AIRCRAFT SYSTEMS & AVIONICS

21AE62
Module-1
Syllabus
Airplane Control Systems:
Conventional Systems
Power assisted and fully powered
systems
Power actuated systems
Modern control systems
Digital fly by wire systems
Autopilot system
Aircraft Systems:
Hydraulic systems components
Pneumatic systems and components
Brake system
Landing Gear systems Classification
2
References
• Review on electro hydrostatic actuator for flight control, International Journal of Fluid Power, 2016 VOL . 17, NO
. 2, 125–145, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14399776.2016.1169743
• https://www.flightglobal.com/airframers/video-boeing-details-737-max-10-landing-gear-design/129386.article

Videos
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lst0auvcuI0&ab_channel=JxJAVIATION
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=04M63B1sv_Y&ab_channel=MentourPilot
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fpNdaR_lzy0&ab_channel=Aero%26Air

3
What is a System? & What are Aircraft Systems?
A SYSTEM is a regularly interacting or interdependent group of
items forming a unified whole.

Aircraft systems are all the interconnected components that

keep a plane functioning safely and efficiently during flight.
These systems can be broadly classified into two categories:
mechanical systems and avionics. They include:
Flight control systems- These systems allow pilots to control the
pitch, roll, and yaw of the aircraft.
Landing gear system- This system allows the aircraft to land and
taxi on the ground.
Engine- This system provides the thrust that propels the aircraft
forward.
Avionics - Avionics are the electronic systems used on aircraft.

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Aircraft Control Systems
Flight control systems are the systems that allow pilots to
control the pitch, roll, and yaw of an aircraft. This system
has several parts: Flight control surfaces, Cockpit controls
and Flight control mechanisms.

In the earliest aircraft, flight control was achieved using

warping wings and control wires. This was followed by the
use of articulated flight control surfaces, still using control
wires. Advances in aircraft performance led to changes in Warped Wing is back!!
the control system design. The higher speeds resulted in
higher loads on the flight control surfaces, powered
surfaces began to be used with hydraulically powered
actuators boosting the efforts of the pilot to reduce the
physical effort required. Unchecked, this would lead to
structural failure of the aircraft. Hence, artificial loads were
applied in non-reversible control systems. “active aeroelastic wing” 5
Primary Control System
• These are the essential controls a pilot needs to safely
maneuver the aircraft during flight. They directly affect
the aircraft's pitch, roll, and yaw.
• Ailerons: Hinged control surfaces on the trailing edges of
the wings. Moving the ailerons up/down on opposite
wings creates an imbalance of lift, causing the aircraft to
roll. Moving the control yoke or stick left causes the left
aileron to rise and the right aileron to lower, making the
aircraft roll left.
• Elevators: Hinged control surfaces on the trailing edge of
the horizontal stabilizer. Moving the elevator up or down
controls the aircraft's pitch. Pushing the control wheel
forward causes the elevator to deflect upwards, making
the nose pitch up.
• Rudder: Hinged control surface on the trailing edge of
the vertical stabilizer. Moving the rudder left/right
controls the aircraft's yaw. Pushing the left rudder pedal
moves the rudder left, causing the aircraft to yaw left. 6
Secondary Control Surfaces
These controls are not essential for basic flight maneuvers but enhance the aircraft's
performance or pilot workload. They are used for:
Improving flight characteristics:
• Flaps: Hinged surfaces on the trailing edge of the wings. Deploying flaps increases lift and
drag, allowing for slower landings and takeoffs.
• Slats: Extendable leading-edge devices on the wings. Slats increase lift at low speeds,
improving takeoff and approach performance.
• Spoilers: Hinged surfaces on the top of the wings. Raising spoilers disrupts airflow,
reducing lift and aiding in descent or braking after landing.
Reducing pilot workload:
• Trims: Small adjustable tabs on the ailerons and elevators. Adjusting trims allows for
"hands-off" control by balancing aerodynamic forces and minimizing control stick forces
needed to maintain level flight.

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Conventional Flight Control Systems
Conventional flight control systems are the original mechanical systems used to maneuver an
aircraft by directly connecting the pilot's controls in the cockpit to the flight control surfaces
on the wings and tail. This is also known as a reversible control where the controls are directly
connected to the control surface. Components:
• Control linkages:
• Push-rods and pull-rods: Metal rods that transmit pilot's control movements.
• Cables: In some cases, flexible cables might be used instead of rods.
• Bell-cranks: Levers that change the direction of control movement.
• Pulleys: Can be used to change the direction or mechanical advantage of control movements.
• Limitations:
• Manual effort: At higher speeds or with larger aircraft, manual control forces can be significant,
requiring pilot strength or assistance.
• Limited feedback: Pilots rely mainly on visual cues and instrument readings to understand the
aircraft's response.
• Susceptibility to damage: Mechanical linkages can be vulnerable to wear and tear or battle
damage.
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A-320 Control Surfaces

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Conventional Aircraft Control System - Alternate Drawing
List out and define all the parts
of a conventional FCS for an
airplane.

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Sample Description of Control System of a Hawk 200 aircraft
The pitch control input is fed from the left hand or starboard side of the control column to a bell-crank
lever behind the cockpit. This connects in turn via a near vertical control rod to another bell-crank lever
which returns the control input to the horizontal. Bell-crank levers are used to alter the direction of the
control runs as they are routed through a densely packed aircraft. The horizontal control rod runs
parallel to a tailplane trim actuator/tailplane spring feel unit parallel combination. The output from
these units is fed upwards into the aircraft spine before once again being translated by another bell-
crank lever. The control run passes down the left side of the fuselage to the rear of the aircraft via
several idler levers before entering a nonlinear gearing mechanism leading to the tandem jack tailplane
power control unit (PCU). The idler levers are simple lever mechanisms which help to support the
control run at convenient points in the airframe. The hydraulically powered PCU drives the tailplane in
response to the pilot inputs and the aircraft maneuvers accordingly.
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Hawk 200 push-pull control rod system

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Power-Assisted Flight Control System
A power-assisted flight control system is a type of aircraft flight control system that uses an
external power source, such as hydraulics or electrics, to supplement the pilot's manual inputs
to control the movement of the aircraft's control surfaces. This is in contrast to a manual flight
control system, which relies solely on the pilot's physical strength to move the controls. There
are two main types of power-assisted flight control systems: hydraulic and electric.

Hydraulic power-assisted flight control systems use hydraulic fluid to power actuators that
move the control surfaces. Hydraulic systems are reliable and powerful, but they are also
complex and heavy.

Electric power-assisted flight control systems use electric motors to power actuators that move
the control surfaces. Electric systems are lighter and simpler than hydraulic systems, but they
are also less powerful.

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Hydraulic and Electric Power Assisted FCS

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Power Assisted vs Power Operated Actuated FCS

SPOT THE DIFFERENCES!!!

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Fly-by-Wire (FBW)
Fly-by-Wire control system uses an electronic interface to connect the pilot to the actuation
system rather than using a mechanical interface. The command which is given by the pilot is
sensed and transmitted through wires to a decoder which is connected to an actuator. Sensors
in the feedback loop ensure that the commanded motion is executed correctly. Multiple paths
are used to build redundancy and safety into the FBW system.

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What is Actuation?
In an aircraft control system, actuation refers to the mechanism that translates pilot input or
commands from the flight computer into physical movement of the flight control surfaces.

Actuation plays a critical role in ensuring precise and responsive control of the aircraft. There
are different types of actuators used in aircraft, including:

Hydraulic actuators: These use pressurized fluid to move the control surfaces. They are
powerful and reliable, but can be complex and heavy.

Electro-hydraulic actuators: These combine electric motors with hydraulic systems for a more
efficient and lighter option compared to purely hydraulic systems.

Electromechanical actuators: These use electric motors directly to move the control surfaces.
They are becoming increasingly popular due to their simplicity, lighter weight, and lower
maintenance requirements.
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Conventional Mechanical Actuator
The most basic flight control system designs are mechanical and date back to early aircraft.
They operate with a collection of mechanical parts such as rods, cables, pulleys, and sometimes
chains to transmit the forces of the flight deck controls to the control surfaces. When the pilot
pushes the control stick forward/backward the cable is getting tensed through the linkages and
it causes the Control surface to move respectively.

Mechanical flight control systems are still used today in small general and sport category
aircraft where the aerodynamic forces are not excessive.

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Mechanical-Hydraulic Power Actuator Systems
This actuation is used in a powered flight control system, where direct mechanical linkages
cannot provide sufficient power to move the control surfaces. Hydraulic system is used to
generate the power required but a mechanical system is used to transmit the control inputs
from the pilot.
• Usually be powered hydraulic systems (blue
channel)
• A mechanically operated Servo Valve (SV)
directs the hydraulic supply
• Mechanical input is given to the flight control
actuator
• The summing link rotates about the bottom
pivot, applying an input to the SV
• Hydraulic fluid flows into one side of the ram
while exiting the opposite side
• Resulting ram movement is in a direction of the
pilot’s command.
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Mechanical Actuation with Electrical Signaling
Modern aircraft use electrical signaling and hydraulically powered (electro-hydraulic) actuators
for a wide range of applications with varying degrees of redundancy. In most cases, where
electrical signaling is used, there will at least be a duplex redundancy and for fly-by-wire
systems signaling it is likely to be quadruplex.
• The use of autopilots made it necessary to couple
electrical as well as mechanical inputs to the actuator
• The manual input to the actuator acts as before when
the pilot is exercising manual control.
• When the autopilot is engaged electrical demands
from the autopilot take precedence over the pilot’s
demand.
• The actuator itself operates in an identical fashion to
the mechanical inputs to the summing link causing
the Servo-Valve (SV) to move.
• When the pilot disengages the autopilot, the normal
mechanical link to the pilot through the aircraft
control run is restored. 20
Electro-Mechanical Flight Control Actuation
Flight control actuation is the muscle behind a power-assisted flight control system. It is the
mechanism that translates electronic signals from the flight control computer (FCC) into
physical movement of the aircraft's control surfaces.
Traditionally hydraulic actuators were used but with increase in the motor power of Electro-
Mechanical Actuation (EMA), these are being used more. Advantages: Lighter and simpler
compared to hydraulic systems, potentially more efficient.

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Electro Hydrostatic Actuator (EHA)
The latest form of flight surface actuation uses Powe-By-Wire (PBW) systems, which are
modular, lower in weight and fault tolerant actuators embedded in the flight surface that
require e only the attachment of power and control wires. EHA is a PBW technology that
replaces a traditional centralized hydraulic actuation system, by modular subsystems. Instead of
using a centralized hydraulic circuit and power lines through the aircraft, modular hydraulic
actuators with electric signal wires are used.

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Modern Control Systems
Fly-By-Wire (FBW) CS
Conventional control system methods of mechanical
and hydro-mechanical systems are being replaced by
the present generation aircraft using fly-by-wire (FBW).
Mechanical & Hydro- mechanical flight control systems
have been replaced by Fly- By-Wire due to increasing
speed of modern aircraft.

Future control systems will be using fly-by-light (FBL)

Fly-By-Light (FBL) CS
method. Due to inherent characteristics of FBL like light
weight, compact size, large bandwidth, immunity to
EMI & HIRF FBL, it is expected to be ideal futuristic flight
control system. Fly-by-Light control systems offer
inherent resistance to the new generation more hostile
military environments. The application of optical fiber
in aviation promises to be very exciting study, covering
highly complex aircraft stability and controls. 23
Fly-By-Wire
• Fly-by-wire means that the control commands travel by wire to the control surfaces.
• Transducers convert pilot input into electronic signals which are transmitted by wire.
• In earlier FBW systems signals processed by an electronic controller rather than a computer.
• Newer and current FBW systems use a computer interface to process signals which are then
transmitted over a digital data bus.
• The signals are processed at the actuator which eventually moves the control surface.
• Feedback from the aircraft control surface, actuator, aircraft state, etc. are fed back to the
controller to ensure the commanded action is correctly executed.

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Basic Components of a FBW System
In the 70’s the fly-by-wire architecture was
developed, starting as an analogue technique
and later on, in most cases, transformed into
digital. The simplest implementation of a fly-
by-wire system needs the following
components:
• a pilot interface to sense control inputs (for
simplicity, called the “stick”)
• a flight control computer to translate pilot
inputs to control surface movements
• servos to position the flight control
surfaces
• electrical power for the electronic
components
• a high-power system for the flight control
servos 25
Concorde FBW

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F-8 digital fly-by-wire system

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Digital Fly-By-Wire (DFBW)
• A digital fly-by-wire flight control system is similar to analog
system. However, the signal processing is done by digital
computers and the pilot literally can "fly-via-computer".
• Increases in flexibility of the flight control system, since the
digital computers can receive input from any aircraft sensor
(such as the altimeters and the pitot tubes).
• Increase in electronic stability - system is less dependent on
the values of critical electrical components in an analog
controller
• Aircraft designers precisely tailor an aircraft's handling
characteristics, to stay within the overall limits of what is
possible given the aerodynamics and structure of the aircraft.
• Flight-control computers continuously "fly" the aircraft, pilot's
workloads can be reduced
• In military and naval applications, it is now possible to fly
military aircraft that have relaxed stability. 28
Advantages of FBW
Fly-by-wire system between military and civil aircraft;
some of the most important benefits are as follows:
• flight envelope protection (the computers will reject
and tune pilot’s demands that might exceed the
airframe load factors)
• increase of stability and handling qualities across the full
flight envelope
• turbulence suppression and consequent decrease of
fatigue loads and increase of passenger comfort
• drag reduction by an optimized trim setting
• easier interfacing to auto-pilot and other automatic
flight control systems
• weight reduction (mechanical linkages are substituted
by wiring)
WHAT ARE THE
• reduction of airlines’ pilot training costs (flight handling
DISADVANTAGES OF FBW?
becomes very similar in an whole aircraft family). 29
Fly-By-Wire Control Laws
In fly-by-wire (FBW) systems, control laws are the
software algorithms that translate pilot inputs
and sensor data into commands for the flight
control surfaces (ailerons, elevators, rudder)
These control laws are critical for ensuring safe,
stable, and efficient flight.
Case Study:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=04M63B1sv
_Y&ab_channel=MentourPilot

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Types of Control Laws
Normal laws: Provision of basic control laws with the addition of coordination algorithms to
enhance the quality of handling and protection to avoid the exceedance of certain attitudes
and attitude rates. Double failures in computing, sensors or actuation power channels will
cause reversion to the Alternate mode.
Alternate laws: Provision of the basic control laws but without many of the additional handling
enhancement features and protection offered by the Normal mode. Further failures cause
reversion to the Mechanical mode.
Direct laws: Direct relationship from control stick to control surface, manual trimming, certain
limitations depending upon aircraft CG and flight control system configuration. In certain
specific cases crew intervention may enable re-engagement of the Alternate mode. Further
failures result in reversion to Mechanical.
Mechanical reversion: Rudimentary manual control of the aircraft using pitch trim and rudder
pedals to facilitate recovery of the aircraft electrical system or land the aircraft as soon as is
practicable. 31
Problem on Control Law

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Solution

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Autopilot Systems
An autopilot is a mechanical, electrical, or hydraulic system used to guide a vehicle without
assistance from a human being. Autopilots are sophisticated systems that perform the same
duties as a highly trained pilot. For some in-flight routines and procedures, autopilots are even
better than human pilots. They don’t just make flights smoother -they make them safer and
more efficient.
The autopilot is more accurately described as the automatic flight control system (AFCS). An
AFCS is part of an aircraft’s avionics. In addition to flight control systems, avionics include
electronics for communications, navigation, collision avoidance and weather.

Differences b/w
Autopilot and
Control System?

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Aircraft Systems

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Hydraulic Systems Components
An aircraft hydraulic system plays a vital
role in operating various flight control
surfaces, landing gear
retraction/extension, and other
mechanisms. Here's a breakdown of
the basic components that make up an
aircraft hydraulic system:
• Reservoir
• Accumulator
• Pump
• Filter
• Control Valves
• Piping and Hoses
• Hydraulic Fluid

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A320 Hydraulic System
The Airbus A320 family of aircraft utilizes a triple redundant hydraulic system, meaning it has
three independent hydraulic systems that operate in parallel. This redundancy is a crucial safety
feature, as it ensures that the aircraft can still be controlled even if one of the hydraulic systems
fails.
Operating pressure: 3000 psi (normal) / 2500 psi (powered by RAT)
Fluid: Phosphate-Ester based hydraulic fluid

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Major Components of A320 Hydraulic System
• Green Hydraulic System: An engine pump, driven by engine No1 pressurizes the GREEN system.

• Blue Hydraulic System: An electric pump pressurizes the BLUE system. In case of emergency, a pump
driven by a Ram Air Turbine (RAT) pressurizes this system. When AC electrical power is available and
the electric pump pushbutton is at AUTO position, the BLUE system is automatically energized in
flight.

• Yellow Hydraulic System: The YELLOW system is driven by engine No2. OR. An electric pump, in order
to be used on the ground when the engines are stopped. OR. A hand pump, to be used by ground
staff when no electrical power is available in order to operate the cargo doors.

• Power Transfer Unit (PTU): A bidirectional PTU enables the YELLOW system to pressurize the GREEN
system and vice versa. The PTU is turned on when the differential pressure between the GREEN and
the YELLOW systems is greater than 500 psi. This allows to cover the GREEN or YELLOW system loss in
case of one engine failure or one engine driven pump failure.

• Ram Air Turbine (RAT) : When the RAT is extended, a hydraulic pump coupled to it, pressurizes the
BLUE system. The RAT extends automatically, if there is total electrical failure or both engines fail.
38
Pneumatic Systems and Components
Pneumatic power is the use of pressurized air to perform certain functions within the aircraft.
The easy availability of high pressure air from the modern engine is key to the use of pneumatic
power on the aircraft. Aircraft pneumatic systems power Instruments, landing gear, flaps, air
conditioning, doors, etc.

Difference between
Hydraulic and
Pneumatic Systems.
Advantages and
Disadvantages?

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The use of Bleed Air in Pneumatic Systems
The availability of high pressure, high temperature air which is bled from the compressor
section of the engine provides pneumatic power for actuation, air conditioning or heating
functions for other aircraft subsystems.
The Auxiliary Power Unit (APU) is also a source of high pressure air. The APU is a small turbojet
engine, primarily designed to provide electrical and pneumatic power by a shaft driven
generator and compressor.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fpNdaR_lzy0&ab_chan
40
nel=Aero%26Air
Pneumatic Bleed Air Systems

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Bleed Air system Synoptic Display
The bleed air system’s synoptic and status data are displayed on the flight crew on the
Electronic Flight Instrument System (EFIS) displays. Display system data are shown on the
colour displays located on the central display console where they may be easily viewed by both
Captain and First Officer.

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Landing Gear Systems
The purpose of the landing gear is to allow the aircraft to return to the ground without causing
damage to the structure. The primary function of the landing gear is to react the substantial
impact forces and moments (repeatedly) and transfer these safely into the airframe.
Additionally, the landing gear must permit the secondary functions listed below:
• It must allow the airplane to maneuver easily on the ground, during taxi, take-off, and landing
(steering).
• It must provide means to slow down after touch-down or when maneuvering on the ground
(braking).
• Large aircraft must feature means for towing and pushing by airport vehicles.
• It must distribute the weight of the airplane such that it will not damage taxi- and runways
(number of wheels).
• It must allow the aircraft to rotate during take-off and landing without tail strike (height).

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Landing Gear Retraction
The landing gear struts transmit their load
to the airframe through the trunnion
mounted on the rear spar of the wing and
pivot about the trunnion for stowage
within the wing and fuselage. Landing
retraction mechanisms are usually based
on the four-bar linkage kinematics.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Yam_JNDT8io&ab_channel=AirlineReporter 44
Landing Gear Hydraulic System
Landing gear R/E hydraulic systems include the nose and
the main landing gear R/E hydraulic system.

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Brake System
All modern aircraft are fitted with a braking system to assist in slowing and stopping when on
the ground. Brakes are fitted to the main landing gear but not generally to the nose or tail
wheel. Brakes are used to
• decelerate during a landing run and stop the aircraft during landing and roll-out
• hold the aircraft during an engine run-up
• steer the aircraft through differential braking
• stop the aircraft during landing and roll-out
• provide emergency stop during rejected take-off

Brakes work by dissipating energy as heat through the action of friction. An aircraft wheel
rotating at speed possesses a large amount of kinetic energy. By contacting the wheel with a
semi-metallic or ceramic brake pad, an enormous amount of heat is generated as a result of the
friction between the two contacting surfaces. Brakes are usually hydraulically actuated, but in
some cases may be operated through a mechanical actuation system. 46
Landing Gear Steering and Brake Arrangement

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Architecture of Aircraft Braking System

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A380 Brake Control System

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