Runoff can be predicted from the knowledge of storm characteristics
and infiltration characteristics of the area.
In the hydrological calculations involving runoff (or flood), it is
convenient to use a constant value of infiltration rate for the duration of the storm.
The average infiltration rate is called Infiltration Index. Infiltration index
method is not 100% accurate but it gives satisfactory results.
The general process is to establish some easily computed index factor
from the observed data of natural storm. The following two indices are in common use: • Ø- Index • W- index or average index Ø-index Average rainfall above which the rainfall volume is equal to the runoff volume.
Can be determined from the rainfall hyetograph with knowledge of the
resulting surface runoff.
Ø-index is found by assuming it as a constant infiltration capacity.
If rainfall intensity <= Ø
then infiltration rate = rainfall intensity else (i.e. rainfall intensity >Ø) Ø = constant infiltration rate, and the difference between rainfall amount and infiltration in an interval of time represents surface runoff. The amount of rainfall in excess of Ø-Index is called rainfall excess or effective rainfall.
Ø-Index methods assumes too much runoff at the beginning and too little at the end of the storm.
Example: A storm with 10 cm precipitation produced a direct runoff of 5.8
cm. Given the time distribution of the storm as below, estimate Ø-index of the storm.
Time from start (h) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Incremental Rainfall 0.4 0.9 1.5 2.3 1.8 1.6 1.0 0.5 in each hour Solution Total infiltration = 10.0 – 5.8 = 4.2cm For First Trial: Assuming that time of rainfall excess = 8 h Ø = 4.2/8 = 0.525 cm/h
Since rainfall amount during first and eighth hour is less, this value of Ø is unacceptable. Therefore, we choose another time of rainfall excess = 6 h
Infiltration during 6 hr period (2 to 7hr) = (10- 0.4 -0.5 –5.8) = 3.3 cm
Ø = 3.3/6 = 0.55 cm/h
This value of Ø is satisfactory since rainfall during 6 h > 0.55. Therefore, rainfall excess would be:
W-index is defined as the average rate of infiltration during the time rainfall intensity exceeds the infiltration rate. PRS W t
Where, P = Total storm precipitation (cm) R = Total surface runoff (cm) S = Surface detention (cm) t = Duration of rainfall excess, i.e., total time during which rainfall intensity is greater than W (h)
Thus, W-index = Ø-index – Average Rate of retention by depression storage Soil and Water Conservation Structures
Drop Spillway Drop Spillway
Drop Spillway Small Earthen Dam
Rational Method for Estimating Peak Runoff Rate
It is one of the most popular methods of determining peak runoff rate for designing soil conservation structures. The design peak runoff rate is expressed by:
Q C. i. A Applicable for < 1300 ha 36 where, Q = Peak runoff rate in m3/s, C = Runoff coefficient, i = Rainfall intensity in cm/h for a duration equal to time of concentration of watershed and for a desired return period, A = Area of the watershed in ha. IDF Curve Assumptions
Rainfall occurs at uniform intensity for a duration at least equal to the time of concentration, and Rainfall occurs at uniform intensity over the entire area of the watershed.
Since, there is hardly a rainfall satisfying both these conditions exactly, the estimation of runoff is rather approximate by this method. However, for design of relatively inexpensive structures where the consequences of failure are limited, this method is considered sufficiently accurate.
Use of this method requires three parameters:
Time of concentration, (Tc) Rainfall intensity (i) Runoff coefficient (C) Time of Concentration (Tc)
It is the time required for water to flow from the most remote (with respect to flow time) point of the area to the outlet.
Most widely accepted method of computing Tc was developed by
Kirpich (1940): Tc 0.0195 L0.77 S 0.385
Where, Tc = Time of concentration of a watershed, min
L = Maximum length of flow, m (measured along the drainage line) S = Slope of the watershed (ΔH/L) ΔH = Elevation difference between remotest point on the watershed and outlet, m Rainfall Intensity (i)
Rainfall intensity corresponding to a duration Tc and desired return period T (or
probability of occurrence, P) is found from the frequency-duration curve for the area. Usually this is a relationship of the form:
KT x i Tc a m
where K, x, a, and m are constants.
Runoff Coefficient (C)
It represents the integrated effects of the catchment losses. Thus it is a function of surface condition and slope. Types of drainage area C Urban Area Lawns Sandy soil, flat, 2% 0.05-0.10 Sandy soil, step, 7% 0.15-0.20 Heavy soil, average, 2-7% 0.18-0.22 Residential area Single family area 0.30-0.50 Multiple units 0.60-0.75 Industrial Light 0.50-0.80 Heavy 0.60-0.90 Streets 0.70-0.95 Agricultural Area Flat Tight clay, cultivated 0.50 Tight clay, woodland 0.40 Sandy loam, cultivated 0.20 Sandy loam, woodland 0.10 Hilly Tight clay, cultivated 0.70 Tight clay, woodland 0.60 Sandy loam, cultivated 0.40 Sandy loam, woodland 0.30 Example
An agricultural area has a runoff coefficient of 0.20 and area of 0.75 sq. km. The slope of the catchment is 0.5% and the maximum length of travel of water is 1 km. The maximum depth of rainfall with a 50 yr return period is as below:
If a bund for drainage at the outlet of this area is to be designed for a return period of 50 years, estimate the peak flow rate. Solution
Tc 0.0195 L0.77 S 0.385
= 0.0195(1000)0.77 (0.005)-0.385 = 30.6 min
From Table by interpolation:
Maximum depth of rainfall for 30.6 min duration = ((60 –53) x0.6/10) + 53 = 53.42 mm
Average intensity = (53.42/30.6)x60 = 104.75 mm/h = 10.475 cm/h
C. i. A 0.2 .10.475 . 0.75 .100
Q 4.36 m3/s 36 36 Runoff Coefficients for Non-homogeneous Areas
Rational formula (Q=C.i.A/36) assumes that the watershed is having
homogeneous land use, soil and slope.
However, if a watershed is not homogeneous but is characterized by highly
dispersed areas that can be characterized by different runoff coefficients, a weighted runoff coefficient should be determined as follows, n
C j 1 j Aj Cw n
Aj 1 j
Aj is the area for land cover j,
Cj is the runoff coefficient for area j, n is the number of distinct land covers within the watershed, and Cw is the weighted runoff coefficient. Surface Runoff Volume
Runoff volume VQ is the total volume of runoff
water occurring over a period of time, and is expressed as t VQ Q( t ) dt 0
where Q(t) = discharge at time t
Estimation of Surface-Runoff Volume An estimate of runoff volume from a drainage basin involves
Precipitation, infiltration, evaporation,
transpiration, interception, depression storage
Each of the above is complex and can interact
with the other variables to either enhance or reduce runoff Estimation of Surface-Runoff Volume These variables are temporally and spatially distributed within a drainage basin
The manner in which the variables interact in time
and space makes a direct determination of runoff very difficult
Therefore, we estimate runoff using methods that
reflect the combined effect of the variables on an individual drainage basin SCS Curve Number (SCS – CN) Method Developed by the Soil Conservation Service (SCS) in 1969 Now known as Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS)
The fundamental hypotheses of the SCS-CN method
are as follows:
1. Runoff starts after an initial abstraction Ia has been
satisfied. This abstraction consists principally of interception, surface storage, and infiltration SCS Curve Number (SCS – CN) Method
2. The ratio of actual retention of rainfall to the
potential maximum retention S is equal to the ratio of direct runoff to rainfall minus initial abstraction. Mathematically P I a VQ VQ S P Ia This can be written as (P I a )2 VQ (P I a ) S
where VQ = runoff volume uniformly distributed over the drainage
basin; P = mean precipitation over the drainage basin; and S = retention of water by the drainage basin SCS Curve Number (SCS – CN) Method
The quantity Ia can be expressed as a function of S
o As per the Soil Conservation Service, o Ia = 0.2S
o I = 5% of S (Hawkins et al., 2002)
o For Indian Conditions, Ia = 0.3S
Physically, this means that for a given storm, 20% of
the potential maximum retention is the initial abstraction before runoff begins SCS Curve Number (SCS – CN) Method
VQ P 0.2S2 P 0.8S
Evidently this is a one-parameter model containing S as the parameter
VQ Ia Precipitation
F = Actual retention F
VQ 450 VQ Ia F Time P SCS relationship between P, VQ, Ia and F Ia Mass Curve Representation Estimating “S”
The difficult part of applying this method to a
watershed is the estimation of the watershed’s potential maximum retention, S. SCS developed the concept of the dimensionless curve number, CN, to aid in the estimation of S. CN is related to S as follows :
1000 S= - 10 CN
It is a relative measure of retention of water by a given SVL (Soil-
Vegetation-Land Use) complex and takes on values from 0 to 100 The unit of S is inches. When S is in mm 25400 S 254 CN
Determine CN SCS has classified over 8,500 soil series into four hydrologic groups according to their infiltration characteristics. The hydrologic groups have been designated as A, B, C, and D. Hydrologic Soil Infiltration rate Description Group (mm/hr) A 7.62-11.43 High infiltration rates. Deep, well drained sands (0.3-0.45 in/hr) and gravels B 3.81-7.62 Moderate infiltration rates. Moderately deep, (0.15-0.30 in/hr) moderately well drained soils with moderately coarse textures C 1.27-3.81 Slow infiltration rates. Soils with layers, or soils (0.05-0.15 in/hr) with moderately fine textures D 0-1.27 Very slow infiltration rates. Clayey soils, high (0-0.0.5 in/hr) water table, or shallow impervious layer Determine CN, cont….
Once the hydrologic soil group has been determined, the curve number of the site is determined by cross-referencing land use and hydrologic condition to the soil group - SAMPLE
Finally, VQ is computed as indicated previously:
Adjust CN’s
CN for AMC II Corresponding CN’s
AMC I AMC III 100 100 100 95 87 98 90 78 96 85 70 94 80 63 91 75 57 88 70 51 85 65 45 82 60 40 78 55 35 74 50 31 70 Modeling Total Runoff: The SCS Model
Example. A 71-ac urban watershed includes 60 ac of
open area with 80% grass cover and 11 ac of industrial development that is 72% impervious. The soil is in SCS Group B. Estimate VQ and total runoff volume, V (ac-ft) for a 24-hr rainfall with P = 1.5 in, for AMC-III conditions. Steps 1. Find area-weighted, average CN for AMC-II (baseline) conditions. 2. Adjust CN for soil moisture conditions 3. Compute S 4. Confirm that initial abstraction is less than precipitation, so that runoff occurs 5. Calculate VQ and total runoff Modeling Total Runoff: The SCS Model
1. Find area-weighted, average CN for AMC-II (baseline) conditions.
A CN 60 ac 61 11 ac 88
i i CN avg i 65 A i i 60 ac 11 ac 2. Adjust CN for soil moisture conditions
10 2.35 in 1000 1000 S 10 CN 81 Modeling Total Runoff: The SCS Model
4. Confirm that initial abstraction is less than precipitation,
so that runoff occurs
I a 0.2S 0.22.35 in 0.47 in 1.50 in
5. Calculate VQ and total runoff
P 0.2S 1.5 0.22.35
2 2 VQ 0.31in P 0.8S 1.5 0.82.35
0.31 in V VQ A 71 ac 1.83 ac ft 12 in / ft Modeling Total Runoff: The SCS Model
Most storms: VQ is <60% of P Problems
The initial abstraction (Ia) consists of interception,
depression storage, and infiltration that occurs prior to runoff.
It is not easy to estimate the initial abstraction for a
particular storm event.
SCS felt that there should be a connection between Ia
versus S, and they attempted to develop the relationship by plotting Ia versus S for a large number of events on small experimental watersheds. - Quite a SCATTER.
