Form 2
Form 2
Form 2
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The significance of genetic engineering
Benefits of Genetic engineering are very significant to area such as medicine, agriculture, forensic
science and energy generation.
Medicine
Human insulin genes are, transferred to bacteria, to enable them to produce insulin used for treating
sugar diabetes. Growth hormone can also be produced is a similar way and be used to treat children
who do not grow.
Agriculture
Genes are, transferred to plants and animals to make them bigger and resistant to pests, diseases,
drought and frost. Some genetically modified foods include rice, potatoes, melons and tomatoes.
Forensic science
Genetic material can be, used in solving crimes, paternity tests or genetic fingerprinting to identify
bodies of unidentified people involved in accidents or in crimes such as murder.
Energy generation
Some plants such as oilseed or rapeseed are, grown for their oil, which is, used for cooking. It can
also be converted into a bio-fuels and used in vehicle engines or generate energy. Their yield can
be, improved by the use of genetic modification.
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MODULE 2: PLANTS, ANIMALS AND THE ENVIRONMENT
UNIT 2.1-LIVING MATTER
ADAPTATION
Adaptation refers to the change in organisms that makes them suited to a particular environment. There are
three types of adaptations, namely structural, behavioral and physical. Structural adaptation involves the
body of an organism developing in certain shape to help suit its survival. Physical adaptation involve
developing certain features to help their survival whereas behavioral involve reacting in a certain way to a
stimuli in order to survive.
Adaptation in plants
Plants may be adapted to live and grow in wet and dry conditions. The most common adaptation of plants in
Botswana is usually to live and grow in dry conditions.
Adaptations in animals
Animals maybe adapted to survive predators, dry conditions, cold conditions, competition for food and to be
able to catch preys. Below is how some animals are adapted to their environment:
A chameleon can camouflage itself to hide from predators.
A camel defecate dry faeces and urinate small amount of urine to help them live in dry conditions.
Polar bears have thick fur and thick layer of fat to help them live in very cold temperatures.
Giraffes have a long neck to avoid competition for food.
A chameleon has a tongue that can stretch to catch its prey from a distance.
A camel has a hump with fats in by which can be converted to water.
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Human activities that impact negatively on plants and animal adaptations
Some human activities change the environment greatly and quickly. This usually makes it unbearable and
usually makes organisms not adapted to the new environment die before they could adapt. Below are some of
the human activities that have a negative impact on plants and animal adaptation.
Overgrazing and deforestation lives the ground bare and dry.
Building of dams flood large areas
Burning of fossil fuels and bush fires lead to global warming(Increase in world temperatures)
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UNIT 2.4- ECOSYSTEMS
CHARATERISTICS OF ECOSYSTEMS
An ecosystem refers to all living and non-living things in a habitat. It can also be, referred to as a
community of living things and the way they interact with their environment. An ecosystem is, made
up of a, community, populations, habitat and the environment.
A community, refers to all living things found in a habitat.
Population is the total number of given species found in a habitat.
A habitat means an area where organisms live e.g. pond, trees and hills.
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FEEDING RELATIONSHIPS
We learnt that organisms relate with one another in different ways. These include for food. Food
supply affects the population size in different ways.
Increase in food supply usually leads to increase in population size while decrease in food supply
usually leads to decrease in population size. Predation and overgrazing also have an effect on the
size of population. The diagram below shows effect of food supply, predation and overgrazing on
population size:
Primary consumers
These organisms feed on plants only. They are herbivores. Primary consumers get their energy from
plants e.g. goats, cows and zebras.
Secondary consumers
These feed mainly on herbivores (primary consumers). They are carnivores. They get their energy
from primary consumers e.g. cheetah, leopard and eagle. OMNIVORES( feeds on both plants and
animals) also can fall on this groups e.g. humans and monkeys.
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Tertiary consumers
These feed on secondary consumers. They are carnivores that can eat other carnivores. They get
their energy from secondary consumers e.g. hyena, vulture and crow.
The flow of energy from one organism to another can also be shown using diagrams. These include
food chains, food webs and food pyramid.
Food chain
A linear diagram showing feeding relationship between one organism and the next.
This uses arrows to show how a given organism passes energy to other organisms. It starts with
producers, followed by primary consumers then secondary consumers and ends with tertiary
consumers. Below is an example of a food chain:
Food pyramid
This shows the amount of energy passed from one feeding level to another. It is also, used to show
the number of organisms eaten at each tropic (feeding) level. A food pyramid can be, referred to as
stable or unstable. Below are examples of the two types of, food pyramids:
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A stable food pyramid An unstable food pyramid
The size/number of organisms at a higher trophic level becomes smaller in a stable food pyramid.
This is because at each trophic level the organisms use up most of its energy obtained in respiration
and other metabolic reactions which is then changed to other forms of energy e.g. heat energy which
is the released to the environment. This leaves less (about 10%) energy to be passed to the next
higher trophic level.
Concentration of pollutants through food chains
Concentration of pollutants often increases as the pollutant is, moved from, one tropic level to
another. Tertiary consumers are often the most affected. Increase in concentration of pollutants in
bodies of organisms as they, (pollutants) move across food chains are, called:
a) Bioaccumulation: meaning that if an organism consumes a pollutant/poison it does not leave its body
cells when it dies, therefore it will be passed on to the next organism that will feed on it.
b) Biomagnifications: meaning that pollutant/poison will increase from one trophic level to the next e.g.
if rats are poisoned and the amount of poison in each rat is 10mg, this will probably not kill the rat. The
eagle will eat about 10 rats every day. Because the poison never left the body of the rat
(bioaccumulation) it will be passed on to the eagle.
10mg (1 rat) × 10 (number of rats eaten) = 100mg (poison in the body of an eagle)
The poison found in the body of the eagle is ×10 the poison in the rats. This will probably kill the
eagle but this poison was not made to kill the eagle but the rats.
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UNIT 2.5- SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN FLOWERING PLANTS
REPRODUCTIVE PARTS OF A FLOWER
A flower is the reproductive organ for flowering plants. It is made up of, two main parts. The male
part called, stamen and the female part called the pistil. The stamen is made up of, the filament and
the anther while the pistil is made up of the stigma, style, ovary and ovules. Below is the structure of
a flower:
Parts Functions
Anther Produces the male sex cells
Filament Supports the anther
Stigma Receives pollen
Style Directs and guide pollen towards ovules
Ovary Produces female sex cells
Petals Attracts insects
Sepals Protect the flower while in the bud stage
Stalk Attaches and holds the flower to the
flower
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POLLINATION
This is the transference of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma. There are two types of
pollination, self-pollination and cross-pollination.
Self-pollination happens when pollen grains are transferred from the anther to the stigma of the
same flower or within flowers in the same plant.
Cross-pollination happens when pollen grains are transferred from the stigma in different plants of
the same species. There diagrams below shows the two forms of pollination:
Self pollination
Cross- pollination
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Agents of pollination
These are things that helps carry pollen grains from the anther to the stigma. There are two agents
of pollination. These are wind and insects. Flowers that are insect pollinated differ from those that
are wind pollinated. The table below shows some differences between insect and wind pollinated
flowers:
FERTILIZATION
This refers to the process through which the male sex cells fuses with the female sex cells to form a
zygote. This happens after a successful pollination. The diagrams below shows the steps involved in
fertilization:
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1. Germination
This is the first stage in by which pollen grain brought by the agents lands on the stigma. The pollen
sucks chemicals from the stigma to form a pollen tube. This is called activation of pollen tube.
2. Growth of the pollen tube
The pollen tube grows from the stigma through the style to the ovary. The pollen grain will travel
through the pollen tube to the ovary.
3. Fertilization
When pollen grain reaches the ovary male gametes are released and they fuse with the ovule in the
ovary to form a zygote.
After fertilization, a fertilised seed (zygote) develops into a seed. A seed is formed from ovules. The
seed is also contained in a fruit that formed from the swelling of the ovary.
Changes in the flower after fertilization
Petals and stamen dry up and fall off.
Each fertilised ovule develops into a seed.
Each ovary develops into a fruit.
SEED DISPERSAL
This is the process through which seeds are scattered away from their parent plant.
This is important as:
Prevents competition for water, sunlight and mineral salts.
It avoids extinction as it allows seeds to be scattered and to germinate at different areas.
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Animal dispersal
Seed that are, animal dispersed often have the following characteristics to help them to be, carried
away by animals.
Wind dispersal
Seed that are, dispersed by wind often away or a combination of the following characteristics so that
they can be, easily carried away by wind.
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Self-dispersal
Seed that are usually self-dispersed have the following characteristics so that they can shoot away
seeds.
Contained in pods
The pods have a spring-like mechanism through which they throw away seeds.
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MODULE 3: MATERIALS AND THEIR PROPERTIES
UNIT 3.1-THE NATURE OF MATTER
DISSOLUTION OF MATTER
Universal solvent
This is a liquid that dissolves all known solutes in the whole world. In reality there is no such liquid.
Why water is sometimes referred to as a universal solvent
Water is sometimes referred to as a universal solvent because almost all known solutes dissolve
in it. It is also because it dissolves more solutes than any other known solvents.
Why water is such a good solvent?
The chemical makeup of water means that the molecule of water is electrically charged (positive
hydrogen and negative oxygen).
This means that any solute which carries a charge (polar molecules) will be attracted to either the
positive nor negative charge of water molecule hence dissolving.
This makes water to be a good solvent for molecules which carry a charge.
TYPES OF SOLUTIONS
Concentration of solutions
Concentration refers to the measure of how much solute is present in a given amount of a solution.
Solutions with a lot of solute in it are, said to be concentrated while those with less solute in them
are, said to be, dilute. The concentration of solutions is, calculated as follows:
1. Concentration per volume of solvent
(a) Calculate the concentration of a solution which has 200g of salt dissolved in 1000cm³ of water.
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Concentration=
Concentration = = 0.2g/cm³
2. Percentage of mass concentration
(a) Calculate percentage concentration of solution which has mass of 80g, it contains 16g of salt.
Concentration = x 100
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UNIT 3.3-COMPONENTS OF AIR
Air is a mixture of gases. Dry air is, made up of nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide and other gases. If
air is not dry it will also contain water vapours. The table below shows the percentages of gases that
make up air:
Gas Percentage
Nitrogen 78%
Oxygen 21%
Carbon dioxide 0.03
Other gases 0.97
CARBON DIOXIDE
Carbon dioxide makes up 0.03% of gases found in the atmosphere. It plays a very important role in
our environment, bodies and in industry. It is therefore important to know how it can be, produced.
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Procedure
Set the aparatus as shown in the figure above
Put the crystals/ powder of a carbonate into the test tube.
Pour an acid into the testube with the carbonate.
Observe.
Obsevations
Bubbles are vissible in both the test tube and water in the gas jar.
Level of water goes down
Explanation
Bubbles proves that a gas is produced.
Level of the water goes down shows that the gas is less dense than water therefore taking up the
space on top of the water.
The word equation below shows the general equation for the production of carbon dioxide in the
laboratory.
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It is soluble in water.
It turns limewater from clear to milky.
It is denser than air.
It is colourless, odourless and tasteless
OXYGEN
Oxygen makes about 21% of gases that makes up our atmosphere. It plays a very important role in
bodies of living organisms. Though plants produce most of it naturally during photosynthesis, it can
also be, produced in the laboratory. Oxygen is produced by decomposition (break apart) of
hydrogen peroxide to produce oxygen gas and water. This is a very slow process hence it requires
the use of a catalyst called manganese (IV) oxide. A catalyst is a chemical that speeds up a reaction
without it actually being used up.The diagram below shows a set up used to prepare for oxygen:
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Procedure
Set up the apparatus as shown in the diagram above.
Add manganese (iv) oxide to the conical flask.
Add hydrogen peroxide through the dropping funnel slowly.
Observe.
Observations
Bubbles are observed in the gas jar with water.
Level of the water goes down
Explanation
Bubbles proves that a gas is produced.
Level of the water goes down shows that the gas is less dense than water therefore taking up the
space on top of the water.
Properties of oxygen
It supports burning / it is flammable
It is not poisonous even at high concentration.
It is slightly soluble in water
It is colourless, odourless and tasteless
Uses of oxygen
For medical purposes to help patients who can‟t breathe
It is, mixed with acetylene to melt or cut steel because it is flammable.
To support divers and mountain climber‟s lives at the altitudes they can‟t breathe.
Mixed with hydrogen to make rocket fuel because both gases are flammable.
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Essential for respiration in living things.
Used in medicine for patients with breathing problems.
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UNIT 3.4- CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS
The type of building materials used by people depends on the part of the country where those people
are found.
i) Thatching grass
Glass Allows light into the house Break easily, need skilled
labour and expensive
MATERIAL USE
GRASS Thatching/roofing
COW DUNG Mixed with clay to make bricks
WOOD Holding thatch
CEMENT Making bricks, plastering, joining bricks
CORREGATED IRON Roofing
GLASS Making windows
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INSULATION
Insulation in buildings refers to building a house in such a way that it prevents heat loss or gain
within them. In buildings insulation depend on; the type of materials used for roofing, the
presence of ceiling and thickness of walls. The set-up below is of an activity used to investigate
the suitability of building materials for insulation:
Observations
The house without ceiling recorded higher temperatures than the house with ceiling.
The house with a single wall recorded higher temperatures than the house with double
walls.
Houses roofed with corrugated iron recorded higher temperatures than house with
thatched roof.
Conclusion
Material that are, suitable for insulation in a building, include, the use of thatch for roofing, double
walls and the presence of ceiling.
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Effect of window positioning
The set-up below is of an activity to investigate effects of window position on heat radiation in and
out of a building.
Observation
The house with windows facing the sun recorded higher temperatures than the one with windows
facing away from the sun.
Conclusion
Houses with windows facing the sun allows heat radiation from the sun into the house hence, will
be very hotter in summer while those with windows away from the sun allows less heat to enter
them hence will be cooler in summer.
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Observations
The house model with a longer roof overhang recorded lower temperatures than the one without a
roof overhang.
Conclusion
Roof over hangs prevents heat radiation from the sun from entering a house hence houses with
longer roof overhang will be cooler in summer than the ones with shorter roof overhang.
House colour
The set-up below is of an activity to investigate effects of house colour on heat radiation into and out
of a building.
Observation
The house models with black colour and grey colour recorded higher temperatures while the one
with white colours recorded lower temperatures.
Conclusion
Dull (black) colours allow too much heat to enter the house whereas bright (white) colours do not
allow too much heat to enter the house. This is because, dull colours are good absorbers of heat
while bright colours are bad absorbers of heat (reflect heat) hence houses with black or dull colour
will be warmer in summer and cooler in winter compared to those with bright colours.
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MODULE 4: SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
HUMAN REPRODUCTION
PREGNANACY
Pregnancy refers to a period after fertilization when a woman has a baby growing in her womb.
Pregnancy last for 9 months or 40 weeks. Fertilization refers to the process by which the male sex
cell (sperms) fuses with the female sex cells (ova). The result of fertilization is, called a zygote. It
then grows and develops into a morula, blastocyst, embryo and then foetus. Below are diagrams
showing the developmental stages of an embryo:
Signs of pregnancy
Production of the hormone Human Chorionic Gonadotropin (HCG)
Missed period
Morning sickness
Swollen belly
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PART FUNCTIONS
Placenta It allows for the exchange of substances between the baby and
the mother. Also attaches the baby to the mother.
Amniotic sac It surrounds and holds the baby in place. It also produces
amniotic fluid.
Amniotic fluid It acts like a cushion that protects the embryo from external
shocks.
Stages of birth
1. contractions
2. breaking of the waters
3. dilation of the cervix
4. delivery of the baby
5. delivery of the after birth
Multiple births
This refers to the process whereby two or more babies who have been developing in the same
womb at the same time are born. This happens when two or more ova are, released from the ovary
at the same time and both fertilized leading to fraternal twins. It can also happen when one ovum is,
released, fertilized and then break into two separate cells, which grow and develop into identical
twins. The diagrams below shows how fraternal and identical twins are, formed:
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Identical twins fraternal twins
Antenatal care
This refers to the care given to pregnant woman before giving birth. It is very important as it helps
make sure the baby grows and develops healthily. Antenatal care includes,
Not taking substances that are, harmful to the unborn babies‟ health e.g. alcohol, drugs and
tobacco.
Exercising
Going for antenatal check ups
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CHILDCARE
Babies are very delicate and highly sensitive to their environment. For babies to grow healthily, both
physically and mentally the following care should be, given to them:
Proper diet and burping
Bathing and clothing
Change of nappy
Clinical check-ups
Safety
IMMUNIZATION
This is the process of preparing the body to fight a disease whenever it attacks it. It makes the body
immune to a disease so that it cannot do any harm to the body. Immunization is, brought about by
vaccination or drop by mouth. The vaccine makes the body produce antibodies to a particular
disease. When the organism that causes the disease enter the body in future, the body will be, ready
to fight them. Different antibodies are, needed to fight, different diseases.
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Disease Symptom Age(s) of Name of vaccine Method of
immunization vaccination
TB Continuous At birth BCG Injection
coughing and loss
of weight
Polio Paralysis of some 2,3,4 and 18 Polio, Polio, Polio, Drop by mouth
body parts months Polio booster dose (oral drop)
Diphtheria Whitish tonsils at 2,3,4 and 18 DPT, DPT, DPT Injection
the back of the months and DPT Booster
mouth dose
Whooping A cough with a 2,3,4 and 18 DPT, DPT, DPT Injection
cough whoop sound months and DPT Booster
dose
Tetanus Jaws become 2,3,4 and 18 DPT, DPT, DPT Injection
locked months and DPT Booster
dose
Hepatitis Yellowish eyes At birth, 2,3 HBV, HBV, HBV Injection
B and skin and 9 months
Measles Rush with red 9 months Measles Injection
eyes.
Helps prevent the transmission of the HIV virus from the mother to her unborn child.
It also helps prolong the mother‟s life.
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MODULE 5: FORCE, MOTION AND ENERGY
UNIT 5.3 INVESTIGATING FORCES
TYPES OF FORCES
A force is referred to as a pull or a push applied by one object on another. Forces usually act in
pairs and each, acting in opposite direction. Arrows are, used to show the direction of forces
acting on a body. The diagram below shows the direction of forces acting on a chair and a person:
Classification of forces
Forces may be classified as contact and non-contact forces.
Contact forces occurs when objects are physically touching each other e.g. tension force,
frictional and impact force.
Non-contact or action-at-a distance forces result when objects are not in physical contact they act
at a distant e.g. gravitational, magnetic and electrostatic.
Resultant forces
The resultant force is the overall force that results from the action of two or more forces on a body.
how to calculate a resultant force.
When two or more forces acting on a body are facing same direction you add them to get the
resultant force.
When two or more forces are acting on a body towards opposite directions you subtract the opposing
forces.
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OPPOSITE DIRECTION
SAME DIRECTION
EFFECTS OF FORCES
When force is, applied or exerted on an object it, produces a result. The effects depend on the type
of the force and the object on which it acts. The following are effect of forces:
It changes shape or size of an object
It can increase speed or decrease speed of a moving object
It can change the direction of objects
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Importance of gravitational force to life on earth
It pulls objects towards the earth (makes object thrown into space fall back to earth)
It keeps people or objects from falling off into space.
It keeps the earth and all planets in their orbit around the sun
FRICTIONAL FORCE
Frictional force is a force that opposes relative motion between two surfaces in contact. Frictional
force in solids depends on the weight of the object and the nature of touching surfaces.
Frictional force in fluids
Fluids refer to gases and liquids. This is, because they flow. Frictional force in fluids is, affected by
the nature of the fluid and surface area or shape of the object moving through the fluid.
Effect of nature of the fluids on frictional force
The set-up below is of an activity to investigate effect of the nature of a fluid on friction.
Observation
The ball fell to the bottom quicker on the measuring cylinder with water and last on the one with
liquid soap.
Conclusion
Liquids with high viscosity (thicker) have more frictional force than those with less viscosity (thin).
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Observations
A streamlined coin reached the bottom of the measuring cylinder quicker than the one that is not
streamlined.
Conclusion
Shape of objects affects their frictional force in fluids. Streamlined objects have less resistance
(frictional force) than those that are not streamlined.
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MEASURING FORCE
Force as a quantity could be, measured. An instrument used to measure force is, called a force
meter. The SI-units of force are Newton (N). The diagram below shows a force meter:
Weight is the force of gravity acting on an object. It is also a force hence is, also measured in
Newton. The formula below is, used to calculate weight:
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ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
Atmospheric pressure refers to the amount of force applied against a surface by the weight of air
above that surface. It is the amount of force of air acting over an area. A barometer is the instrument
used to measure pressure. There are two types of them, mercury and aneroid barometer. The SI-
units of atmospheric pressure are the Pascal (Pa). Other units include millimeters of mercury
(mmHg), atmospheres (atm), bars and millibar (mb), which are mostly, used in weather. Below is
the diagram of a mercury barometer:
Pressure (Pa) = Height of mercury (h)× Density of mercury(ρ) × Force of gravity (g)
Where, h = 760mm ρ = 13.6 g/cm³ g = 9.8N/kg
Effects of pressure
It enables us to suck liquids through straws.
It makes rubber suckers to stick on surfaces.
Makes cans with less pressure in them collapse.
It makes it difficult to open containers with less pressure in them.
Ears pop when you climb up the cliff.
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Helps us to breath in and out.
A high (H) is an area of high pressure surrounded by lower pressure. A low (L) is an area of low
pressure surrounded by high pressure. If pressure drops rapidly, there is greater chance of rain. If
the pressure rises rapidly, it is associated with clearing of the skies.
Wind blows from an area of high pressure to an area of low pressure.
The wind caries air with vapour, therefore water vapour is blown towards area of low pressure hence
expectation of rain.
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UNIT 5.4- MOTION
LINEAR MOTION
Linear motion refers to the movement of an object along a straight line. Motion can be, described in
terms of distance, displacement, speed, velocity and acceleration.
Distance
This is the description of how far apart two objects are. It is the actual length between two points
along a given path.
Displacement
It is the shortest distance between two given points in a stated direction. It can also be described as
how far is the object displaced from its original position.
Both Distance and Displacement use the SI unit of meter(m).
The difference between distance and displacement
Distance is a scalar quantity whereas displacement is a vector quantity. Distance is the actual length
from one point to another along a path whereas displacement is the shortest distance between two
points in a stated direction.
Speed
This refers to the rate at which an object moves. It can also be, defined as the distance traveled in
unit time. The SI-units for measuring speed is meters per second (m/s). Below is the formula for
calculating speed:
Speed = Distance ÷ Time
Velocity
It refers to the rate at which an object moves in a particular direction. It can also be, said to be, the
speed of an object in a particular direction. The units of velocity are the same as those of speed.
Below is the formula for calculating velocity:
Velocity = displacement ÷ Time
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Acceleration
This refers to the rate of change of velocity or to the increase of velocity over time. The opposite of
acceleration is deceleration. The units of acceleration are m/s² whereas those for deceleration are –
m/s².
Acceleration = or a=
Non-uniform
This is when the motion of object changes. In this case, it could be the velocity that changes or the
direction or both. Change in velocity tells that the object is travelling at non uniform velocity. The
change in velocity could be an acceleration or deceleration. Objects with non-uniform motion have:
a. Accelerating from starting position
b. An object decelerating until it still stops
c. Non uniform velocity
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Velocity time graphs showing uniform and non- uniform motion
AB: object has non- uniform motion because it is travelling at non- uniform velocity and accelerating
from rest.
BC: object has uniform motion because it is travelling at uniform velocity with zero acceleration.
CD: object has non- uniform motion because its travelling at non- uniform velocity as it is
decelerating to rest.
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Distance time graph showing uniform and non- uniform motion
AB: Graph is a slope showing non- uniform motion because distance covered every second changes
(increases) because of change (increase) in velocity.
BC: Graph is a straight line showing uniform motion because distance covered stays the same every
second because the object has constant velocity.
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Motion of objects in fluids
A falling object speeds up when it is, released. As it speeds up fluid friction (resistance/drag) acting
on it increases until it is equal to the weight of the object. As the air resistance, increases the object‟s
acceleration decreases until it can no longer accelerate and moves at a constant velocity called
terminal velocity. Terminal velocity is therefore, the constant velocity of an object falling through a
fluid.
The terminal velocity of an object is the maximum speed that an object can travel at as it falls
through a fluid.
It occurs when the force of gravity on the object is equal to the drag force opposing the movement of
the object. The diagrams below illustrate terminal velocity:
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Graph showing movement of object in fluids
The graph of a skydiver falling from the sky.
AB: Skydiver is travelling at non uniform velocity as he is accelerating downwards. At this stage
force of gravity is greater than the drag force.
BC: skydiver is travelling at uniform velocity (reached terminal velocity). At this stage force of gravity
is equal to the drag force therefore there is zero resultant force.
CD: the shape of the graph shows rapid deceleration( non-uniform velocity) because the skydiver
has reached the ground level.
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MODULE 6: ENERGY
UNIT 5.5- PROPERTIES OF LIGHT
Light has three main properties. These are that it travels in straight lines; it can be, reflected when
it strikes an opaque material and that it can be, refracted when it strikes a transparent material at an
angle.
Reflection
Light rays reaching a shiny surface bounces back. The bouncing back of light when it strikes an
object is, called reflection. If the rays hit a smooth plane, shiny surface such as a mirror, the
reflected rays are uniform or parallel. This is, called regular reflection. If the rays hit a rough
surface, the rays are scattered. This is, called diffuse reflection. The diagrams below show regular
diffuse reflections:
The relationship between the angle of incidence and the angle of reflection
Below are simplified diagrams of rays of light hitting plane mirrors and how they are, reflected.
Laws of reflection
1. Angle of incidence is always equal to angle of reflection
2. Incident .reflected ray and the normal line all lie on the same plane
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Images formed by plane mirrors
These are flat mirrors. Below is the diagram of an object and its image, as it would appear on a plane
mirror.
The image is
laterally inverted
The same distance from the mirror as the object
The same size as the object
Virtual or not real
Always upright
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Convex mirror Concave mirror
Images formed by a concave mirror
The diagrams below show images formed by a concave mirror.
The image is
Bigger than the object when the object is, close to the mirror.
Upright when the object is close to the mirror.
Smaller than the object when the object is far from the mirror
Upside down or inverted when the object is far from the mirror.
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Images formed by a convex mirror
The diagram below shows images formed by a convex mirror:
The image is
Always smaller than the object
Always upright
Virtual
Uses of a convex mirror
Security mirrors in shops
Rear view mirrors in cars
REFRACTION
This is the bending of light, which occurs when it passes through an angle from one transparent
material to another. It is due to the change of speed by light as it enters a material of different
density.
Laws of refraction
1. When the ray enters an optical denser medium from a less dense one (e.g. from air to glass or
water), it bends towards the normal and bends away from the normal when it enters a less
dense material from a denser one (e.g. from glass or water to air).
2. The incident, refracted, emergent ray and the normal lines all lie on the same plane.
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Refraction through a glass block
When a ray passes through a glass block, it bends towards the normal and when it leaves it bends
away from the normal.
Emergent ray is parallel to the incident ray.
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Refraction of light air to water
The fish appears as if is close to the fisherman because the light rays from the actual fish bends when
they leave water to air before they reach our eyes.
This forms a virtual image of the fish close to the surface.
Real/Actual depth: the distance of the real object from the water surface
Apparent depth: distance of the image from the surface of the water.
REFRACTION BY LENSES
A lens is a transparent device made of glass to refract light such that it forms images. There are two
main types of lenses. These are diverging (concave) and converging (convex) lenses.
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Images formed by concave lenses
The images are always
Upright
Diminished
Virtual
Uses of convex lenses
Eye pieces of some optical instruments
Spectacles to correct shortsightedness
Optical instruments
These are instruments used to aid or help the capabilities of our eyes. Below are some optical
instruments and their uses.
INSTRUMENT USES
Camera It captures images (photographs) of objects.
Projector It enlarges images or pictures from slides.
Microscope To view small objects that is normally difficult to see with naked
eyes.
Telescope To view things far on space e.g. planets and the moon
Binoculars To view objects from a distance e.g. game animals
Periscope To see things over an obstacle e.g. submarines to see things
above water
DISPERSION
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Dispersion is the process whereby white light splits into its colour components called the spectrum.
The spectrum is made up of seven colours namely; red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and
violet. The diagram below shows dispersion:
A rainbow is, formed when white light rays from the sun are, split into colours of the spectrum by
droplets of rain as it passes through them. Colours on a rainbow are of the same as those formed by
the glass prism above.
Light ray from the sun when enter the water droplet it bends because it moves from one optical
medium (air) to the other (water).
At the back of the droplet the refracted ray is reflected by a phenomenon called total internal reflection.
When the reflected ray leaves the water droplet it is refracted again, splits into 7 colours of the
spectrum.
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THE EYE
The eye is an organ for seeing. For us to see an object light rays strikes the object and the object
reflect the rays into our eyes. The image is, formed into the retina and sent to the brain for
interpretation. Below is the structure of a human eye:
HOW WE SEE
We see an object only if light is reflected from the object and it is focused on the retina. To see an object:
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h the lens, which bends it even more to focus it on the retina.
brain then interprets and makes sense of the upside down image so that you see it upright.
Accommodation
This means the ability of an eye lens to change shape or thickness to focus images on the retina.
The thickness of the eye lens is, controlled by the ciliary muscles. When looking at a closer object
ciliary muscles contract and squeeze the lens, which make it thick. This makes the less have a short
focal length. When looking at a distant object, the muscles relax and release the lens from pressure.
This makes the lens thin and the focal length long. Below is the diagram showing the appearance of
the eye lens for distant and near objects:
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Eye defects
Eye defect Problem Cause Correction
Short sighted Cannot see far Images are focused Corrected with
(myopia) away objects in front of the retina: concave spectacle
clearly. lens:
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focus near or far
objects.
EYE DISEASES
CATARACTS
A cataract is a clouding of the eye lens.
Causes of cataracts
There is no single cause of cataracts. There are, however, number or risk factors that can lead to a person
developing cataracts:
o Old age.
o Repeated exposure to ultraviolet light.
o Cigarette smoking and drugs.
o Diabetes and high alcohol consumption.
o Dehydration.
o Air pollution.
TREATMENT
o Surgically removing the lens that has become opaque, and replacing it with a clear, plastic lens.
o Certain eye drops can be used to reverse cataracts.
o Protection from excessive sunlight using sunglasses that screens out ultraviolet light.
STYES
A stye is a painful red bump located at the base of an eyelash or under or inside the eyelid. It is a small
bacterial infection which looks like a small boil.
SYMPTOMS AND SIGNS
o Redness in the affected area.
o Pain will occur, followed by swelling or redness.
o The eye area will also be tender to touch.
o The eye also becomes sensitive to light.
o The eye may also tend to water and become blurry.
TREATMENT
o Apply antibiotic cream.
o Applying a hot compress for ten minutes, four to six times a day.
CONJUNCTIVITIS
Conjunctivitis, commonly known as “pink eye”, is an inflammation of the conjunctiva.
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CAUSES
o Viruses.
o Bacteria such as gonorrhea or Chlamydia.
o Irritants such as shampoos.
o Dirt, smoke, and pool chlorine.
o Allergies to dust, pollen, or a special type of allergy that affects some contact lens wearers.
TREATMENT
o Special pink eye drops can relieve the inflammation and itchiness.
o Antibiotics
o A warm wash with cotton wool to dissolve the discharge.
TRACHOMA
This is a very unpleasant eye disease that affects the membranes lining the eye lids and covering the front
part of the eye.
CAUSES
o Trachoma results from an infection by virus- like bacteria called Chlamydia trachomatis.
SYMPTOMS
o Mild itching and irritation of the eye.
o A feeling of sand or grit in the eye.
o Eye redness.
o Watering eyes.
o Swollen eyelids.
o Discharge from the eye containing mucus or pus.
TREATMENT
o In early stages, treatment with antibiotics may be enough to eliminate.
o Treatment of later stages may require a surgery.
o Treatment with antibiotic therapy.
APPLICATIONS OF LIGHT
THE CAMERA (drawing book 2 page 178).
A camera is used for taking photographs or capturing images of objects. When a picture is taken, the shutter
is opened briefly to let light through to the film and then it shuts again. The camera has a lens that will focus
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the light to the film. The image formed on the film is upside down and after the film is developed, you will see
the picture up right.
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FUNCTIONS OF PARTS OF THE CAMERA FUNCTION
PART
Lens Directs/ focuses light rays from the object on to
the film.
Aperture A hole which let light into the camera.
TRAFFIC LIGHTS
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UNIT 5.6-HEAT ENERGY
EFFECTS OF HEAT
Heat is the type of energy from „hot‟ objects. Burning objects, frictional force, sun,
electricity and chemical reactions are some of the sources of heat. Heat has two
important effects on matter. These are expansion and contraction.
Observation
The ball easily fits into the ring before being, heated and after being, cooled. It
does not fit into the ring after being, heated.
Conclusion
Solids expand when heated and contract when cooled.
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Expansion and contraction in liquids
The set-up below is of an activity to investigate effects of heat on liquids.
Observation
The level of the liquid rose when, heated and went down when, cooled.
Conclusion
Liquids also expand when heated and contract when cooled.
Observation
The balloons increased in size when the air in the conical flask was heated and
decreased in size when the air was, cooled.
Conclusion
Gases also expand when heated and contract when cooled.
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NB: Note that expansion and contraction are highest in gases followed by liquids
and is lowest in solids. This is because particles have enough space in between
them to rapidly move away from each other.
Bimetallic strip
This is, made up of two strips of different metals that are, joined together. One of
the metals is, brass while the other is usually, iron. These metals expand at
different rates when heated. Brass expands more than iron. This makes the strip
to bend towards iron. The diagrams below show a bimetallic strip when before
heating and after heating:
Thermostat
This device control temperature of some electrical appliances. It is, made up of a
bimetallic strip. The diagrams below show a hot thermostat and cold one.
Fire alarms
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This device also uses a bimetallic strip. When temperature within the house
increases, it makes the bimetallic strip to bend and switch on the bell, which
alerts people. Below is a diagram illustrating the set-up in a, fire alarm:
Homework
1. Find out four examples of devices that use a thermostat.
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METHODS OF HEAT TRANSFER
Heat always moves from a hotter place to a cooler one. This is called, heat
transfer. There are three methods of heat transfer. These are conduction,
convection and radiation.
CONDUCTION
The flow of heat by movement (collision) of particles of matter from places of
higher to of lower temperature without movement of the matter as a whole.
This is the way heat moves mainly through solids. It is, passed by hot particles to
cooler ones. Conduction takes place at different rates in different solids.
Materials that conduct heat quickly are, said to be conductors and those that do
not heat well are, said to be insulators or poor conductors of heat. The diagram
below is of a set-up to investigate the rate at which different solids conducts heat.
Observation
The pin fell first from the aluminum rod, then copper, steel and took longer to fall
from the glass rod.
Conclusion
Different materials conduct heat at different rates. Aluminum is the best
conductor followed by copper and then steel while glass is a poor conductor of
heat. It can also be, noted that metals are good conductors of heat while non-
metals are poor conductors.
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Homework
The set-up below is of a set-up used to investigate the conductivity of
water. Use it to answer questions that follow.
1.
a. State expected observation from the experiment.
b. What conclusion can be, drawn from the observations?
c. Explain why heating elements of electric kettles and geezers are,
usually placed at the bottom of them not at the top.
CONVECTION
The flow of heat through a fluid by moving particles from places of high to low
temperature within the fluid itself.
That is the movement of heat through liquids and gasses. If a fluid is heated, hot
particles become less dense and move to the top of the liquid while cold ones
with high-density sinks to the bottom. This creates convectional currents, which
carries heat around the fluid. The diagrams below show convectional currents in
liquids and in gases.
RADIATION
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Flow of heat from one place to another by means of electromagnetic waves
(rays).
This is the movement of heat through an empty space. Unlike conduction and
convection the there are no particles involve in movement of heat through
radiation. Heat from the sun reaches us through radiation. Radiation of
substances is, described in terms of heat absorption and emission.
Absorption of heat
This refers to the rate at which heat is taken into an object. Different surfaces
absorb heat at different rates. The set-up below is of an activity to investigate
absorption of heat by different surfaces.
Observation
The can with black colour recorded higher temperatures while the one that is
silver in colour, recorded lower temperatures.
Conclusion
Black surfaces or dull coloured surfaces are good absorbers of heat whereas
silvery or light coloured surfaces are poor absorbers of heat. This is because
lightly coloured or silvery coloured surfaces reflected heat outwards.
Emission of heat
This refers to the release of heat to the surrounding. The set-up below is of an
activity to investigate emission of heat by different surfaces.
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Observations
The side with a black or dull surface feels warmer than the one with white or
bright colour even though the hands were, placed at the same distance from the
cans.
Conclusion
Black or dull coloured surfaces are good emitters of heat whereas white or bright
coloured surfaces are poor emitters of heat. This is because white or bright
coloured surfaces reflected heat inwards.
Homework
1. Which colour of a cup will keep tea hotter for a long time (white or black)?
Explain your answer.
2. Why is, the backside of an electric heater usually painted silvery?
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The silvery surfaces reduce heat loss or gain by radiation.
The vacuum prevents heat gain or loss by conduction and convection.
A plastic cork reduces heat gain or loss by conduction and convection.
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The greenhouse effect: it absorbs heat from the sun to warm plants inside. The
glass traps the light rays inside through reflection to maintain the temperature
even during gold days or nights.
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MODULE 6: HEALTH AND SAFETY
UNIT 6.5- HYGIENIC SURROUNDING
VENTILATION
Ventilation refers to the movement of air into and out of a building. Poor
ventilation is a serious health hazard and can cause some airborne diseases and
illnesses. The house is also often hot and stuffy. The diagram below shows
ventilation in a traditional and modern house.
Homework
1. State any, one common injury in everyday life and state how, they can be
prevented.
2. Name any one, safety device and state its uses.
3. State any one, effects of poor ventilation.
SANITATION
This deals with the removal proper disposal of sewage and other domestic
refuse. Improper disposal of these wastes is also a health hazard. It can attract
vectors of disease causing organisms and spread diseases such as cholera,
diarrhea, bilharzias, polio, typhoid and dysentery and pollutes water.
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MODULE 7: THE HUMAN BODY
UNIT 7.3-COMMUNICATION IN ANIMALS
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
The nervous system is a body system which allows the body to detect a stimulus
and react accordingly. It is made up of the central nervous system and the
peripheral nervous system.
Stimulus: change in the surrounding: heat, cold, pain, sound, texture, taste etc.
a. Central nervous system
The central nervous system (CNS) is, made up of the brain and the spinal cord.
The brain: This is the main organ of the central nervous system which
coordinates and controls most nerve activities. It is responsible for voluntary
actions.
Spinal cord: runs down from the brain and consist of nervous tissue which is
connected to receptor and effector organs. It is involved in reflex (involuntary)
actions.
b. Peripheral nervous system
It includes all the nerves in the body. It is made up of nerve cells called neurone,
receptor and effector organs.
Receptor: a sense organ like eyes, ears, nose, skin and tongue. They detect
stimuli.
Effector: organs such as muscle, glands which can produce a response to a
particular situation.
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Neurone (nerve cell): a specialised cell which can transmit electrical
messages(nerve impulses) around the body. There are three types of neurone:
a. Sensory neurone: transmit nerve impulses from the receptor to the central
nervous system.
b. Relay/connecting neurone: pick up information from the sensory neurone, and
passes new information to the motor neurone to initiate a response. They are
often found in the central nervous system.
c. Motor neurone: transmit nerve impulses from the central nervous system to the
effectors.
There are two types of responses/ actions determined by the central nervous
system.
Voluntary and involuntary actions
The way the bodies respond to the stimuli or massages differs, and responses
resulting from them are, classified as voluntary or involuntary.
Voluntary actions
They are controlled by ones‟ will. They are, interpreted and controlled by the
brain e.g. walking, talking and dancing.
Involuntary/ reflex actions
They are, not controlled by one‟s will. They are not interpreted by the brain
therefore the decision or response taken did not involve thinking e.g. heartbeat,
blinking, salivating, sweating, shivering and breathing.
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HORMONES
These are chemical substances produced by endocrine glands to control
functions of specific organs. They are, transported to their specific targets by
blood. Below is the diagram of the endocrine system.
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Thyroxin Thyroid glands Throughout life Control metabolic
rate
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MODULE 8: ELECTRICAL AND MAGNETISM
UNIT 8.1- ELECTRICAL ENERGY
CIRCUITS
An electric circuit is a path followed by an electric current through interconnected
devices to achieve a certain electric effect. Circuit diagrams are usually used; to
represent the path followed by an electric current. The components of a circuit
are, represented by symbols. Below are symbols of common components of
electrical circuits:
Component Name Symbol
Cell
Bulb
Resistor
Switch
Ammeter
Voltmeter
Fuse
There are two types of circuits. These are Series circuit and parallel circuit.
The two depend on the arrangement of components in a circuit. The diagrams
below show these.
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Series circuit
Components are arranged in such a way that there is only one path for current to
follow.
The current from the source is equal across all components in the circuit.
The potential difference [P.d] across the battery is equal to the sum of all p.d‟s
across the components. (P.d changes across the circuit)
If one component stops working then no current will flow through the circuit.
Parallel circuit
Components are arranged in such a way that there can be more than one path
for current to follow.
Current splits up and passes through each branch at the same time. The size of
current at each branch totally depends upon the resistance of the branch.
The total current is equal to the sum of all currents in the branches.
If one component stops working, current can still flow to other components.
ELECTRIC CURRENT
An electric current is the flow of electrons. It can also be defined as the flow of
electric charge (electron) through a conductor.
It is measured in ampere (A) using an instrument called an ammeter. The
ammeter is, connected in series with the components. Current flows from the
positive to the negative of the source. For current to flow there must be a
complete circuit or closed circuit.
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NB note how the ammeter is, connected in relation to the circuit components.
The total current entering a junction in a circuit is equal to the total current
leaving it.
POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE
Potential difference is the force that drives electrons through a circuit. It is, also
referred to as voltage or electro-motive force. It is measured in volts (V) using
an instrument called a voltmeter. A voltmeter is, connected parallel to a
component.
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Voltage in a Parallel Circuit
In a parallel circuit the voltage across components are equal to the voltage
produced by the source. V =V = V .
T 1 2
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MODULE 9: THE SOLAR SYSTEM
UNIT 9.1- EARTH SYSTEMS
STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH
Earth is spherical and consists of three main layers. The main layers are the
core, mantle and the crust. Below is the diagram showing layers of the earth:
The crust
It is the outer most layer of the earth. It is made up mainly of solid rocks and
consists of two layers. These are the continental crust which is made up of silica
and aluminum and the oceanic crust which is made up of silica and
magnesium.
The mantle
This is below the crust. It is semi solid due to high pressure and high
temperature. It consists of iron and magnesium.
The core
The core is the innermost part of earth. It consists of the inner core and outer
core. The outer core is a liquid that is made up mainly of iron and nickel. The
inner core is a solid mainly due to extreme pressure. It is made up of iron.
Earthquakes
This is the shaking of ground caused by the sudden movements of tectonic
plates in the earth‟s crust and upper mantle. It is, caused by a sudden release of
energy in earth‟s crust that creates vibrations called seismic waves. The area
under the ground where the earthquake originates is the focus (hypocenter)
whereas the area directly above it on the surface of the ground is, known as the
epicenter. The diagram below shows the focus and epicenter:
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The magnitude of earthquakes is, measured in seismometer and is, recorded on
a seismograph. The Richter magnitude scale is a quantity used to quantify the
magnitude of the earthquake.
Tsunamis
This is a huge wave of water that begins when the sea floor is violently, shaken
by earthquakes, volcanic eruption and other underwater explosions and
landslides. This huge amount of amount of energy is, carried in the seismic
waves as it travels.
Volcanic eruption
This is whereby hot molten rocks (magma) from the mantle breaks through the
earth‟s crust. The magma shoots up through the volcanic pipe. When the magna
reaches the surface, it is, called lava. The diagram below shows a volcanic
eruption:
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Droughts can cause, crops fail, and livestock die which brings hanger and
famine and consequently death to people.
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