MODULE 1: SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY

UNIT 1.3- GENE TECHNOLOGY

GENETIC ENGINEERING
Genetic engineering is a method of biotechnology that involves manipulation and combination of
organisms‟ genes to produce organisms with particular characteristics. Genes are part of a
chromosome that carries information for specific characteristics. They control characteristics that
we inherit from our parents (genetic characteristics), hence are sometimes referred to as units of
inheritance. Below is structure showing a gene:

The technology of genetic engineering

In genetic engineering scientists take specific gene from one organism and put it into the DNA of
another organism. In this way, they take the desired characteristics from one species and put it into
another species. This result in organisms called genetically modified organisms, or GMOs. Below
are, the steps followed in manipulating genes:
 Identifying genes with characteristics needed.
 Removing the needed genes from the organism
 Transferring the gene to another organism that grows fast e.g. bacteria or yeast
 The gene is transferred into an organisms whose characteristics are being changed

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The significance of genetic engineering
Benefits of Genetic engineering are very significant to area such as medicine, agriculture, forensic
science and energy generation.
Medicine
Human insulin genes are, transferred to bacteria, to enable them to produce insulin used for treating
sugar diabetes. Growth hormone can also be produced is a similar way and be used to treat children
who do not grow.
Agriculture
Genes are, transferred to plants and animals to make them bigger and resistant to pests, diseases,
drought and frost. Some genetically modified foods include rice, potatoes, melons and tomatoes.
Forensic science
Genetic material can be, used in solving crimes, paternity tests or genetic fingerprinting to identify
bodies of unidentified people involved in accidents or in crimes such as murder.
Energy generation
Some plants such as oilseed or rapeseed are, grown for their oil, which is, used for cooking. It can
also be converted into a bio-fuels and used in vehicle engines or generate energy. Their yield can
be, improved by the use of genetic modification.

Potential benefits of genetic engineering

 Creation of human beings and other organisms (clones) from DNA.
 Curing diseases that are in incurable such as cancer.

Limitations of genetic engineering

 Harmless organism maybe changed into harmful ones.
 GM crops may kill organisms they are, not intended to.
 Genetic engineering is very expensive.

Ethical and moral issues on genetic engineering

 Some people see genetically modified food and organisms as being unnatural.
 Some people view using organisms in laboratory for research as being cruel to them.

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 MODULE 2: PLANTS, ANIMALS AND THE ENVIRONMENT
UNIT 2.1-LIVING MATTER
ADAPTATION
Adaptation refers to the change in organisms that makes them suited to a particular environment. There are
three types of adaptations, namely structural, behavioral and physical. Structural adaptation involves the
body of an organism developing in certain shape to help suit its survival. Physical adaptation involve
developing certain features to help their survival whereas behavioral involve reacting in a certain way to a
stimuli in order to survive.

Adaptation in plants
Plants may be adapted to live and grow in wet and dry conditions. The most common adaptation of plants in
Botswana is usually to live and grow in dry conditions.

Adaptation to dry conditions

 They develop long tap roots to absorb water deep underground e.g. baobab
 Develop large fleshy stem to store as much water as possible e.g. cactus
 They have thorny leaves to reduce water loss by transpiration e.g. cactus
 They also shreds leaves in dry season (winter) to reduce water loss by transpiration.

Adaptation to wet conditions

 They develop small or short roots to absorb small amount of water e.g. water lily
 They have large leaves to increases water loss by transpiration e.g. water lily

Adaptations in animals
Animals maybe adapted to survive predators, dry conditions, cold conditions, competition for food and to be
able to catch preys. Below is how some animals are adapted to their environment:
 A chameleon can camouflage itself to hide from predators.
 A camel defecate dry faeces and urinate small amount of urine to help them live in dry conditions.
 Polar bears have thick fur and thick layer of fat to help them live in very cold temperatures.
 Giraffes have a long neck to avoid competition for food.
 A chameleon has a tongue that can stretch to catch its prey from a distance.
 A camel has a hump with fats in by which can be converted to water.

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Human activities that impact negatively on plants and animal adaptations
Some human activities change the environment greatly and quickly. This usually makes it unbearable and
usually makes organisms not adapted to the new environment die before they could adapt. Below are some of
the human activities that have a negative impact on plants and animal adaptation.
 Overgrazing and deforestation lives the ground bare and dry.
 Building of dams flood large areas
 Burning of fossil fuels and bush fires lead to global warming(Increase in world temperatures)

Predicting effects of human activities on adaptation

Looking at the current human activities especially those leading to climatic change, scientists predicts that the
following will happen to living organisms found on earth:
 Earth will be so hot that all animals not adapted to living in hot conditions will die.
 Polar ice caps will melt which may kill organisms adapted to hunting on ice.
 Sea levels will rise causing floods in low-lying areas and kill organisms not adapted to living in water.
 Pollution will cause migration or death to some organisms

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 UNIT 2.4- ECOSYSTEMS
CHARATERISTICS OF ECOSYSTEMS
An ecosystem refers to all living and non-living things in a habitat. It can also be, referred to as a
community of living things and the way they interact with their environment. An ecosystem is, made
up of a, community, populations, habitat and the environment.
A community, refers to all living things found in a habitat.
Population is the total number of given species found in a habitat.
A habitat means an area where organisms live e.g. pond, trees and hills.

Relationships between organisms in an ecosystem

Organisms in an ecosystem do not live in isolation; they interact and depend on each other in one-
way or another. The relations include competition, predator-prey and symbiosis relationships.
Competition
This refers to whereby organisms compete with one another for food, water, space and sunlight.
Predator-prey relationship
This is a situation whereby one organism is the hunter (predator) while the other one is the hunted
(prey).e.g. lion and a zebra.
Symbiosis
This is whereby two species live together in an intimate relationship which may entails one living in,
on or every close to another. The relation can be grouped into; mutualism, commensalisms or
mutualism.
Mutualism
This is whereby, organisms of different species live side by side and both benefits from the
relationship e.g. cattle and cattle egret.
Commensalisms
This is whereby, organisms live side-by-side and only one benefit but the other is not hurt or made to
suffer by the relationship e.g. cattle and cattle egret.
Parasitism
This is whereby, organisms, live closer together and only one benefit while the other one is hurt or
made to suffer by the relationship e.g. ticks and cattle.

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 FEEDING RELATIONSHIPS
We learnt that organisms relate with one another in different ways. These include for food. Food
supply affects the population size in different ways.
Increase in food supply usually leads to increase in population size while decrease in food supply
usually leads to decrease in population size. Predation and overgrazing also have an effect on the
size of population. The diagram below shows effect of food supply, predation and overgrazing on
population size:

Energy flow in living things

The energy used by living things during respiration originally comes from the sun. Plants leaves trap
it during photosynthesis. For this reason, plants are referred to as, producers because they produce
their own energy from the sun. Other organisms like animals do not produce their own energy. They
get energy from eating plants. These are consumers. Consumers can be, grouped into three other
groups, namely, primary consumers, secondary consumers and tertiary consumers.

Primary consumers
These organisms feed on plants only. They are herbivores. Primary consumers get their energy from
plants e.g. goats, cows and zebras.
Secondary consumers
These feed mainly on herbivores (primary consumers). They are carnivores. They get their energy
from primary consumers e.g. cheetah, leopard and eagle. OMNIVORES( feeds on both plants and
animals) also can fall on this groups e.g. humans and monkeys.

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Tertiary consumers
These feed on secondary consumers. They are carnivores that can eat other carnivores. They get
their energy from secondary consumers e.g. hyena, vulture and crow.
The flow of energy from one organism to another can also be shown using diagrams. These include
food chains, food webs and food pyramid.
Food chain
A linear diagram showing feeding relationship between one organism and the next.
This uses arrows to show how a given organism passes energy to other organisms. It starts with
producers, followed by primary consumers then secondary consumers and ends with tertiary
consumers. Below is an example of a food chain:

Grass Goat Lion Vulture

Food web
A network of interrelated food chains representing the complex feeding relationships of organisms in
an ecosystem. This is a network of food chains. It shows how energy flow among the many
organisms found in a habitat. It differs from a food chain because it shows a greater number of
different organisms depending on one particular organism. Below is the diagram of an example of a
food web:

Food pyramid
This shows the amount of energy passed from one feeding level to another. It is also, used to show
the number of organisms eaten at each tropic (feeding) level. A food pyramid can be, referred to as
stable or unstable. Below are examples of the two types of, food pyramids:
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 A stable food pyramid An unstable food pyramid
The size/number of organisms at a higher trophic level becomes smaller in a stable food pyramid.
This is because at each trophic level the organisms use up most of its energy obtained in respiration
and other metabolic reactions which is then changed to other forms of energy e.g. heat energy which
is the released to the environment. This leaves less (about 10%) energy to be passed to the next
higher trophic level.
Concentration of pollutants through food chains
Concentration of pollutants often increases as the pollutant is, moved from, one tropic level to
another. Tertiary consumers are often the most affected. Increase in concentration of pollutants in
bodies of organisms as they, (pollutants) move across food chains are, called:
a) Bioaccumulation: meaning that if an organism consumes a pollutant/poison it does not leave its body
cells when it dies, therefore it will be passed on to the next organism that will feed on it.
b) Biomagnifications: meaning that pollutant/poison will increase from one trophic level to the next e.g.
if rats are poisoned and the amount of poison in each rat is 10mg, this will probably not kill the rat. The
eagle will eat about 10 rats every day. Because the poison never left the body of the rat
(bioaccumulation) it will be passed on to the eagle.
10mg (1 rat) × 10 (number of rats eaten) = 100mg (poison in the body of an eagle)

The poison found in the body of the eagle is ×10 the poison in the rats. This will probably kill the

eagle but this poison was not made to kill the eagle but the rats.

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 UNIT 2.5- SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN FLOWERING PLANTS
REPRODUCTIVE PARTS OF A FLOWER

A flower is the reproductive organ for flowering plants. It is made up of, two main parts. The male
part called, stamen and the female part called the pistil. The stamen is made up of, the filament and
the anther while the pistil is made up of the stigma, style, ovary and ovules. Below is the structure of
a flower:

Functions of parts of a flower

Parts Functions
Anther Produces the male sex cells
Filament Supports the anther
Stigma Receives pollen
Style Directs and guide pollen towards ovules
Ovary Produces female sex cells
Petals Attracts insects
Sepals Protect the flower while in the bud stage
Stalk Attaches and holds the flower to the
flower

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 POLLINATION
This is the transference of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma. There are two types of
pollination, self-pollination and cross-pollination.
Self-pollination happens when pollen grains are transferred from the anther to the stigma of the
same flower or within flowers in the same plant.
Cross-pollination happens when pollen grains are transferred from the stigma in different plants of
the same species. There diagrams below shows the two forms of pollination:
Self pollination

Cross- pollination

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Agents of pollination
These are things that helps carry pollen grains from the anther to the stigma. There are two agents
of pollination. These are wind and insects. Flowers that are insect pollinated differ from those that
are wind pollinated. The table below shows some differences between insect and wind pollinated
flowers:

Parts of a flower Wind pollinated Insect pollinated

Small Big
Petals Dull coloured Brightly coloured
No nectar or scent Have a scent and nectar
Long and feathery Are straight and stiff
Stigma Hangs out the flower Inside petals
Hang loosely outside Stiff, firmly attached and
Anther and the petals. closed in petals.
filament

FERTILIZATION
This refers to the process through which the male sex cells fuses with the female sex cells to form a
zygote. This happens after a successful pollination. The diagrams below shows the steps involved in
fertilization:

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 1. Germination
This is the first stage in by which pollen grain brought by the agents lands on the stigma. The pollen
sucks chemicals from the stigma to form a pollen tube. This is called activation of pollen tube.
2. Growth of the pollen tube
The pollen tube grows from the stigma through the style to the ovary. The pollen grain will travel
through the pollen tube to the ovary.
3. Fertilization
When pollen grain reaches the ovary male gametes are released and they fuse with the ovule in the
ovary to form a zygote.

After fertilization, a fertilised seed (zygote) develops into a seed. A seed is formed from ovules. The
seed is also contained in a fruit that formed from the swelling of the ovary.
Changes in the flower after fertilization
 Petals and stamen dry up and fall off.
 Each fertilised ovule develops into a seed.
 Each ovary develops into a fruit.

SEED DISPERSAL
This is the process through which seeds are scattered away from their parent plant.
This is important as:
 Prevents competition for water, sunlight and mineral salts.
 It avoids extinction as it allows seeds to be scattered and to germinate at different areas.

Seeds are, dispersed through; water, animals, wind and self.

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Animal dispersal
Seed that are, animal dispersed often have the following characteristics to help them to be, carried
away by animals.

 The look fleshy, taste and are edible.

 Usually have hooks.

Wind dispersal
Seed that are, dispersed by wind often away or a combination of the following characteristics so that
they can be, easily carried away by wind.

 They are very light in weight.

 Have wing-like structures
 Have parachute-like shape

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Self-dispersal

Seed that are usually self-dispersed have the following characteristics so that they can shoot away
seeds.

 Contained in pods
 The pods have a spring-like mechanism through which they throw away seeds.

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 MODULE 3: MATERIALS AND THEIR PROPERTIES
UNIT 3.1-THE NATURE OF MATTER
DISSOLUTION OF MATTER

Dissolution refers to the process of dissolving a solute in a solvent to form a solution.

A solute is a soluble substance that dissolves in a solvent to form a solution.
A solvent is a liquid in which a solute dissolves to form a solution.
A solution is a mixture in which a solute has dissolved in a solvent.
Substances that that dissolve are, said to be, soluble while those that do not dissolve are, said to
be, insoluble.

Universal solvent
This is a liquid that dissolves all known solutes in the whole world. In reality there is no such liquid.
Why water is sometimes referred to as a universal solvent
Water is sometimes referred to as a universal solvent because almost all known solutes dissolve
in it. It is also because it dissolves more solutes than any other known solvents.
Why water is such a good solvent?
The chemical makeup of water means that the molecule of water is electrically charged (positive
hydrogen and negative oxygen).
This means that any solute which carries a charge (polar molecules) will be attracted to either the
positive nor negative charge of water molecule hence dissolving.
This makes water to be a good solvent for molecules which carry a charge.

TYPES OF SOLUTIONS
Concentration of solutions
Concentration refers to the measure of how much solute is present in a given amount of a solution.
Solutions with a lot of solute in it are, said to be concentrated while those with less solute in them
are, said to be, dilute. The concentration of solutions is, calculated as follows:
1. Concentration per volume of solvent
(a) Calculate the concentration of a solution which has 200g of salt dissolved in 1000cm³ of water.

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Concentration=

Concentration = = 0.2g/cm³
2. Percentage of mass concentration
(a) Calculate percentage concentration of solution which has mass of 80g, it contains 16g of salt.

Concentration = x 100

% concentration = X 100= 20%

Saturation of solutions
Unsaturated solutions: solutions which can still dissolve more of a solute in them at a particular
temperature.
Saturated solutions: solutions that can no longer dissolve any solute in it at a particular
temperature. Supersaturated solution: Solutions that contain more solute in them than they can
normally hold at a particular temperature/pressure.
Application of saturated and supersaturated solution
 Carbonated/ fizzy drinks: they are supersaturated solutions of carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide is
dissolved under high pressure hence when the can is opened it forms bubbles (fizzy) as the gas
escapes.
 Rain: surface water evaporates to form a saturated solution of water vapour in the atmosphere. When
that happens vapour starts to form water droplets then form rain.
 Deep sea diving: deep under the sea there is high pressure than on the surface of the sea. When sea
divers dive to great depth under water pressure causes nitrogen to dissolve more easily to form a
supersaturated solution in the blood.
If the diver returns quickly to the surface the nitrogen comes out of their blood to form gas bubbles just
like what carbon dioxide does when you open the fizzy drink. This situation can be fatal and its called
The Bends.
 Mining salt: when rain water goes underground it dissolves the salt in rocks. This forms a saturated
solution of salt underground. The water evaporates, leaving behind salt crystals on the surface.

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 UNIT 3.3-COMPONENTS OF AIR
Air is a mixture of gases. Dry air is, made up of nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide and other gases. If
air is not dry it will also contain water vapours. The table below shows the percentages of gases that
make up air:

Gas Percentage
Nitrogen 78%
Oxygen 21%
Carbon dioxide 0.03
Other gases 0.97

CARBON DIOXIDE
Carbon dioxide makes up 0.03% of gases found in the atmosphere. It plays a very important role in
our environment, bodies and in industry. It is therefore important to know how it can be, produced.

Producing carbon dioxide

Carbon dioxide can be, produced by a reaction between an acid and a carbonate. Carbonates are
chemicals such as, calcium carbonate and magnesium carbonate. The set up below shows how
carbon dioxide is, produced in the laboratory:

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Procedure
 Set the aparatus as shown in the figure above
 Put the crystals/ powder of a carbonate into the test tube.
 Pour an acid into the testube with the carbonate.
 Observe.

Obsevations
 Bubbles are vissible in both the test tube and water in the gas jar.
 Level of water goes down

Explanation
 Bubbles proves that a gas is produced.
 Level of the water goes down shows that the gas is less dense than water therefore taking up the
space on top of the water.

The word equation below shows the general equation for the production of carbon dioxide in the
laboratory.

Acid + Carbonate Salt + Carbon dioxide gas +

Water
Hydrochloric acid +calcium carbonate calcium chloride + carbon dioxide gas +
water

Testing for carbon dioxide

Test: bubble the gas in colourless lime water

Positive results: colourless lime water turns milky.
Negative results: colourless lime water remains the same.

Properties of carbon dioxide

 It does not support burning
 A gas at room temperature.
 Poisonous at very high concentration.
 Freezes at - 78⸰c to form dry ice (solid carbon dioxide)

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  It is soluble in water.
 It turns limewater from clear to milky.
 It is denser than air.
 It is colourless, odourless and tasteless

Uses of carbon dioxide

 To make carbonated or fizzy drinks because it is soluble in water.
 In fire extinguishers to put off fire because it does not support burning.
 As dry ice to keep things frozen
 For baking to make dough rise
 Essential for photosynthesis in plants

OXYGEN
Oxygen makes about 21% of gases that makes up our atmosphere. It plays a very important role in
bodies of living organisms. Though plants produce most of it naturally during photosynthesis, it can
also be, produced in the laboratory. Oxygen is produced by decomposition (break apart) of
hydrogen peroxide to produce oxygen gas and water. This is a very slow process hence it requires
the use of a catalyst called manganese (IV) oxide. A catalyst is a chemical that speeds up a reaction
without it actually being used up.The diagram below shows a set up used to prepare for oxygen:

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Procedure
 Set up the apparatus as shown in the diagram above.
 Add manganese (iv) oxide to the conical flask.
 Add hydrogen peroxide through the dropping funnel slowly.
 Observe.

Observations
 Bubbles are observed in the gas jar with water.
 Level of the water goes down

Explanation
 Bubbles proves that a gas is produced.
 Level of the water goes down shows that the gas is less dense than water therefore taking up the
space on top of the water.

Below is the word equation for the reaction

Hydrogen Peroxide oxygen gas + water

Test for oxygen

Test: collect the gas and introduce a glowing splint.
Positive result: it relights the glowing splint.
Negative result: glowing splint does not catch a flame.

Properties of oxygen
 It supports burning / it is flammable
 It is not poisonous even at high concentration.
 It is slightly soluble in water
 It is colourless, odourless and tasteless

Uses of oxygen
 For medical purposes to help patients who can‟t breathe
 It is, mixed with acetylene to melt or cut steel because it is flammable.
 To support divers and mountain climber‟s lives at the altitudes they can‟t breathe.
 Mixed with hydrogen to make rocket fuel because both gases are flammable.

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 Essential for respiration in living things.
 Used in medicine for patients with breathing problems.

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 UNIT 3.4- CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS
The type of building materials used by people depends on the part of the country where those people
are found.

LOCALLY AVAILABLE MATEERIALS

i) Thatching grass

ii) Concrete tiles

iii) Corrugated iron

iv) Clay bricks

v) Wood from trees

vi) Cow dung

vii) Sand, cement, gravel and glass

PROPERTIES OF BUILDING MATERIALS

MATERIAL GOOD PROPERTIES BAD PROPERTIES

Grass Readily available. Does not Burns easily, can be eaten
need any skills by animals. Need to be
replaced from time to time
Cow dung Readily available Not water resistant
Wood from trees Readily available Rot with time
Corrugated iron Very strong, fire resistant, Need skilled labour,
water resistant expensive, hot in summer
Cement Strong, water resistant Need skilled labour,
expensive

Glass Allows light into the house Break easily, need skilled
labour and expensive

USES OF BUILDING MATERIALS

MATERIAL USE
GRASS Thatching/roofing
COW DUNG Mixed with clay to make bricks
WOOD Holding thatch
CEMENT Making bricks, plastering, joining bricks
CORREGATED IRON Roofing
GLASS Making windows

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 INSULATION
Insulation in buildings refers to building a house in such a way that it prevents heat loss or gain
within them. In buildings insulation depend on; the type of materials used for roofing, the
presence of ceiling and thickness of walls. The set-up below is of an activity used to investigate
the suitability of building materials for insulation:

Observations
 The house without ceiling recorded higher temperatures than the house with ceiling.
 The house with a single wall recorded higher temperatures than the house with double
walls.
 Houses roofed with corrugated iron recorded higher temperatures than house with
thatched roof.

Conclusion
Material that are, suitable for insulation in a building, include, the use of thatch for roofing, double
walls and the presence of ceiling.

CONTROLLING HEAT RADIATION IN BUILDINGS

Heat loss or gain can be, further improved in a house by the position of windows, roof overhang, and
the colour of houses. These control or determine the amount of heat radiation from the sun that
enters or leaves the house.

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Effect of window positioning
The set-up below is of an activity to investigate effects of window position on heat radiation in and
out of a building.

Observation
The house with windows facing the sun recorded higher temperatures than the one with windows
facing away from the sun.
Conclusion
Houses with windows facing the sun allows heat radiation from the sun into the house hence, will
be very hotter in summer while those with windows away from the sun allows less heat to enter
them hence will be cooler in summer.

Effect of roof overhang

The set-up below is of an activity to investigate effects of roof overhang on heat radiation into and
out of a building.

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Observations
The house model with a longer roof overhang recorded lower temperatures than the one without a
roof overhang.
Conclusion
Roof over hangs prevents heat radiation from the sun from entering a house hence houses with
longer roof overhang will be cooler in summer than the ones with shorter roof overhang.

House colour
The set-up below is of an activity to investigate effects of house colour on heat radiation into and out
of a building.

Observation
The house models with black colour and grey colour recorded higher temperatures while the one
with white colours recorded lower temperatures.

Conclusion
Dull (black) colours allow too much heat to enter the house whereas bright (white) colours do not
allow too much heat to enter the house. This is because, dull colours are good absorbers of heat
while bright colours are bad absorbers of heat (reflect heat) hence houses with black or dull colour
will be warmer in summer and cooler in winter compared to those with bright colours.

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 MODULE 4: SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
HUMAN REPRODUCTION
PREGNANACY
Pregnancy refers to a period after fertilization when a woman has a baby growing in her womb.
Pregnancy last for 9 months or 40 weeks. Fertilization refers to the process by which the male sex
cell (sperms) fuses with the female sex cells (ova). The result of fertilization is, called a zygote. It
then grows and develops into a morula, blastocyst, embryo and then foetus. Below are diagrams
showing the developmental stages of an embryo:

Signs of pregnancy
 Production of the hormone Human Chorionic Gonadotropin (HCG)
 Missed period
 Morning sickness
 Swollen belly

Extra- embryonic membranes

Immediately after fertilisation the zygote moves to the uterus where it attaches itself in walls of the
uterus. This is called implantation. Once implantation is complete, the embryo develops within the
walls of the uterus. The developments include the development of the placenta, umbilical cord,
amniotic sac and the amniotic fluid. Below is the diagram showing an embryo developing within the
uterus:

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 PART FUNCTIONS

Placenta It allows for the exchange of substances between the baby and
the mother. Also attaches the baby to the mother.

Umbilical cord It connects the embryo to the placenta. It also transports

substances between the baby and the placenta.

Amniotic sac It surrounds and holds the baby in place. It also produces
amniotic fluid.

Amniotic fluid It acts like a cushion that protects the embryo from external
shocks.

Stages of birth
1. contractions
2. breaking of the waters
3. dilation of the cervix
4. delivery of the baby
5. delivery of the after birth

Multiple births
This refers to the process whereby two or more babies who have been developing in the same
womb at the same time are born. This happens when two or more ova are, released from the ovary
at the same time and both fertilized leading to fraternal twins. It can also happen when one ovum is,
released, fertilized and then break into two separate cells, which grow and develop into identical
twins. The diagrams below shows how fraternal and identical twins are, formed:

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 Identical twins fraternal twins

Antenatal care
This refers to the care given to pregnant woman before giving birth. It is very important as it helps
make sure the baby grows and develops healthily. Antenatal care includes,
 Not taking substances that are, harmful to the unborn babies‟ health e.g. alcohol, drugs and
tobacco.
 Exercising
 Going for antenatal check ups

Nutritional needs of a pregnant woman

During pregnancy, a woman needs to eat a balanced diet. This ensures the baby is, supplied with
all the nutrients he or she needs. The following are some nutrients needed most by a pregnant
mother:
Nutrient needed Importance
Protein For grow and building new tissues in the
foetus.
Calcium For development of strong bones
Iron For the formation of red blood cells

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 CHILDCARE
Babies are very delicate and highly sensitive to their environment. For babies to grow healthily, both
physically and mentally the following care should be, given to them:
 Proper diet and burping
 Bathing and clothing
 Change of nappy
 Clinical check-ups
 Safety

Breast-feeding and bottle-feeding

Breast-feeding Bottle-feeding
The milk is free The milk cost money
Milk contain antibodies Does not contain antibodies
Milk is always of the right temperature Milk is not always of the right
temperature.
Chances of contamination are less. Chances of contamination are high

Nutritional needs of a lactating mother and her baby

The nutritional needs of a breastfeeding mother and her baby are the same as those of a pregnant
woman. However, a lactating mother also needs to increase the intake of fluids to increase milk
production.

IMMUNIZATION
This is the process of preparing the body to fight a disease whenever it attacks it. It makes the body
immune to a disease so that it cannot do any harm to the body. Immunization is, brought about by
vaccination or drop by mouth. The vaccine makes the body produce antibodies to a particular
disease. When the organism that causes the disease enter the body in future, the body will be, ready
to fight them. Different antibodies are, needed to fight, different diseases.

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Disease Symptom Age(s) of Name of vaccine Method of
immunization vaccination
TB Continuous At birth BCG Injection
coughing and loss
of weight
Polio Paralysis of some 2,3,4 and 18 Polio, Polio, Polio, Drop by mouth
body parts months Polio booster dose (oral drop)
Diphtheria Whitish tonsils at 2,3,4 and 18 DPT, DPT, DPT Injection
the back of the months and DPT Booster
mouth dose
Whooping A cough with a 2,3,4 and 18 DPT, DPT, DPT Injection
cough whoop sound months and DPT Booster
dose
Tetanus Jaws become 2,3,4 and 18 DPT, DPT, DPT Injection
locked months and DPT Booster
dose
Hepatitis Yellowish eyes At birth, 2,3 HBV, HBV, HBV Injection
B and skin and 9 months
Measles Rush with red 9 months Measles Injection
eyes.

Importance of testing for HIV when pregnant

The HIV virus can pass from the mother to the child during pregnancy, labour and breastfeeding. It is
therefore important to test for HIV during pregnancy to prevent mother to child transmission.

Significance of the PMTCT programme

The PMTCT programme is very important as it;

 Helps prevent the transmission of the HIV virus from the mother to her unborn child.
 It also helps prolong the mother‟s life.


30
 MODULE 5: FORCE, MOTION AND ENERGY
UNIT 5.3 INVESTIGATING FORCES
TYPES OF FORCES
A force is referred to as a pull or a push applied by one object on another. Forces usually act in
pairs and each, acting in opposite direction. Arrows are, used to show the direction of forces
acting on a body. The diagram below shows the direction of forces acting on a chair and a person:

Force acting on the person Force acting on the chair

Classification of forces
Forces may be classified as contact and non-contact forces.
Contact forces occurs when objects are physically touching each other e.g. tension force,
frictional and impact force.
Non-contact or action-at-a distance forces result when objects are not in physical contact they act
at a distant e.g. gravitational, magnetic and electrostatic.

Resultant forces
The resultant force is the overall force that results from the action of two or more forces on a body.
how to calculate a resultant force.
When two or more forces acting on a body are facing same direction you add them to get the
resultant force.
When two or more forces are acting on a body towards opposite directions you subtract the opposing
forces.

31
OPPOSITE DIRECTION

60N – 10N = 50N

SAME DIRECTION

1ON + 60N = 70N

Force is a vector quantity therefore resultant force should always be described with magnitude and
direction. On the above examples 50N and 70N describes the magnitude of the force whereas the
arrows shows the direction of the force.

EFFECTS OF FORCES
When force is, applied or exerted on an object it, produces a result. The effects depend on the type
of the force and the object on which it acts. The following are effect of forces:
 It changes shape or size of an object
 It can increase speed or decrease speed of a moving object
 It can change the direction of objects

32
Importance of gravitational force to life on earth
 It pulls objects towards the earth (makes object thrown into space fall back to earth)
 It keeps people or objects from falling off into space.
 It keeps the earth and all planets in their orbit around the sun

FRICTIONAL FORCE
Frictional force is a force that opposes relative motion between two surfaces in contact. Frictional
force in solids depends on the weight of the object and the nature of touching surfaces.
Frictional force in fluids
Fluids refer to gases and liquids. This is, because they flow. Frictional force in fluids is, affected by
the nature of the fluid and surface area or shape of the object moving through the fluid.
Effect of nature of the fluids on frictional force
The set-up below is of an activity to investigate effect of the nature of a fluid on friction.

Observation
The ball fell to the bottom quicker on the measuring cylinder with water and last on the one with
liquid soap.
Conclusion
Liquids with high viscosity (thicker) have more frictional force than those with less viscosity (thin).

Effects of the shape of objects on frictional force

The set-up below is of an activity to investigate effect of shape of an object on friction in fluids.

33
Observations
A streamlined coin reached the bottom of the measuring cylinder quicker than the one that is not
streamlined.
Conclusion
Shape of objects affects their frictional force in fluids. Streamlined objects have less resistance
(frictional force) than those that are not streamlined.

Effects of frictional force

 It generates a lot of heat
 Waste energy
 Slows motion
 Wears off touching surfaces

Application of frictional force in fluids

 For swimming
 Movement of aeroplanes
 Descending through parachutes

Ways of reducing frictional force

 Use of ball bearings
 Use of lubricants
 Streamlining
 Using wheels or rollers

34
 MEASURING FORCE
Force as a quantity could be, measured. An instrument used to measure force is, called a force
meter. The SI-units of force are Newton (N). The diagram below shows a force meter:

Weight is the force of gravity acting on an object. It is also a force hence is, also measured in
Newton. The formula below is, used to calculate weight:

Weight = Mass × Force of gravity

Where g = 10N/kg on Earth and 1/6 × 10N/kg at the moon

The relationship between weight and mass

The greater the mass of an object, the greater is its weight provided they are at the same point and
place. Two objects with the same mass will have the same weights as long as they are on the same
point on earth or at the moon.

The differences between weight and mass

 Weight is the force of gravity acting on an object whereas mass is the amount of matter in an
object.
 Weight decreases as one moves from earth to the moon whereas mass remain the same
wherever you go.
 Weight is a vector quantity whereas mass is a scalar quantity.

35
 ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
Atmospheric pressure refers to the amount of force applied against a surface by the weight of air
above that surface. It is the amount of force of air acting over an area. A barometer is the instrument
used to measure pressure. There are two types of them, mercury and aneroid barometer. The SI-
units of atmospheric pressure are the Pascal (Pa). Other units include millimeters of mercury
(mmHg), atmospheres (atm), bars and millibar (mb), which are mostly, used in weather. Below is
the diagram of a mercury barometer:

Normal atmospheric pressure at sea level = 760 mm Hg

Low atmospheric pressure = less 760 mm Hg
High atmospheric pressure = Greater 760 mm Hg
Pressure in Pascal is, calculated from the formula below:

Pressure (Pa) = Height of mercury (h)× Density of mercury(ρ) × Force of gravity (g)
Where, h = 760mm ρ = 13.6 g/cm³ g = 9.8N/kg

101300Pa = 101.3KPa = 1atm = 760mmHg = 1bar =1000mb

Effects of pressure
 It enables us to suck liquids through straws.
 It makes rubber suckers to stick on surfaces.
 Makes cans with less pressure in them collapse.
 It makes it difficult to open containers with less pressure in them.
 Ears pop when you climb up the cliff.
36
  Helps us to breath in and out.

Predicting the type of weather from weather charts

Weather can be predicted using isobar patterns in a weather chart. Isobars are lines that connect
points of equal atmospheric pressure in an area. When the lines are closer to each other, it indicates
strong winds. When they are far apart, they indicate light or calm winds. Below is a chart showing
isobar patterns of a given area:

A high (H) is an area of high pressure surrounded by lower pressure. A low (L) is an area of low
pressure surrounded by high pressure. If pressure drops rapidly, there is greater chance of rain. If
the pressure rises rapidly, it is associated with clearing of the skies.
Wind blows from an area of high pressure to an area of low pressure.
The wind caries air with vapour, therefore water vapour is blown towards area of low pressure hence
expectation of rain.

37
 UNIT 5.4- MOTION
LINEAR MOTION
Linear motion refers to the movement of an object along a straight line. Motion can be, described in
terms of distance, displacement, speed, velocity and acceleration.
Distance
This is the description of how far apart two objects are. It is the actual length between two points
along a given path.
Displacement
It is the shortest distance between two given points in a stated direction. It can also be described as
how far is the object displaced from its original position.
Both Distance and Displacement use the SI unit of meter(m).
The difference between distance and displacement
Distance is a scalar quantity whereas displacement is a vector quantity. Distance is the actual length
from one point to another along a path whereas displacement is the shortest distance between two
points in a stated direction.
Speed
This refers to the rate at which an object moves. It can also be, defined as the distance traveled in
unit time. The SI-units for measuring speed is meters per second (m/s). Below is the formula for
calculating speed:
Speed = Distance ÷ Time
Velocity
It refers to the rate at which an object moves in a particular direction. It can also be, said to be, the
speed of an object in a particular direction. The units of velocity are the same as those of speed.
Below is the formula for calculating velocity:
Velocity = displacement ÷ Time

The differences between speed and velocity

Speed is a scalar quantity whereas velocity is a vector quantity.

38
Acceleration
This refers to the rate of change of velocity or to the increase of velocity over time. The opposite of
acceleration is deceleration. The units of acceleration are m/s² whereas those for deceleration are –
m/s².

Acceleration = or a=

UNIFORM AND NON-UNIFORM MOTION

Uniform motion
This is refers to when an object moves at a constant velocity in one direction. In this case, both the
velocity and direction does not change. Object with uniform motion has:
a. Constant or uniform velocity
b. Zero acceleration

Non-uniform
This is when the motion of object changes. In this case, it could be the velocity that changes or the
direction or both. Change in velocity tells that the object is travelling at non uniform velocity. The
change in velocity could be an acceleration or deceleration. Objects with non-uniform motion have:
a. Accelerating from starting position
b. An object decelerating until it still stops
c. Non uniform velocity

39
Velocity time graphs showing uniform and non- uniform motion

AB: object has non- uniform motion because it is travelling at non- uniform velocity and accelerating
from rest.
BC: object has uniform motion because it is travelling at uniform velocity with zero acceleration.
CD: object has non- uniform motion because its travelling at non- uniform velocity as it is
decelerating to rest.

40
Distance time graph showing uniform and non- uniform motion

AB: Graph is a slope showing non- uniform motion because distance covered every second changes
(increases) because of change (increase) in velocity.
BC: Graph is a straight line showing uniform motion because distance covered stays the same every
second because the object has constant velocity.

41
Motion of objects in fluids
A falling object speeds up when it is, released. As it speeds up fluid friction (resistance/drag) acting
on it increases until it is equal to the weight of the object. As the air resistance, increases the object‟s
acceleration decreases until it can no longer accelerate and moves at a constant velocity called
terminal velocity. Terminal velocity is therefore, the constant velocity of an object falling through a
fluid.
The terminal velocity of an object is the maximum speed that an object can travel at as it falls
through a fluid.
It occurs when the force of gravity on the object is equal to the drag force opposing the movement of
the object. The diagrams below illustrate terminal velocity:

42
Graph showing movement of object in fluids
The graph of a skydiver falling from the sky.

AB: Skydiver is travelling at non uniform velocity as he is accelerating downwards. At this stage
force of gravity is greater than the drag force.
BC: skydiver is travelling at uniform velocity (reached terminal velocity). At this stage force of gravity
is equal to the drag force therefore there is zero resultant force.
CD: the shape of the graph shows rapid deceleration( non-uniform velocity) because the skydiver
has reached the ground level.

43
 MODULE 6: ENERGY
UNIT 5.5- PROPERTIES OF LIGHT
Light has three main properties. These are that it travels in straight lines; it can be, reflected when
it strikes an opaque material and that it can be, refracted when it strikes a transparent material at an
angle.

Reflection
Light rays reaching a shiny surface bounces back. The bouncing back of light when it strikes an
object is, called reflection. If the rays hit a smooth plane, shiny surface such as a mirror, the
reflected rays are uniform or parallel. This is, called regular reflection. If the rays hit a rough
surface, the rays are scattered. This is, called diffuse reflection. The diagrams below show regular
diffuse reflections:

The relationship between the angle of incidence and the angle of reflection
Below are simplified diagrams of rays of light hitting plane mirrors and how they are, reflected.

Laws of reflection
1. Angle of incidence is always equal to angle of reflection
2. Incident .reflected ray and the normal line all lie on the same plane

44
Images formed by plane mirrors
These are flat mirrors. Below is the diagram of an object and its image, as it would appear on a plane
mirror.

The image is
 laterally inverted
 The same distance from the mirror as the object
 The same size as the object
 Virtual or not real
 Always upright

Uses of plane mirrors

 In periscopes
 Kaleidoscope
 Instrument scales
Curved mirrors
There are two types of curved mirrors. These are concave mirror and convex mirrors. A concave
mirror bulges inwards. It has its shiny surface on the inside of the curve. A convex mirror bulges
outwards. Its shiny surface is on the outside of the curve. Below are the diagrams of the two types of
mirrors:

45
 Convex mirror Concave mirror
Images formed by a concave mirror
The diagrams below show images formed by a concave mirror.

The image is
 Bigger than the object when the object is, close to the mirror.
 Upright when the object is close to the mirror.
 Smaller than the object when the object is far from the mirror
 Upside down or inverted when the object is far from the mirror.

Uses of a concave mirror

 Dentists mirror
 Shaving mirror
 Car headlights

46
Images formed by a convex mirror
The diagram below shows images formed by a convex mirror:

The image is
 Always smaller than the object
 Always upright
 Virtual
Uses of a convex mirror
 Security mirrors in shops
 Rear view mirrors in cars

REFRACTION
This is the bending of light, which occurs when it passes through an angle from one transparent
material to another. It is due to the change of speed by light as it enters a material of different
density.
Laws of refraction
1. When the ray enters an optical denser medium from a less dense one (e.g. from air to glass or
water), it bends towards the normal and bends away from the normal when it enters a less
dense material from a denser one (e.g. from glass or water to air).
2. The incident, refracted, emergent ray and the normal lines all lie on the same plane.

47
Refraction through a glass block

When a ray passes through a glass block, it bends towards the normal and when it leaves it bends
away from the normal.
Emergent ray is parallel to the incident ray.

Refraction by a glass prism

When light rays pass through a glass prism they are bent twice, first, towards the normal and then
away from it. Below is the diagram showing refraction by a prism:

Refraction through water

When a stick is placed in a beaker full of water it appears to be bent at a point where it enters the
water. This is because light rays bends when it passes from water into air. The diagram below shows
refraction through water:

48
Refraction of light air to water

 The fish appears as if is close to the fisherman because the light rays from the actual fish bends when
they leave water to air before they reach our eyes.
 This forms a virtual image of the fish close to the surface.
 Real/Actual depth: the distance of the real object from the water surface
 Apparent depth: distance of the image from the surface of the water.

REFRACTION BY LENSES
A lens is a transparent device made of glass to refract light such that it forms images. There are two
main types of lenses. These are diverging (concave) and converging (convex) lenses.

Converging or convex lenses

Converging also known as convex is thicker in the middle than at the ends. It bulges outwards. It
makes parallel rays passing through it to come together (converge) at a point. The point where they
meet is, called the focal point (F). The distance from the centre of the lens to the focal point is,
called the focal length. Thicker lenses have shorter focal points. The diagrams below show convex
lenses and their effects on rays of light.
49
Images formed by convex lenses
Images are
 Upright and magnified when the object is closer to the lens. The diagram below shows this.
 Images are upside down and smaller than the object when the object is far from the lens. The
diagram below shows this.

Uses of convex lenses

 Magnifying glass
 Spectacles to correct long-sightedness
 The eye
 Optical instruments e.g. projector, microscope, camera and telescope

Diverging or concave lenses

Diverging lens also known as concave lens bulges inwards- it is thin in the middle and thicker at the
ends. It makes light rays passing through it to move apart (diverge). The diagram below shows
effects of concave lens on light rays.

50
Images formed by concave lenses
The images are always
 Upright
 Diminished
 Virtual
Uses of convex lenses
 Eye pieces of some optical instruments
 Spectacles to correct shortsightedness

Optical instruments
These are instruments used to aid or help the capabilities of our eyes. Below are some optical
instruments and their uses.

INSTRUMENT USES
Camera It captures images (photographs) of objects.
Projector It enlarges images or pictures from slides.
Microscope To view small objects that is normally difficult to see with naked
eyes.
Telescope To view things far on space e.g. planets and the moon
Binoculars To view objects from a distance e.g. game animals
Periscope To see things over an obstacle e.g. submarines to see things
above water
DISPERSION

51
Dispersion is the process whereby white light splits into its colour components called the spectrum.
The spectrum is made up of seven colours namely; red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and
violet. The diagram below shows dispersion:

How a rainbow is, formed

A rainbow is, formed when white light rays from the sun are, split into colours of the spectrum by
droplets of rain as it passes through them. Colours on a rainbow are of the same as those formed by
the glass prism above.
 Light ray from the sun when enter the water droplet it bends because it moves from one optical
medium (air) to the other (water).
 At the back of the droplet the refracted ray is reflected by a phenomenon called total internal reflection.
 When the reflected ray leaves the water droplet it is refracted again, splits into 7 colours of the
spectrum.

52
 THE EYE
The eye is an organ for seeing. For us to see an object light rays strikes the object and the object
reflect the rays into our eyes. The image is, formed into the retina and sent to the brain for
interpretation. Below is the structure of a human eye:

Functions of the main parts of the eye

PART DESCRIPTION FUNCTION
Cornea Refract light rays towards the lens
Pupil A hole at the center of Allows light entering the eye
the eye
Lens Focuses light rays into the retina
Retina Acts as a screen where images are,
formed.
Optical Transmit impulses to the brain
nerve
Conjunctiva Protects the cornea
Iris Coloured part of the Controls the size of the pupil
eye
Ciliary Control the shape or thickness of the
muscles lens.

HOW WE SEE
We see an object only if light is reflected from the object and it is focused on the retina. To see an object:
53
 h the lens, which bends it even more to focus it on the retina.

brain then interprets and makes sense of the upside down image so that you see it upright.

Pupil reflex action

The size of the pupil changes depending on light intensity. This is to protect the eye from damage by
too much light and to allow enough light to enter the eye. The iris controls the size of the pupil..
When one is in bright light, the iris relaxes to reduce the size of the pupil. This reduces the amount of
light entering the eye. It contracts to increase the size of the pupil when one is in the dark to increase
the amount of light entering the eye. The diagram below shows how the pupil appears when one is in
bright light and when in the dark:

Accommodation
This means the ability of an eye lens to change shape or thickness to focus images on the retina.
The thickness of the eye lens is, controlled by the ciliary muscles. When looking at a closer object
ciliary muscles contract and squeeze the lens, which make it thick. This makes the less have a short
focal length. When looking at a distant object, the muscles relax and release the lens from pressure.
This makes the lens thin and the focal length long. Below is the diagram showing the appearance of
the eye lens for distant and near objects:

54
 Eye defects
Eye defect Problem Cause Correction
Short sighted Cannot see far Images are focused Corrected with
(myopia) away objects in front of the retina: concave spectacle
clearly. lens:

Long sighted Cannot see Images are focused Convex spectacle

(hypermetropia) near objects behind the retina: lens:
clearly.

Astigmatism Cannot focus on Cylindrical lenses

horizontal and are used:
vertical lines at
the same time.
LACK OF Ciliary muscles Use bifocal lenses
ACCOMMODATION
(PRESBYOPIA) lose their (both concave and
flexibility, cannot convex)

55
 focus near or far
objects.

EYE DISEASES
CATARACTS
A cataract is a clouding of the eye lens.
Causes of cataracts
There is no single cause of cataracts. There are, however, number or risk factors that can lead to a person
developing cataracts:
o Old age.
o Repeated exposure to ultraviolet light.
o Cigarette smoking and drugs.
o Diabetes and high alcohol consumption.
o Dehydration.
o Air pollution.

SYMPTOMS AND SIGNS

o A painless blurring of vision.
o Glare, or light sensitivity.
o Poor night vision.
o Double vision in one eye.
o A need for brighter light to read by.

TREATMENT
o Surgically removing the lens that has become opaque, and replacing it with a clear, plastic lens.
o Certain eye drops can be used to reverse cataracts.
o Protection from excessive sunlight using sunglasses that screens out ultraviolet light.

STYES
A stye is a painful red bump located at the base of an eyelash or under or inside the eyelid. It is a small
bacterial infection which looks like a small boil.
SYMPTOMS AND SIGNS
o Redness in the affected area.
o Pain will occur, followed by swelling or redness.
o The eye area will also be tender to touch.
o The eye also becomes sensitive to light.
o The eye may also tend to water and become blurry.

TREATMENT
o Apply antibiotic cream.
o Applying a hot compress for ten minutes, four to six times a day.

NB: do not be tempted to pop a stye as you would to a pimple.

CONJUNCTIVITIS
Conjunctivitis, commonly known as “pink eye”, is an inflammation of the conjunctiva.

56
CAUSES
o Viruses.
o Bacteria such as gonorrhea or Chlamydia.
o Irritants such as shampoos.
o Dirt, smoke, and pool chlorine.
o Allergies to dust, pollen, or a special type of allergy that affects some contact lens wearers.

SYMPTOMS AND SIGNS

o Watery eyes in the early stages.
o Inflammation (redness and swelling) of the conjunctiva.
o Yellowish discharge at later stage.
o Discomfort in the eye with itchiness may be present.

TREATMENT
o Special pink eye drops can relieve the inflammation and itchiness.
o Antibiotics
o A warm wash with cotton wool to dissolve the discharge.

TRACHOMA
This is a very unpleasant eye disease that affects the membranes lining the eye lids and covering the front
part of the eye.
CAUSES
o Trachoma results from an infection by virus- like bacteria called Chlamydia trachomatis.

SYMPTOMS
o Mild itching and irritation of the eye.
o A feeling of sand or grit in the eye.
o Eye redness.
o Watering eyes.
o Swollen eyelids.
o Discharge from the eye containing mucus or pus.

After seven to ten days later, trachoma symptoms include:

o Light sensitivity (photophobia) of the eye.
o Blurred vision.
o Eye pain.

TREATMENT
o In early stages, treatment with antibiotics may be enough to eliminate.
o Treatment of later stages may require a surgery.
o Treatment with antibiotic therapy.

APPLICATIONS OF LIGHT
THE CAMERA (drawing book 2 page 178).
A camera is used for taking photographs or capturing images of objects. When a picture is taken, the shutter
is opened briefly to let light through to the film and then it shuts again. The camera has a lens that will focus

57
the light to the film. The image formed on the film is upside down and after the film is developed, you will see
the picture up right.

58
FUNCTIONS OF PARTS OF THE CAMERA FUNCTION
PART
Lens Directs/ focuses light rays from the object on to
the film.
Aperture A hole which let light into the camera.

Diaphragm Controls the size of the aperture. Controls the

amount of light entering.
Shutter This surrounds the aperture. It opens briefly to let
light in through the aperture. It is controlled by the
button you press when taking a picture.
Film It is made up of a sheet of thin, clear plastic
coated with a photosensitive chemical. The
chemical absorbs the light from the object to form
an image on the film.

THE USE OF COLOUR IN COMMUNICATION

SIGNAGE

TRAFFIC LIGHTS

crossing and other locations to control traffic flow.

ur is more visible and recognizable than words.

59
 UNIT 5.6-HEAT ENERGY
EFFECTS OF HEAT
Heat is the type of energy from „hot‟ objects. Burning objects, frictional force, sun,
electricity and chemical reactions are some of the sources of heat. Heat has two
important effects on matter. These are expansion and contraction.

Expansion and contraction in solids

Expansion: increase in volume, length or area of an object due to heating.
During expansion particles gain more kinetic energy and there is rapid movement
away from each other.
Contraction: decrease in volume, length or area of an object due to cooling.
Particles loses that kinetic energy as they come close together.
The set-up below is of an activity to investigate effects of heat on solids.

Observation
The ball easily fits into the ring before being, heated and after being, cooled. It
does not fit into the ring after being, heated.
Conclusion
Solids expand when heated and contract when cooled.

60
Expansion and contraction in liquids
The set-up below is of an activity to investigate effects of heat on liquids.

Observation
The level of the liquid rose when, heated and went down when, cooled.
Conclusion
Liquids also expand when heated and contract when cooled.

Expansion and contraction in gases

The set-up below is of an activity to demonstrate effects of heat on gases.

Observation
The balloons increased in size when the air in the conical flask was heated and
decreased in size when the air was, cooled.
Conclusion
Gases also expand when heated and contract when cooled.

61
NB: Note that expansion and contraction are highest in gases followed by liquids
and is lowest in solids. This is because particles have enough space in between
them to rapidly move away from each other.

Uses of expansion and contraction

Thermometers
Expansion and contraction of mercury inside a thermometer makes mercury
move up and down the column of the thermometer. The extent of the expansion
or contraction corresponds with temperature.

Bimetallic strip
This is, made up of two strips of different metals that are, joined together. One of
the metals is, brass while the other is usually, iron. These metals expand at
different rates when heated. Brass expands more than iron. This makes the strip
to bend towards iron. The diagrams below show a bimetallic strip when before
heating and after heating:

Thermostat
This device control temperature of some electrical appliances. It is, made up of a
bimetallic strip. The diagrams below show a hot thermostat and cold one.

Fire alarms

62
This device also uses a bimetallic strip. When temperature within the house
increases, it makes the bimetallic strip to bend and switch on the bell, which
alerts people. Below is a diagram illustrating the set-up in a, fire alarm:

Homework
1. Find out four examples of devices that use a thermostat.

Problems of expansion and contraction in everyday life

The problems of expansion and contraction are mostly encountered in the
following fields; railway, pipes or plumbing, glasses and electric or telephone
cables. The table shows the problems and their solutions.
Problem Problem Solution
area
Railway line Buckles(bends)rails Gaps are left between the rails to allow
which derail trains for expansion
Plumbing It makes pipes that Loops/curves are made to give them
carries hot water or oil to room for expansion and contraction.
burst
Cables It makes cables to snap When laid in winter they are left slack to
in winter or hang to low allow contraction during winter.
in summer
Glasses It makes glass break or Thinner walled glasses are made so that
crack when one wall of a the inner wall expands at the same time
glass expands more with the outside wall of a glass. This
than the other wall. prevent cracking or breaking.

63
 METHODS OF HEAT TRANSFER
Heat always moves from a hotter place to a cooler one. This is called, heat
transfer. There are three methods of heat transfer. These are conduction,
convection and radiation.
CONDUCTION
The flow of heat by movement (collision) of particles of matter from places of
higher to of lower temperature without movement of the matter as a whole.
This is the way heat moves mainly through solids. It is, passed by hot particles to
cooler ones. Conduction takes place at different rates in different solids.
Materials that conduct heat quickly are, said to be conductors and those that do
not heat well are, said to be insulators or poor conductors of heat. The diagram
below is of a set-up to investigate the rate at which different solids conducts heat.

Observation
The pin fell first from the aluminum rod, then copper, steel and took longer to fall
from the glass rod.

Conclusion
Different materials conduct heat at different rates. Aluminum is the best
conductor followed by copper and then steel while glass is a poor conductor of
heat. It can also be, noted that metals are good conductors of heat while non-
metals are poor conductors.

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Homework
The set-up below is of a set-up used to investigate the conductivity of
water. Use it to answer questions that follow.

1.
a. State expected observation from the experiment.
b. What conclusion can be, drawn from the observations?
c. Explain why heating elements of electric kettles and geezers are,
usually placed at the bottom of them not at the top.
CONVECTION
The flow of heat through a fluid by moving particles from places of high to low
temperature within the fluid itself.
That is the movement of heat through liquids and gasses. If a fluid is heated, hot
particles become less dense and move to the top of the liquid while cold ones
with high-density sinks to the bottom. This creates convectional currents, which
carries heat around the fluid. The diagrams below show convectional currents in
liquids and in gases.

RADIATION

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Flow of heat from one place to another by means of electromagnetic waves
(rays).
This is the movement of heat through an empty space. Unlike conduction and
convection the there are no particles involve in movement of heat through
radiation. Heat from the sun reaches us through radiation. Radiation of
substances is, described in terms of heat absorption and emission.

Absorption of heat
This refers to the rate at which heat is taken into an object. Different surfaces
absorb heat at different rates. The set-up below is of an activity to investigate
absorption of heat by different surfaces.

Observation
The can with black colour recorded higher temperatures while the one that is
silver in colour, recorded lower temperatures.
Conclusion
Black surfaces or dull coloured surfaces are good absorbers of heat whereas
silvery or light coloured surfaces are poor absorbers of heat. This is because
lightly coloured or silvery coloured surfaces reflected heat outwards.

Emission of heat
This refers to the release of heat to the surrounding. The set-up below is of an
activity to investigate emission of heat by different surfaces.

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Observations
The side with a black or dull surface feels warmer than the one with white or
bright colour even though the hands were, placed at the same distance from the
cans.

Conclusion
Black or dull coloured surfaces are good emitters of heat whereas white or bright
coloured surfaces are poor emitters of heat. This is because white or bright
coloured surfaces reflected heat inwards.

Homework
1. Which colour of a cup will keep tea hotter for a long time (white or black)?
Explain your answer.
2. Why is, the backside of an electric heater usually painted silvery?

Application of methods of heat transfer

A vacuum flask
It is used to make hot liquids hot and cold ones cold for a long time. It does this
by preventing heat loss or gain by conduction, convection and or radiation. Below
is the diagram of a vacuum flask.

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  The silvery surfaces reduce heat loss or gain by radiation.
 The vacuum prevents heat gain or loss by conduction and convection.
 A plastic cork reduces heat gain or loss by conduction and convection.

A car engine cooling system

This helps cool the car engine and prevent it from „knocking‟ or damaged due to
overheating. The cooling system also uses conduction, convection and radiation
to cool the engine. Below is the diagram of a car engine:

 The cylinders conduct heat to water.

 Heat from water, move by convection to the radiator.
 The radiator (black in colour) radiates heat to the surrounding.

Natural phenomena caused by conduction, convection and radiation

 Wind/breeze: during the day the temperature of the land increases rapidly
than that of the sea. Hot air above the land rises and is replaced by cooler
air (breeze) from the sea. Therefore air blows from the sea to the land.
During the night the opposite happens, the sea has more heat than the
land therefore breeze blows from the land to the sea.

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  The greenhouse effect: it absorbs heat from the sun to warm plants inside. The
glass traps the light rays inside through reflection to maintain the temperature
even during gold days or nights.

Other natural phenomenon are:

 Volcano
 Water cycle

TEMPERATURE REGULATION IN ANIMALS

This deals with ways in which organisms control their temperature or keeps their
body temperature constant. These include:
 Production of a thick layer of fat
 thick layer of fur,
 hibernation and
 Evaporative cooling.

Insulation effect of fat in animals

Fats is a very poor conductor of heat, hence a very good insulator of heat. Living
organisms produce heat from within the body. Fat then prevent this heat from
escaping from the body to the surrounding. This helps keep the organism warm
in winter.
How different organisms are adapted to keeping cool and warm
 Develop a thick layer of fat to prevent heat loss from the body e.g. seal
and penguin
 Develop a thick layer of fur which traps air pockets around the body and
prevent heat loss from the body e.g. polar bear and arctic wolf
 Hibernate. That is an animal goes into a deep sleep during winter e.g.
frogs and snakes
 Evaporative cooling, that is sweating, bathing or panting e.g. people,
elephants and dogs. Cooling is achieved because evaporated water takes
away the heat from the surface where evaporation is taking place.
 Shivering: this is the uncontrollable muscle contraction that generates heat
for the body.

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 MODULE 6: HEALTH AND SAFETY
UNIT 6.5- HYGIENIC SURROUNDING
VENTILATION
Ventilation refers to the movement of air into and out of a building. Poor
ventilation is a serious health hazard and can cause some airborne diseases and
illnesses. The house is also often hot and stuffy. The diagram below shows
ventilation in a traditional and modern house.

Homework
1. State any, one common injury in everyday life and state how, they can be
prevented.
2. Name any one, safety device and state its uses.
3. State any one, effects of poor ventilation.

SANITATION
This deals with the removal proper disposal of sewage and other domestic
refuse. Improper disposal of these wastes is also a health hazard. It can attract
vectors of disease causing organisms and spread diseases such as cholera,
diarrhea, bilharzias, polio, typhoid and dysentery and pollutes water.

Hygienic ways of disposing sewage

Sewage refers to wastewater, faeces and urine. The best way to deal with it is
through the building and using of toilets, sewage pipelines and wastewater
treatment plants. There are three main types of toilets. These are pit latrines,
chemical toilets and water closets (flash toilets).

Methods of disposing domestic refuse

Domestic refuse refers to solid household waste such as papers, plastics, bottles
and leftovers. Some ways of disposing domestic refuse include:
 Refuse collection
 Recycling and reusing
 Compost heaps and burning

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 MODULE 7: THE HUMAN BODY
UNIT 7.3-COMMUNICATION IN ANIMALS
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

The nervous system is a body system which allows the body to detect a stimulus
and react accordingly. It is made up of the central nervous system and the
peripheral nervous system.
Stimulus: change in the surrounding: heat, cold, pain, sound, texture, taste etc.
a. Central nervous system

The central nervous system (CNS) is, made up of the brain and the spinal cord.
The brain: This is the main organ of the central nervous system which
coordinates and controls most nerve activities. It is responsible for voluntary
actions.
Spinal cord: runs down from the brain and consist of nervous tissue which is
connected to receptor and effector organs. It is involved in reflex (involuntary)
actions.
b. Peripheral nervous system

It includes all the nerves in the body. It is made up of nerve cells called neurone,
receptor and effector organs.
Receptor: a sense organ like eyes, ears, nose, skin and tongue. They detect
stimuli.
Effector: organs such as muscle, glands which can produce a response to a
particular situation.

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Neurone (nerve cell): a specialised cell which can transmit electrical
messages(nerve impulses) around the body. There are three types of neurone:
a. Sensory neurone: transmit nerve impulses from the receptor to the central
nervous system.
b. Relay/connecting neurone: pick up information from the sensory neurone, and
passes new information to the motor neurone to initiate a response. They are
often found in the central nervous system.
c. Motor neurone: transmit nerve impulses from the central nervous system to the
effectors.

There are two types of responses/ actions determined by the central nervous
system.
Voluntary and involuntary actions
The way the bodies respond to the stimuli or massages differs, and responses
resulting from them are, classified as voluntary or involuntary.
Voluntary actions
They are controlled by ones‟ will. They are, interpreted and controlled by the
brain e.g. walking, talking and dancing.
Involuntary/ reflex actions
They are, not controlled by one‟s will. They are not interpreted by the brain
therefore the decision or response taken did not involve thinking e.g. heartbeat,
blinking, salivating, sweating, shivering and breathing.

There are two types of reflex actions:

Simple reflex action
These are quick involuntary actions, which are a response to possible danger.
They are, interpreted at the spinal cord e.g. knee jerk and pupil reflex.
Learned reflex action
These are reflex actions that are, acquired from past experiences. They are, also
not controlled by ones‟ will e.g. salivating when hearing of your favourite food or
getting an erection when seeing an attractive person.

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 HORMONES
These are chemical substances produced by endocrine glands to control
functions of specific organs. They are, transported to their specific targets by
blood. Below is the diagram of the endocrine system.

The table below shows hormones, their source and functions.

Hormone Gland or source When is it Functions
secreted
Insulin Pancreas When blood sugar It controls the
is above normal level of blood
sugar.
Adrenaline Adrenal glands When frightened It prepares the
body for action
(flight of fight).
Glycogen Pancreas When blood sugar Control the level
is below level of blood sugar.
Growth hormone Pituitary glands Throughout life Stimulates growth

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Thyroxin Thyroid glands Throughout life Control metabolic
rate

Medical conditions caused by hormonal imbalances

Diabetes
This is a medical condition caused by lack of insulin in the body. Lack of insulin
lead less sugar being, removed from blood. It leads to sugar being, detected from
blood and urine.
Low blood sugar
This is, caused by too much insulin produced in the body leading to too much
sugar being changed to, glycogen (fat). Less blood sugar often make people tired
and feel hungry.
Goitre
This is a disease caused by lack of iodine, which also helps in the production of
thyroxin. It make people‟s neck gland swell.

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 MODULE 8: ELECTRICAL AND MAGNETISM
UNIT 8.1- ELECTRICAL ENERGY
CIRCUITS
An electric circuit is a path followed by an electric current through interconnected
devices to achieve a certain electric effect. Circuit diagrams are usually used; to
represent the path followed by an electric current. The components of a circuit
are, represented by symbols. Below are symbols of common components of
electrical circuits:
Component Name Symbol
Cell

Bulb

Resistor

Switch

Ammeter

Voltmeter

Fuse

There are two types of circuits. These are Series circuit and parallel circuit.
The two depend on the arrangement of components in a circuit. The diagrams
below show these.

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Series circuit
Components are arranged in such a way that there is only one path for current to
follow.
The current from the source is equal across all components in the circuit.
The potential difference [P.d] across the battery is equal to the sum of all p.d‟s
across the components. (P.d changes across the circuit)
If one component stops working then no current will flow through the circuit.
Parallel circuit
Components are arranged in such a way that there can be more than one path
for current to follow.
Current splits up and passes through each branch at the same time. The size of
current at each branch totally depends upon the resistance of the branch.
The total current is equal to the sum of all currents in the branches.
If one component stops working, current can still flow to other components.

ELECTRIC CURRENT

An electric current is the flow of electrons. It can also be defined as the flow of
electric charge (electron) through a conductor.
It is measured in ampere (A) using an instrument called an ammeter. The
ammeter is, connected in series with the components. Current flows from the
positive to the negative of the source. For current to flow there must be a
complete circuit or closed circuit.

Current in a Series Circuit

Current flowing in a series circuit is the same at every point (A1=A2=A3) Hence the
bulbs burning with the same brightness regardless of the difference in the
resistances of the bulbs. If more bulbs are added in series with other
components, their brightness decreases. Bulbs in series also burns with less
brightness compared to those in parallel with the same components because the
resistance in a series circuit is more than of a parallel circuit with the same
components. If one bulb in a series circuit is removed or blows out the whole
circuit is broken and all the lamps goes off. Bulbs in a Christmas tree are,
normally connected in series.

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NB note how the ammeter is, connected in relation to the circuit components.

Current in a Parallel Circuit

In a parallel circuit, current splits and follows different path, but its total value
remains the same. That is A1 = A2 + A3. If the bulbs are of different resistance,
their brightness will be different. The one with less resistance will be brighter. If
they are of the same resistance, they will burn with the same brightness, but
brighter than, those in a series circuit with the same number of components.
Adding extra bulbs parallel to the circuit does not affect the brightness of the
bulbs. The failing of one bulb also does not affect the other bulbs. Bulbs in
houses are usually, connected in parallel.

The total current entering a junction in a circuit is equal to the total current
leaving it.
POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE
Potential difference is the force that drives electrons through a circuit. It is, also
referred to as voltage or electro-motive force. It is measured in volts (V) using
an instrument called a voltmeter. A voltmeter is, connected parallel to a
component.

Voltage in a Series Circuit

In a series circuit, the voltage across components adds up to the total voltage
from the source. Thus VT = V1 + V2.

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Voltage in a Parallel Circuit
In a parallel circuit the voltage across components are equal to the voltage
produced by the source. V =V = V .
T 1 2

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 MODULE 9: THE SOLAR SYSTEM
UNIT 9.1- EARTH SYSTEMS
STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH
Earth is spherical and consists of three main layers. The main layers are the
core, mantle and the crust. Below is the diagram showing layers of the earth:

The crust
It is the outer most layer of the earth. It is made up mainly of solid rocks and
consists of two layers. These are the continental crust which is made up of silica
and aluminum and the oceanic crust which is made up of silica and
magnesium.
The mantle
This is below the crust. It is semi solid due to high pressure and high
temperature. It consists of iron and magnesium.
The core
The core is the innermost part of earth. It consists of the inner core and outer
core. The outer core is a liquid that is made up mainly of iron and nickel. The
inner core is a solid mainly due to extreme pressure. It is made up of iron.

Earthquakes
This is the shaking of ground caused by the sudden movements of tectonic
plates in the earth‟s crust and upper mantle. It is, caused by a sudden release of
energy in earth‟s crust that creates vibrations called seismic waves. The area
under the ground where the earthquake originates is the focus (hypocenter)
whereas the area directly above it on the surface of the ground is, known as the
epicenter. The diagram below shows the focus and epicenter:

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The magnitude of earthquakes is, measured in seismometer and is, recorded on
a seismograph. The Richter magnitude scale is a quantity used to quantify the
magnitude of the earthquake.
Tsunamis
This is a huge wave of water that begins when the sea floor is violently, shaken
by earthquakes, volcanic eruption and other underwater explosions and
landslides. This huge amount of amount of energy is, carried in the seismic
waves as it travels.
Volcanic eruption
This is whereby hot molten rocks (magma) from the mantle breaks through the
earth‟s crust. The magma shoots up through the volcanic pipe. When the magna
reaches the surface, it is, called lava. The diagram below shows a volcanic
eruption:

Effects of natural disasters on people’s lives

Earthquakes, tsunamis, volcanoes, floods and draughts are, called natural
disasters. The following are some effects of these natural disasters.
 Earthquakes can make buildings collapse and kill people
 Volcanoes can cause hot lava spread and burn people, their farms and
livestock.
 Tsunamis and floods can wash away houses, people and destroy
farmlands.

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 Droughts can cause, crops fail, and livestock die which brings hanger and
famine and consequently death to people.

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