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SPRINGER BRIEFS IN ECONOMICS
Sudhakar Yedla
Choongjae Cho
The India–Korea
CEPA
An Analysis
of Industrial
Competitiveness and
Environmental and
Resource Implications
SpringerBriefs in Economics
More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/8876
Sudhakar Yedla Choongjae Cho
•
123
Sudhakar Yedla Choongjae Cho
Indira Gandhi Institute of Development Korea Institute for International
Research (IGIDR) Economic Policy (KIEP)
Mumbai, India Seoul, Korea
© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd 2019
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part
of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations,
recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission
or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar
methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from
the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this
book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the
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This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd.
The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-01/04 Gateway East, Singapore 189721,
Singapore
Acknowledgements
The work presented in the monogram was conducted during 2014 at Korea Institute
of International Economic Policy (KIEP), Seoul, Republic of Korea under their
prestigious Visiting Fellows Program. Professor Sudhakar Yedla was a Visiting
Fellow at KIEP during May–June 2014 and is thankful to KIEP for the financial
support provided in the form of fellowship. The material has been submitted to
KIEP as a fellowship report and the same was published as a compilation of works
by visiting scholars as part of KIEP publications series of visiting fellows.
v
Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1
Pattern of Trade Between India and the Korean Republic . . . . . . . . . .. 2
Export and Import Pattern for India and Korea During
2009–2013 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 2
Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement (CEPA)—Basic
Constructs and Key Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 13
Impacts of CEPA on Trade Between India and Korea . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 17
Effect on Industrial Competitiveness in India and Korea by Revealed
Comparative Advantage (RCA) Method of Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . .. 17
Effect on Industrial Competitiveness in India and Korea by Relative
Trade Advantage (RTA) Method of Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 21
Qualitative Analysis of CEPA’s Impact on the Environment and
Natural Resources Base in India and Korea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 29
Environmental and Natural Resources Implication of Bilateral
Trade Agreements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 33
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 67
vii
About the Authors
ix
x About the Authors
The work presented in this book analyses the positive impact of the India–
Korea CEPA on trade flow between these two countries, effect on the competi-
tiveness of firms both in India and Korea by employing revealed comparative
advantage (RCA) and relative trade advantage (RTA) methods. It explores related
issues further, including negative effects of the India–Korea CEPA on the envi-
ronment and natural resources, and develops a framework of impact assessment for
a future and comprehensive study on environmental impacts of CEPA. The book
explains, in qualitative terms, such possible negative impacts of India–
Korea CEPA, and argues that such externalities from bilateral trade need to be
internalized in order to have the benefits of improved trade trickle down to the
lower strata of the society on equitable terms.
xi
Introduction
The Indian economy, which remained inward looking and resorted to import sub-
stituting economic policies in the past, has opened doors to international markets
during a decade long economic reforms that took place in the 1990s. Since then, the
outlook for India in international trade has changed and has come a long way, with
current exports and imports at 330 billion USD and 480 billion USD, respectively.
However, India’s share of international trade is abysmal and need to be augmented
further and deeper if the Indian dreams of becoming a developed nation were to come
true. While the West has traditionally been a strong trade partner, Indian government
is now looking towards East Asia for improved trade prospects. The Comprehen-
sive Economic Partnership Agreement (CEPA) between India and Korea and also
between India and Japan (Nataraj and Ashwani 2014) are a few such steps towards
increased trade with East Asian countries.
The work presented in this book analyses the positive impact of the India-Korea
CEPA on trade flow between these two countries, effect on the competitiveness
of firms both in India and Korea by employing Revealed Comparative Advantage
(RCA) and Relative Trade Advantage (RTA) methods. It explores related issues
further, including negative effects of the India-Korea CEPA on the environment and
natural resources, and develops a framework of impact assessment for a future and
comprehensive study on environmental impacts of CEPA. The book explains, in
qualitative terms, such possible negative impacts of India-Korea CEPA, and argues
that such externalities from bilateral trade need to be internalized in order to have the
benefits of improved trade trickle down to the lower strata of the society on equitable
terms.
Fig. 1 Total Indian exports and imports during 2007–2012. Source Extracted from Economic Sur-
vey 2013–14, Government of India
Pattern of Trade Between India and the Korean Republic 3
Fig. 2 Details of Indian exports to different countries. Source Extracted from Economic Survey
2013–14, Government of India
Fig. 3 Details of Indian imports from different countries. Source Extracted from Economic Survey
2013–14, Government of India
The United Arab Emirates, USA and Singapore lead the list of Exports with a
major share accounted for by these countries. The bulk of India’s imports come
from China, UAE, Switzerland, Saudi Arabia and USA. These patterns are shown in
Figs. 2 and 3.
Petroleum, Gems & Jewellery, transport equipment led Indian exports to countries
as listed above. Indian imports are dominated by petroleum, gold, pearls, machinery
and transport equipment. These trends and patterns are presented in Figs. 4 and 5.
The India-Korea bilateral trade has taken a boost with both countries signing the
Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement (CEPA) which allows for reducing
non-tariff barriers, liberalizing trade in the services sector, enhancing cooperation in
investment, and economic cooperation. Tables 1 and 2 present the pattern of exports
4 Introduction
Fig. 4 Details of Indian exports of different products. Source Extracted from Economic Survey
2013–14, Government of India
Fig. 5 Details of Indian imports of different products. Source Extracted from Economic Survey
2013–14, Government of India
and imports between India and Korea during the period 2009–2013. The products
traded are clustered into sixteen groups based on the HS code (2007). Table 3 presents
such clustering which is used for further analysis in this study.
Korean share of global exports has increased from 3.49 to 5.40 which indicate
the growth of Korean economy in international trade. The share of Korea in global
imports has remained constant except a steep increase in the year 2013. Korean
exports to India have almost doubled during the last 6 years which indicates an
increasing bilateral trade activity between these important countries in the region.
Korea’s imports from India have seen a 50% rise during the same period. Though
the share of Korean exports to India to its overall exports has increased during the
analysis period, it is still stands at a mere 2.03%. Imports from India are even more
Table 1 Pattern of Korean exports and imports from India during 2007–2013
Korean exports and imports from India
Year World total Total Korean Share in the Exports to Ratio Total world Total Korean Share in the Imports Ratio
exports (1000 exports global India imports (1000 imports global from India
USD) (1000 USD) exports (%) USD) (1000 USD) imports (%)
2007 10,639,608,799 371,477,104 3.49 6,600,039 1.78 11,202,055,457 356,541,365 3.18 4,624,421 1.30
2008 13,588,239,677 422,003,479 3.11 8,977,063 2.13 14,608,035,389 435,309,586 2.98 6,581,241 1.51
2009 11,080,294,474 363,531,064 3.28 8,013,290 2.20 11,722,874,822 323,143,782 2.76 4,141,622 1.28
Pattern of Trade Between India and the Korean Republic
2010 13,566,467,034 466,591,351 3.44 11,434,596 2.45 14,409,044,427 425,649,574 2.95 5,674,456 1.33
2011 16,476,684,255 555,666,036 3.37 12,654,078 2.28 17,330,468,017 524,894,383 3.03 7,893,573 1.50
2012 16,198,369,763 547,770,061 3.38 11,922,037 2.18 17,223,594,505 519,510,795 3.02 6,920,826 1.33
2013 10,349,268,517 559,121,437 5.40 11,375,792 2.03 11,675,138,718 515,720,226 4.42 6,180,152 1.20
Source Calculated by the author using data from World Integrated Trade Solutions (WITS) of the World Bank
5
6
Table 2 Pattern of Indian exports and imports from Korea during 2009–2013
Indian exports and imports from Korea
Year World total Total Indian Share in the Exports to Ratio Total world Total Share in the Imports Ratio
exports (1000 exports global Korea imports (1000 imports global from Korea
USD) (1000 USD) exports (%) USD) imports (%)
2009 11,080,294,474 176,722,587 1.59 3,772,265 2.13 11,722,874,822 266,401,554 2.27 8,229,752 3.09
2010 13,566,467,034 220,408,496 1.62 3,634,463 1.65 14,409,044,427 350,173,258 2.43 9,922,318 2.83
2011 16,476,684,255 301,483,251 1.83 4,549,869 1.51 17,330,468,017 462,397,821 2.67 12,362,469 2.67
2012 16,198,369,763 289,434,140 1.79 4,076,363 1.41 17,223,594,505 488,645,826 2.84 13,675,088 2.80
2013 10,349,268,517 336,611,389 3.25 4,495,540 1.34 11,675,138,718 465,887,034 3.99 12,426,660 2.67
Source Calculated by the author using data from World Integrated Trade Solutions (WITS) of the World Bank
Introduction
Pattern of Trade Between India and the Korean Republic 7
meagre, with only 1.2% of Korean imports coming from India. This presents a great
potential for trade between these two nations.
Indian exports in general have doubled during the analysis period with its share in
global export rising from 1.59 to 3.25%, a hundred percent increase. Indian imports
have seen an increase from 2.43% to almost 4% as a share of global imports. Indian
exports to Korea and imports from Korea have increased during the analysis period
but the percentage share in overall exports and imports has declined which indicated
that the even more active international trade with other partner countries. Share of
Indian exports to Korea has been lower than the imports from Korea.
Indian exports to Korea are traditionally dominated by groups such as Mining,
Chemicals, Textiles, non-ferrous metal, basic metal products, food & beverage and
general equipment & machinery. Over the period of analysis the agriculture and
fisheries products have grown by over 10 times, becoming one of the dominant export
commodities along with the traditionally dominant groups. Non-ferrous metal and
mining groups, on the other hand, have shown a declining trend. Trends are shown
in Table 4 and Fig. 6.
Traditionally Korean exports to India are dominated by manufacturing products
such as electronics, mechanical and transport equipment, steel and chemicals and
these products represent a large share in Korea’s exports to India. In the year 2009
Korean exports to India were dominated by groups including chemicals, basic metal
products, general machinery & equipment, electronic equipment and components and
8 Introduction
Table 4 Pattern of growth in Indian exports to Korea at a product grouping level during 2009–2013
Indian export (1000 USD) to Korea with details at a level of grouping of products
Group Product Year Percentage
category change
between
2009 and
2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2013
I Agriculture 20,501 26,477 66,075 279,033 262,635 1181.11
and fisheries
products
II Food products 181,178 315,586 267,069 367,734 504,392 178.40
and beverages
III Mining 2,299,985 1,321,420 2,073,534 1,275,568 1,151,188 −49.95
IV Chemical 361,709 384,660 559,788 516,676 608,226 68.15
V Rubber 28,095 30,520 39,585 44,774 57,588 104.98
VI Timber and 8110 7390 4064 2831 2580 −68.19
paper
VII Textile 206,141 378,131 325,034 286,845 366,278 77.68
VIII Non-ferrous 126,360 149,128 113,157 175,355 55,310 −56.23
metal
IX Basic metal 344,113 833,170 885,381 901,410 1,108,875 222.24
products
X General 102,891 96,528 93,472 100,239 133,806 30.05
machinery &
equipment
XI Electronic 42,437 30,899 60,779 62,235 70,394 65.88
equipment and
components
XIII Automobiles 23,588 22,341 23,072 27,030 22,414 −4.98
XII Other 4179 7304 1127 733 8784 110.20
transport
equipments
XIV Precision 8494 11,844 16,832 13,485 26,439 211.27
machinery
products
XV Other 5331 6819 13,621 21,072 12,906 142.08
industrial
products
XVI Others 9153 12,245 7280 1344 103,725 1033.30
Total 3,772,265 3,634,463 4,549,869 4,076,363 4,495,540 19.17
Source Calculated by the author using data from World Integrated Trade Solutions (WITS) of the
World Bank
Pattern of Trade Between India and the Korean Republic 9
Rubber
15,00,000 Timber and Paper
Textile
Non-ferrous Metal
10,00,000
Basic Metal Products
Fig. 6 Trends of Indian exports groups to Korea during 2009–2013. Source Calculated by the
author using data from World Integrated Trade Solutions (WITS) of the World Bank
automobiles. Korean exports to India have seen a high growth during 2009–13 in
rubber products, non-ferrous metals and chemicals while trends remained unchanged
for other traditionally dominant groups. Though continuing its dominance in exports,
automobiles group has shown a negative trend in exports to India. Table 5 and Fig. 7
present these trends reflected in Korean exports to India.
10 Introduction
Table 5 Pattern of growth in Korean Exports to India at a product grouping level during 2009–2013
Korean export (1000 USD) to India with details at a level of grouping of products
Group Product Year
category 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 Percentage
change
between
2009 and
2013
I Agriculture 296 174 215 823 247 −16.47
and fisheries
products
II Food 10,904 11,998 13,131 8786 9398 −13.82
products and
beverages
III Mining 524,462 675,213 907,338 903,358 802,884 53.09
IV Chemical 1,351,328 2,147,981 2,469,318 2,600,881 3,011,267 122.84
V Rubber 7022 7850 8673 15,254 21,268 202.89
VI Timber and 138,236 176,579 190,107 152,413 191,469 38.51
paper
VII Textile 129,153 147,371 175,188 165,375 142,872 10.62
VIII Non-ferrous 26,539 22,778 62,161 186,473 180,693 580.86
metal
IX Basic metal 1,716,935 2,237,315 2,575,660 2,362,491 2,077,177 20.98
products
X General 1,211,243 1,885,408 1,937,731 1,920,521 1,624,387 34.11
machinery &
equipment
XI Electronic 1,337,172 1,775,912 1,850,858 1,457,996 1,699,099 27.07
equipment
and
components
XIII Automobiles 1,028,093 1,343,626 1,524,346 1,511,836 1,194,114 16.15
XII Other 364,008 790,350 686,275 399,949 127,313 −65.02
transport
equipments
XIV Precision 138,721 167,148 207,048 189,672 240,290 73.22
machinery
products
XV Other 29,178 44,893 46,029 44,548 51,508 76.53
industrial
products
Total 8,013,290 11,434,596 12,654,078 11,922,037 11,375,792 41.96
Source Calculated by the author using data from World Integrated Trade Solutions (WITS) of the
World Bank
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Language: Catalan
juny 1927
Amb les tesis metafísiques d'aquest gènere passa –quan hom les
examina fredament– el mateix que amb totes les qüestions
experimentals que són plantejades fora de llur medi natural: hom no
les resol pas; hom les planteja de nou i en termes tals que esdevenen
insolubles. Ens trobem satisfets i decebuts alhora; la qüestió resta tal
com era abans; solament que nosaltres no ens en adonem, distrets
com estem per la concepció metafísica.
Des del punt de vista on es col·loca Ostwald cal concebre, com a base
i origen del pensament –o més genèricament del fenomen psíquic–
una despesa fisiològica; el fenomen psíquic seria una transformació
energètica d'aquesta despesa. Però en esguardar les coses de més
prop, si cerquem d'evaluar la quantitat d'energia creada per l'aparició
del fenomen nou, hem de reconèixer que no n'ha creada gens. El
concepte d'energia no és aplicable ací perquè ens trobem en
presència d'un fenomen que no és reversible en forma mecànica. El
cicle de les transformacions energètiques es tanca en el domini de
l'objectivitat i de la fisiologia, però no usurpa el de la subjectivitat.
Aquesta vibració –hom ho veu– no és pas la causa del so, així com les
imatges que ens permeten de conèixer el timbre propi de la campana
no són la causa d'aquest timbre. És solament el mitjà subjectiu del
qual nosaltres disposem per a conjecturar a quin moment un so va a
actuar sobre la nostra oïda. Aquest mitjà l'anomenem condició
causal; ella ho és, en efecte, donat que la imatge de l'objecte que
vibra no és arbitrària i no és espontània; la imatge és imposada per la
causa mateixa que, en obrar sobre l'oïda, determina el so.