
As a vulture scents carrion from afar, so the Greek scents any
possible opening for trade with the natives. The gum trade, the
feather trade, the corn trade, all are in his hands. There is nothing
that a native wants, however humble, from beads and kerosene-tins
to silver, that he will not sell, exactly in the form required. Naturally a
gambler, there is no speculation that he will not undertake, no risk he
will not run. He can stand any climate, he can live in native huts, and
eat native food. He may be unscrupulous in his dealings, and he has
to be sharply watched by those in authority, but as a trade pioneer in
a new country he is invaluable, and his enterprise contributes largely
to make life possible for more exacting Europeans in desolate
places. Some day, perhaps, when the Arab has mastered his
methods of trade, he will find his match, but at present he holds the
field.
 CHAPTER XXI
TAXATION, REVENUE, AND EXPENDITURE

At the beginning of every year the Soudan Budget, with the

estimates of receipts and expenditure for the year, has to be
submitted to the Egyptian Council of Ministers. The total amount to
be granted to the Soudan from the Egyptian revenues is then
decided, and any consequent alterations in the Budget made. The
Governor-General and the Financial Secretary are responsible for
seeing that the total sum so granted by Egypt is not exceeded, but
while this limit is observed, credits can be transferred from one head
to another without reference to Cairo. Any special or unforeseen
expenditure can be defrayed by Egypt by special grants sanctioned
by the Egyptian Council of Ministers, and the Egyptian Minister of
Finance has at all times the right of inspection, audit, and
supervision of the Soudan Government accounts. Practically, of
course, this means that the finances of the Soudan are subject to the
control of the British Financial Secretary and the British Consul-
General at Cairo, but that the Soudan Government exercises a very
wide discretion as to the disposal of its revenues once realized.
The revenues of the Soudan are therefore at present made up
from three sources: first, taxation, fees, licenses, etc.; secondly, the
receipts of certain earning departments—e.g., railway, steamers,
post, and telegraphs; and thirdly, the contribution from Egypt. Of
these the third is still, it must be confessed, the most important, but
the first is steadily growing. Strictly speaking, the second should not
be included, for although the earnings of these departments are
materially increasing, and although without them very little could be
done, their annual accounts do not as yet show a profit, for various
reasons that will be explained.
The principles of taxation are not new. Many of the taxes are the
same in kind as those which were formerly in force not only under
Egyptian rule, but also under the Khalifa’s. It was wisely decided that
no innovations should be introduced based on Western notions,
unless they were unavoidable. The taxes are of a kind to which the
people have long been accustomed, but, of course, great care is
taken that they shall be fixed at a moderate rate, and that no one
shall pay more than is actually required by law. It was the uncertainty
of the amount to be paid, the illegal imposts levied by the collector
on his own account, and the dates at which they were collected, that
made the old taxes so often cruel and ruinous. The uncertainty of the
amount to be paid had, however, an attraction for the Oriental. It
varied with the circumstances of the year. The Government wished
to get all they could, and in a good year they exacted a most
excessive amount; but in a bad year they took little or nothing at all.
According to the Western system a fixed moderate amount has to be
paid every year, and a whole or partial failure of the crop is not
considered any excuse. The latter system is, of course, far the most
just and economically sound, but it lacks the elasticity of the other. It
is the constant endeavour of European administrators in Oriental
countries to endeavour to combine the advantages of both systems.
In the Soudan the system of petitions direct to the Governor-General
is a means to secure this result. When adequate cause is shown, he
is able to remit taxation wholly or partly, and there have been several
cases in which he has done so, notably in Berber and Dongola
Provinces in 1900, when the low Nile caused a great deal of land to
be thrown out of cultivation. Of course, such remissions are inclined
to play havoc with a Budget framed on careful estimates. It cannot
be helped, and at any rate it is only one of many difficulties which
have to be encountered in balancing a Soudan Budget. Unforeseen
expenditure often becomes necessary, but happily during the last
two or three years the receipts have been increasing unexpectedly
also.
Although the taxes remain the same in principle, a comparison
with the former state of things shows the difference in the methods of
assessment and collection to be so great as to amount to a
revolution. Then, as now, the Government in the Soudan was,
according to the general rule in the East, the admitted owner of the
soil, and the cultivator had to pay a tax amounting to one-tenth of the
produce for its use. The actual sum to be paid included all other
taxes, as house-tax, animal-tax, and so on. Each district was rated at
so much in the Budget; this sum was divided among the villages and
communes until the individual cultivator was reached. The nomad
and other tribes which did not cultivate the soil were assessed at an
annual tribute, according to their wealth in camels, cattle, and
horses. In Berber and Dongola the tax was not on the produce of the
land, but on the instruments of irrigation. It varied according to the
instrument and according to the quality of land. One sakieh was
calculated to be capable of watering 8 acres, and if more land was
cultivated an increase was made in the tax. It has already been
mentioned how these water-wheels were often taxed in a sum far
beyond their possible earning capacity. It was the same with the
assessment of the districts and the tribute of the tribes. The official
estimates were seldom or never realized as far as the public
exchequer was concerned (although the bullying tax-collectors took
much more for themselves). Arrears accumulated, in spite of every
effort, and became a direct incentive to discontent and revolt. In the
year 1879 the deficiencies of the amounts actually received below
those estimated ranged in the different provinces from 10 to 60 per
cent. The figures of the Budget were, in fact, pure fancy, especially
when the country was disturbed. But the thing was even worse than
it looked. Districts and tribes, though they might not pay all that was
asked, paid a great deal more than they could afford, and
consequently, as the money had to be found somehow, they found it
by indulging in the only prosperous trade—that of slavery. In other
words, the Soudan lived largely by expending its capital.
Owing to the alteration in the boundaries of the Soudan, it is
somewhat difficult to calculate what the amount raised in taxation
from the present territories amounted to. As nearly as can be made
out, it was about £360,000 a year nominally, with a nominal deficit on
the whole administration in the same provinces of £70,000 a year.
Absolutely nothing was spent in the development of the country;
salaries, rations, and clothes for the army of occupation made up
almost the whole of the expenditure.
 As compared to this, the actual sums raised in the Soudan by
taxation during the last four years have been as follows:
£E.
1900 95,000
1901 155,000
1902 190,000
1903 200,000[7]

But the conditions are so different that nothing can really be

deduced from this comparison. The figures show clearly that the
country is advancing steadily. The burden is lightly borne. It would be
very easy to exact far more than this without any positive discontent,
but it would be a most unwise policy to do so, for it would be at the
expense of its future progress.
The taxes are no longer assessed by the district. The tribute from
the nomad tribes is the only exception to the rule that the
Government deals directly with the individual taxpayer. They are no
longer collected by irregular and irresponsible bullies; they are
payable at the most convenient seasons, and they are moderate in
amount. So great a difference in detail is almost a difference in
principle; but the names are the same. Of the whole collected the
receipts from land-tax and ushur are about a quarter—i.e., about
£50,000 a year. The land-tax proper is no longer levied according to
the instruments of irrigation, but, as in Egypt, according to the
acreage and situation of the irrigated fields. Land irrigable by wells
and foreshore land irrigable by flood pays 20 piastres (4s.) per acre;
land on the mainland irrigable by water-wheels and shadoofs, 30 to
40 piastres; and land on islands similarly irrigable, 50 to 60 piastres.
All other lands—that is to say, lands which depend for their water-
supply not on irrigation, but on rainfall—are taxed at the rate of 10
per cent. ad valorem on their produce. This tithe is called ushur. At
first it was paid almost entirely in kind, but it is now collected as far
as possible in money, and, as the money in circulation increases,
payment in kind—a most inconvenient form of payment—will be
altogether abolished. The date-tax—2 piastres (5d.) on every date-
palm that has begun to bear fruit—is akin to the land-tax. It produces
some £15,000 a year.
The land-tax in some form will be the staple of the future revenues
of the Soudan. Every year as population increases and more land
comes under cultivation it will form a larger proportion of the total
receipts. In many of the remote parts of the country, owing to the
great distances and the small number of officials, it is hardly yet in
working order, but with improved organization all may be expected to
bear their just share of taxation, and the receipts will benefit
accordingly. Any large scheme of irrigation and cotton culture will, of
course, send up this branch of revenue by leaps and bounds.
Second in importance to the land-tax, and for the time being
exceeding it, come the royalties charged on exports of gum, ostrich-
feathers, ivory, india rubber, and a few other articles, at the rate of 20
per cent. by weight. The extraordinary growth of the gum-trade is
mainly responsible for this item, which makes up another quarter of
the taxation revenue. Ivory receipts can hardly be expected to come
to very much, but ostrich-feathers and rubber will probably show a
marked increase in future years.
Other minor receipts were estimated in the Budget for 1902 as
follows:
£E.
Animal-tax 9,500
Tribute from tribes 8,000
Ferries and fisheries 4,000
Sale of salt 1,530
Stamped paper 1,200
Customs 5,400
Slaughtering dues and market fees 5,200
Road-tax 2,000
Rent of Government lands 1,300
Boat-tax 1,000

All these taxes are familiar in the Soudan. Some of them,

especially those small in their results—and there are a good number
more of less importance than those named—will probably be
abolished as soon as the country is able to stand the immediate loss.
But as yet even the most objectionable in principle do not act as
restrictions to trade. They only distribute the burden of a very light
taxation, so as to make all classes contribute something, and the
Government is still so poor that even a few hundred pounds are of
very great importance.
The Customs are set down as producing only £E5,400, and this
demands a word of explanation. £4,500 of this is taken at the port of
Suakin, the remainder on the land frontier in Kassala and Sennar.
The Customs on the land side, small as they are, show a steady
increase; those at Suakin have been constantly decreasing, as trade
is more and more diverted to the Nile Valley route. But all Customs
duties on goods coming to the Soudan on this side are levied at the
Egyptian ports, and retained by Egypt. The duties are 20 per cent.
per kilo on tobacco, and 8 per cent. ad valorem on all other goods. In
the year 1903 it is estimated that the sum thus retained by Egypt will
amount to £E70,000, but this has not been taken into account in
calculating the Soudan revenues.
As for the profit-earning departments, their profits are as yet
invisible—invisible, that is, as far as their accounts are concerned,
though visible enough in the increasing prosperity of the country.
Still, the actual takings of the railway and the post and telegraphs
mark progress. They stand for three years:
Railways. Post and Telegraphs.
£E. £E.
1900 38,412 7,900
1901 75,808 9,000
1902 85,000[8] 11,000[8]

But these receipts are far from being any criterion of the actual
amount of work done. They exclude all that was done on
Government account. Up till 1903 all passengers, goods, and
messages on behalf of Government were carried free of charge. But
it was found that this system tended to extravagance. A department,
for example, wishing to buy dhurra for Khartoum, was apt to buy it at
Dongola, possibly at a cheaper rate, and have it brought by rail for
nothing, rather than buy it locally and disburse something for the cost
of local camel or mule transport. This was good business for the
department, which had only a certain credit allotted to it, but waste
from the point of view of the railway, by which the cost of transport
was borne. Now each department is charged in the books of the
railway or post-office for all services actually rendered. The change
is, of course, only one of book-keeping, but it is a good instance of
the way in which good book-keeping works towards economy. With
this alteration the working of the profit-earning departments makes a
much better appearance. The estimates for 1903 are:
Receipts. Expenditure.
£E. £E.
Railways 143,970 143,777
Post and telegraphs 24,428 34,800
Steamers and boats 69,028 86,223

The maintenance of the army in the Soudan is the item most

affected by this alteration. The sum to be paid to the Egyptian War
Department is set down at £E193,658 for 1903 as against
£E122,548 for 1902.
The Steamers and Boats Department has been too recently
organized for an opinion to be formed upon its working, but the
Railways are soundly and economically managed. The increase of
traffic has made it possible to reduce the ratio of working expenses,
though the high price of fuel is still a great obstacle. Besides the
ordinary expenditure there has also been a good deal of capital
expenditure, which was very necessary considering the haste with
which the line was laid down as a purely military railway. These
sums are: In 1899, a special credit of £E390,000 for the completion
of the line from the Atbara to Khartoum; in 1900, a special credit of
£E15,000 for culverts and bridges on the same portion of the line,
and a loan of £E55,000 for general development and purchase of
rolling-stock; and in 1902-1903, a loan of £E528,000 (spread over
five years) for the same purposes; and a special advance of £10,000
for the survey of the proposed Suakin-Berber line. All these sums,
together with an advance of £E31,000 for the improvement of the
harbour at Suakin, have been found by Egypt. The Soudan pays 2½
per cent. on the loans.
The nature of the country makes it inevitable that the postal
service should show a loss for some time; but the telegraph service
would show a profit over actual working expenses, but for the fact
that so much is expended every year on extension, and this is
credited to ordinary expenditure. £E18,500 was, however, borrowed
from Egypt in 1900 to meet a special difficulty. The wooden poles
were sometimes devoured by white ants, and were also liable to rot.
After various experiments it was found best to bolt the poles on to
steel bases, and it was to meet this emergency that the loan was
contracted. The new plan has been found to answer admirably, and
it has also facilitated telegraph extension, because the shorter poles
(12 ft. 6 in. instead of 18 ft.) make a much more convenient load for
a camel. Besides the wires along the railway, there is now
telegraphic communication from Berber to Suakin, Suakin by Tokar
to Kassala, Kassala to Gedaref, and Gedaref to Gallabat. A line from
Gedaref connects at Messalamia with a line down the Blue Nile from
Khartoum by Wad Medani to Sennar, which then crosses over to
Goz Abu Goma on the White Nile, and is continued to Fashoda.
Another line runs from Khartoum to Duem, on the White Nile, and
thence to El Obeid. In time the telegraph will be continued south to
Uganda, and whenever this takes place the telegraph tariff
convention arranged by Mr. Cecil Rhodes for through communication
between Alexandria and Cape Town will come into force.
If the gross takings of the railways, post and telegraphs, and
boats, are included in the revenues of the Soudan, the Budget wears
a more imposing aspect than if only the net expenditure of each of
these departments is included. The estimates for 1903 stand thus:
£E. £E.
Expenditure— Civil 624,226
Military 193,658
817,884
Receipts 428,163
Deficit 389,721
 By starving the administration it would be possible to make this
deficit a great deal less, and, on the other hand, it would be very
easy to make it a great deal more. A country which has been going
steadily, even rapidly, backwards for so many years affords unlimited
opportunity for capital expenditure. Indeed, a large part of its
ordinary expenditure is really capital, so far as it is incurred for
permanent buildings, railways, telegraphs, and all the other
machinery, not only of government, but of elementary civilization,
which were all entirely wanting. The item of public works bulks very
large in the civil expenditure. It is inevitable that the expenditure
should increase with the development of the country, but it is a
satisfactory symptom that it is not increasing so fast in proportion as
the revenue. The civil expenditure, too, goes up, while the military
expenditure goes down. In the following table only the net
expenditure on railways, etc., is included:

Expenditure.
Military (including
Civil. Total.
Gunboats, etc.)
£E. £E. £E.
1899 230,000 281,000 511,000
1900 271,000 282,000 553,000
1901 330,000 222,000 552,000
1902 350,000 193,000 543,000
1903 380,000 193,000 573,000

The richer provinces in the Soudan might prosper very much

faster if they were allowed to devote the whole of their own revenues
to the development of their own resources. But, of course, the whole
receipts have to go into the common purse, and then be doled out
again in the interests of the country as a whole. Naturally, there is a
tremendous fight every year between the Mudirs, who are
responsible for the provincial budgets, and the central Treasury. Two
provinces stand out prominently in the matter of profits—Kordofan
and Dongola. Dongola had pride of place at first, but then Kordofan
passed in a stride, through the revival of the gum trade. But Dongola
is still a good second, in spite of her railway difficulties, through the
date-tax and the land-tax. Two-thirds of the whole amount raised by
this latter tax is supplied by her. Halfa Province, or, rather, District,
also shows a good profit by means of the land and date taxes. The
Ghezireh Province, the kernel of the Soudan, makes a favourable
appearance. Sennar just pays its way. The others all show a deficit.
Khartoum, of course, stands in a different category, as also Suakin.
But Berber and Kassala may soon be expected to redeem
themselves. Fashoda is as yet very undeveloped, and naturally the
Bahr el Ghazal, only just occupied, comes well at the bottom of the
list. That this order of financial merit will be maintained unchanged is
most unlikely.
It will be noticed that the estimated deficit for 1903 was some
£E390,000, and this is Egypt’s contribution towards the current
expenses of the year. The same sum was contributed in 1902, and it
has been agreed that this subsidy shall be continued at the same
figure for some years to come. The approximate amounts so
expended in former years were: 1899, £E385,000; 1900, £E417,000;
and the same in 1901. On the basis of this contribution, which is
called ‘Insuffisance,’ the estimates for the Soudan are drawn up.
Considering all the difficulties in the way of accurate calculations, it
speaks well for the Soudan officials that their expectations have
been so nearly realized. In 1899 and 1900, when the accounts were
finally made up, there were found to be deficits of £E23,000 and
£E40,000. But in 1901 the finances of the country took a great turn
for the better, and, although expenditure exceeded the estimate, this
excess was so much overbalanced by unforeseen increase of
receipts that sufficient surpluses were realized in 1901 and 1902 to
make good the deficiencies of the two previous years. During the
years 1899-1903 Egypt has therefore expended close upon
£2,000,000 in these annual grants; she has also paid over, partly as
special credits and partly as loans, another £1,000,000 for capital
expenditure on railways and telegraphs, as already mentioned.
There are deductions to be made from this sum of £3,000,000 in
calculating the actual cost imposed on Egypt by the Soudan; but as
these are the actual amounts on which the Soudan Budget is
calculated, they must be set down here.
 It sounds, perhaps, a strange thing to say that the Soudan
finances are in a sound condition when such sums have to be
contributed by Egypt, but such is certainly the fact. The great feature
is the recuperative power of the country, so markedly displayed since
1901, and there can be no doubt that if, with Egypt’s help, the two
principles of low taxation and irrigation can be steadily applied, they
will produce, if not as great, yet a similar result to that which they
have produced in Egypt itself.
 CHAPTER XXII
THE COST OF THE SOUDAN TO EGYPT

The Nile Valley presents some peculiar examples of political

organization. At one end of it is Uganda, a British Protectorate under
the administration of the Foreign Office. At the other is Egypt,
nominally an independent despotism, tempered by international
Boards of Control in several departments, notably finance, and
paying tribute to a suzerain Power—Turkey—but in the military
occupation of England. Between comes the Soudan, where, except
at Suakin, the British and Egyptian flags fly side by side. It is ruled by
a Governor-General, joint representative of the King and the
Khedive, whose acts have to be approved by the British Consul-
General at Cairo, and it is jointly occupied by the troops of both
Powers. If it is difficult to decide upon the exact position of Egypt,
what shall be said of the Soudan? International jurists have in it a fair
field of problems on which to exercise their wits, not to mention the
peculiar status of the Lado enclave. But whatever imaginary
difficulties may be conceived, one thing is certain: the hoisting of the
British flag leaves no doubt of the fact that the Soudan is not in any
way a part of the Turkish Empire. The difficulties and complications
which have been caused in Egypt by the Capitulations and the
consequences derived from them definitely cease with the
boundaries of Egypt. It is easy to see that those who framed the
Convention of 1899 were thoroughly determined on this. Article VIII.
lays down that the mixed tribunals shall not extend to the Soudan,
except Suakin, and, to further preclude any chance of international
trouble, it is expressly stated that no Consuls or other foreign
representatives shall be permitted in the Soudan without His
Britannic Majesty’s consent, and that no special privileges shall be
accorded to the subjects of any one or more Powers to trade, reside,
or hold property, within the limits of the Soudan.
 Otherwise, there was no reason why the Soudan should not have
been placed in exactly the same position as Egypt, whatever that
may be. In every other respect it is, in fact, in the same position as
though the Egyptian flag flew alone, especially in the matter of cost.
When the British taxpayer is looking at a map of the world in order to
get some satisfaction for his Imperial expenditure, and casts his eyes
over Africa, he doubtless comforts himself with the reflection that in
the Soudan England governs, but Egypt pays, and wishes that other
portions of the Empire were managed on similar principles. England
governs, and Egypt pays, but the division of labour is not unfair. If
the Egyptian finds it hard to realize the meaning of a veiled
Protectorate, the more unsophisticated Soudanese would find it
totally impossible. The flag is a visible symbol which appeals to him
directly, and contributes largely to the maintenance of peace. Many a
tribe submits contentedly to British dominion, which would
indignantly scout the idea of submission to Egypt alone. As a matter
of fact, the British Government does contribute something in money,
for it bears the cost of the British battalion at Khartoum and its
barracks. Still, it is to the Egyptian Treasury, and not the British, that
the Soudan has to look, and it is worth while to estimate rather
closely the sums which Egypt has to find, and the advantages which
it gains in return.
The cost of the Soudan Campaign from the opening of the
Dongola Campaign in 1896 to February, 1899, was £2,345,345,
made up as follows:
£
Railways 1,181,372
Telegraphs 21,825
Gunboats 154,934
Military expenditure 996,223
Total £2,345,345

Since then, up to the end of 1903, the ordinary expenditure of

Egypt in the Soudan has been, as was shown, about £2,000,000,
and the capital expenditure about another £1,000,000. In other