Architecture Construction and Industrialization,

Coursework 1

A sustainable approach to materials and

construction systems: Engineered Timber

Andrea Botti

MSc Advanced Sustainable Design, year 2011/2012

Edinburgh School of Architecture and Landscape Architecture
University of Edinburgh
A sustainable approach to materials and construction systems: Engineered Timber [1]

Table of contents

Table of contents ........................................................................................................................ 1

1. Timber: traditionally sustainable .......................................................................................... 2
2. Ecological impact of timber and other construction methods ............................................... 3
3. From tradition to innovation: engineered timber................................................................... 5
4. Ecological impact of engineered timber products and wood-based panels ........................ 17
5. Contemporary use of timber .............................................................................................. 22
6. Case studies ..................................................................................................................... 25
7. References ........................................................................................................................ 27

University of Edinburgh MSc Advanced Sustainable Design, year 11/12

A sustainable approach to materials and construction systems: Engineered Timber [2]

1. Timber: traditionally sustainable

The Italian architect Matteo Thun claims that wood is the “material of the 21st century, and, as
the sole regenerable material used in architecture and design, one could hardly imagine being
without it” (Thun, 2010, p.554).
It seems hard to disagree with him, since it is acknowledged that wood is the oldest and the
most widely used building material. It can be found almost everywhere in the world, and its
characteristics make it suitable to be used in a broad range of applications.
Around a third of Europe’s total land area is covered in forests; the figure is around 16% in
Scotland, with predominance of species such as Sitka Spruce and Scots Pine (Wilson, 2001).
Softwoods Hardwoods
Sitka Spruce Oaks (pedunculate and sessile)
Pines (mainly Scots Pine, but also Lodgepole and Beech
Corsican) Sycamore
Larches (mainly European and Japanese) Ash
Douglas Fir Elm
Norway Spruce Birch
Table 1.
Most common commercial tree species in Scotland (adapted from Wilson, 2001).

One of the greatest aspects of timber is that it is a renewable resource: if the wood resource
comes from sustainably managed forests, it will be available indefinitely. Thanks to sustainable
forestry practices, Scotland, for instance, is growing more timber than it harvests (Wilson 2001).
As we engage with a sustainable agenda, it seems appropriate to carefully evaluate a
construction material whose environmental benefits are matched by few others. The Edinburgh
Centre for Carbon Management estimates that for every cubic metre of timber used instead of
other building materials, between 0.7 and 1.1 tonnes of carbon dioxide is saved (TRADA
Technology, 2008, p.9).

The aim of this report is to provide a review on the whole range of derivative timber products, to
which we can inclusively refer to as ‘engineered timber’, with regards to their sustainability
potential. With this scope, a comparison of the ecological impact of timber structures with other
construction methods – namely steel and concrete – is reported in first instance.
After an overview of the engineered timber products and their general characteristics, the report
focuses on how those products behave environmentally, according to their degree of technology
and processing from the original material - wood. An overview of the products’ assessment and
application in sustainable construction is presented. In the last section, some observations on
the role of timber in contemporary architecture, more specifically on how engineered timber
applies to modern methods of construction and reusable/adaptable structures, are followed by
two case studies that are representative of the novelty of application.

University of Edinburgh MSc Advanced Sustainable Design, year 11/12

A sustainable approach to materials and construction systems: Engineered Timber [3]

2. Ecological impact of timber and other construction methods

Comparative analysis is probably the most effective means to assess the ecological footprint of
different construction methods. The short summary here presented includes seven different
Life-Cycle Assessment studies on residential buildings, that compared timber frame with
alternatively steel and concrete structures in terms of energy use and green-house gas
emissions (the latter expressed as Global Warming Potential, or GWP) (Eriksson, 2004).

Total energy
Cradle to Recyclable GWP (CO2
use excluding
gate energy equivalent)
usage phase
1 Environmental Assessment of Trähus 2001, Trätek
Trähus 2001 960 1460 -530 30
Concrete design 2260 490 1770 400
2 Residential Case Study, Athena Sustainable Material Institute
Wood design 1140 280
Steel design 1740 - - 340
Concrete design 2520 - - 420
3 Environmental Impact of a Single Family Building Shell, Minneapolis
Wood design 969 n/a - 207
Steel design 1604 n/a - 309
4 Environmental Impact of a Single Family Building Shell, Atlanta
Wood design 580 n/a - 100
Steel design 810 n/a - 170
5 Environmental and Energy Balances of Wood Products and Substitutes, ECEFAO

Wood design 910 n/a - 660

Brick design 1090 n/a - 840
6 Energy Use and Environmental Impact of New Residential Buildings, Lund
Institute of Technology
Wood design 4540 2160 2380
Concrete design 3020 1120 1900
7 LCA of Building Frame Structures – Environmental Impact over the Life Cycle of
Wooden and Concrete Frames, Chalmers Univ. of Technology
Wood design 1310 n/a - 40
Concrete design 1430 n/a - 110
Table 2.
Results summary for LCA studies (data retrieved from Eriksson, 2004).

University of Edinburgh MSc Advanced Sustainable Design, year 11/12

A sustainable approach to materials and construction systems: Engineered Timber [4]

The results of comparative analysis are clear: timber frame structures perform significantly
better, with respect to energy use and GWP. In order to reasonably quantify the differences
between the cases, the boundaries for the LCA cases were divided into four categories, as
indicated below.
- Excluding - Including energy - Excluding - Including energy
energy recycling recycling energy recycling recycling
- Including wood - Including wood - Excluding wood - Excluding wood
feedstock energy feedstock energy feedstock energy feedstock energy
1 Case 1a Case 1b
2 Case 2
3 Case 3
4 Case 4
5 Case 5a Case 5b
6 Case 6a Case 6b Case 6c
7 Case 7a Case 7b

Energy difference (MJ/m2)

Steel - Wood Concrete - Wood
2500

2000

1500

1000

500

0
1a 1b 2 3 4 5 6a 6b 6c 7a 7b

Figure 1
Energy usage differences between timber, steel and concrete structures (adapted from Eriksson, 2004).

GWP difference (Kg/m2) - CO2 equivalent

Steel - Wood Concrete - Wood
400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
1a 1b 2 3 4 5a 5b 6 7

Figure 2
GWP differences between timber, steel and concrete structures (adapted from Eriksson, 2004).

University of Edinburgh MSc Advanced Sustainable Design, year 11/12

A sustainable approach to materials and construction systems: Engineered Timber [5]

3. From tradition to innovation: engineered timber

The development of engineered timber has been historically related to economic advantages.
Investigation and research on ways and means of using the wood more efficiently has generally
been considered to be driven by the increasing cost of sawn timber and green logs.
Despite constantly increasing their efficiency, sawmills still produce considerable amounts of
residues - from 35% of each log - in forms of low grade logs or thinnings, chips, slabs and
sawdust (see table 3); those can be used to manufacture many kinds of wood-based panels.

Tree part or product Portion (%)

Left in the forest:
Top, branches and foliage 23
Stump (excluding roots) 10
Sawdust 5
Sawmilling:
Slabs, edgings and off-cuts 17
Sawdust and fines 7.5
Various losses 4.0
Bark 5.5
Sawn timber 28
Total 100
Table 3.
Division of a typical tree harvested for sawn timber (source FAO).

While that is certainly true, it would be it quite reductive to consider the technological progresses
on timber solely in terms of economic savings. To respond to a need of diverse applicability and
improved performance, the construction industry has identified manifold technical reasons to
guide the application of engineering processes onto sawn timber and overcome its
shortcomings.

• Mechanical properties
Wood is an orthotropic material, having unique and independent mechanical properties – i.e.
elastic, strength, vibration properties - in the directions of three mutually perpendicular axes:
longitudinal (fibres direction), radial and tangential. Moreover those differ greatly from species to
species. Engineered timber products offer more homogeneous properties and consequently
they find much wider application in a variety of building elements (Kretschmann, 2010).

• Dimensional limitations
They are part of its nature and are counted as ‘weaknesses’ only in comparison with materials,
such as steel and concrete, that offer considerable structural spans.

University of Edinburgh MSc Advanced Sustainable Design, year 11/12

A sustainable approach to materials and construction systems: Engineered Timber [6]

• Performance, structural properties and dimensional stability

Direction to grain or board length
Parallel (%) Perpendicular (%) Thickness (%)
Solid timber
Douglas fir negligible 2.0-2.4 2.0-2.4
Beech negligible 2.6-5.2 2.6-5.2
Plywood
Douglas fir 0.24 0.24 2.0
Particleboard
UF bonded 0.33 0.33 4.7
PF bonded 0.25 0.25 3.9
MF/UF bonded 0.21 0.21 3.3
Fibreboard
Tempered 0.21 0.27 7-11
Standard 0.28 0.31 4-9
MDF 0.24 0.25 4-8
Table 4.
Dimensional stability of timber and boards. Change in dimensions from 30% to 90% relative humidity (adapted from
Dinwoodie, 2000).

Bending Strength Bending Stiffness

(MPa) (MPa)
Thickness Density par. per. par. per.
(mm) (kg/m3)
Solid timber
Douglas fir 20 500 80 2.2 12700 800
Plywood
Douglas fir 4.8 520 73 16 12090 890
Douglas fir 19 600 60 33 10750 3310
Particleboard
UF bonded 18.6 720 11.5 11.5 1930 1930
PF bonded 19.2 680 18.0 18.0 2830 2830
MF/UF bonded 18.1 660 27.1 27.1 3460 3460
Fibreboard
Tempered 3.2 1030 69 65 4600 4600
Standard 3.2 1000 54 52 - -
MDF 9-10 680 18.7 19.2 - -
Table 5.
Strength properties of timber and boards (adapted from Dinwoodie, 2000).

• Optimise the use of the renewable resource

The manufacturing processes of wood-based panels use a very high percentage of the initial
log – through thinnings, chips, slabs - thus making full use of the resource and minimising waste
(Thoemen et al., 2010).

University of Edinburgh MSc Advanced Sustainable Design, year 11/12

A sustainable approach to materials and construction systems: Engineered Timber [7]

Engineering wood products can be divided in four main categories:

1. Structural Timber Composites

Double and triple laminated beams
Glued laminated timber
Parallel strand lumber

2. Laminates
Cross Laminated Timber
Solid wood panel
Laminated Veneer Lumber
Plywood

3. Fibre composites
Hardboard
Softboard
Fibreboard (MDF)

4. Particle composites
Oriented Strand Board (OSB)
Wood particleboard (or chipboard)
Cement-bonded particleboard
Laminated Strand Lumber (LSL)

Figure 3
Various composite products derived from timber
(Stark et al., 2010).

University of Edinburgh MSc Advanced Sustainable Design, year 11/12

A sustainable approach to materials and construction systems: Engineered Timber [8]

Double and triple laminated beams (Duobeams and Triobeams)

They consist of two or three timber lamellae, rigidly
bonded together after visual or machine strength
grading. After being glued, they are side-dressed and
chamfered on 4 sides. Individual lamellae can be
finger-jointed. (HFA, OG 2010b)

Figure 4 (HFA, OG 2010b)

Glued laminated timber (Glulam)

Glued laminated timber is manufactured from
laminates of sawn timber, or lamellae, kiln dried,
planed and glued together with parallel fibre
orientation.
The process of finger jointing allows individual
laminates to be end-jointed to produce long lengths.
High resistance and dimensional stability properties
make glulam particularly suitable for elements bearing Figure 5 (HFA, NEU 2010b)

high stresses or spanning large distances. The choice of the adhesive has to be accurate in
order to fulfil the European standard requirements for loadbearing timber components. (HFA,
NEU 2010b)

Parallel strand lumber (Parallam)

It is manufactured from 3 mm thick and 15 mm wide
strips of veneer, bond together with phenolic resin.
The strips are bundled with fibres oriented primarily
parallel to the major axis of the beam. They are
processed in a continuous press to form an endless
beam.
Parallel strand lumber is designed to be used in
structures with long free spans. PSL elements can be
Figure 6. (HFA, NEU 2010c)
bonded together, to obtain components with large
cross-sections. (HFA, NEU 2010c)

University of Edinburgh MSc Advanced Sustainable Design, year 11/12

A sustainable approach to materials and construction systems: Engineered Timber [9]

Cross Laminated Timber: a deeper look

Cross Laminated Timber (CLT) consists of several
layers (3, 5, 7 or more) of softwood timber planks,
also called lamellas, joined with glue or through
dowels. The directions of the grain of adjacent
planks form an angle of 90°, with a symmetrical lay-
up around the middle layer. Planks may be joined by
edge-gluing and may also be finger-jointed in the
longitudinal direction.
Figure 7 (HFA, NEU 2010a)

CLT is now being considered where masonry, concrete and steel have historically been the
usual forms of construction, presenting some key advantages:
• it is dimensionally stable, solid and capable of resisting very high racking and vertical loads,
extending the potential of timber in structures previously possible only in other materials
(see Table 1). Furthermore, its combination of strength, ductility and light weight makes it an
excellent construction system for anti-seismic buildings;

• it eliminates the main disadvantages connected with normal wood construction, such as
swelling, shrinkage, warp, and creep;

• short assembly time at the site, with consequential economic benefits, since it is
manufactured off-site, under factory conditions and with efficiency automation;

• it can be standardised to be used for ceilings, roofing or walls or can be designed for tailor-
made components of the entire buildings (big companies like RikoHaus and Rubner produce
catalogues of tailor-made prefabricated wooden houses);

• good thermal properties: unlike conventional timber framing alone, CLT makes a
contribution to the U value. It has similar thermal conductivity and greater specific heat
capacity than lightweight concrete block materials;

• high thermal mass; when the design maximizes passive solar gain, CLT is suitable to be
used to collect and store energy during the day for emission later in the cycle;

• very good acoustic insulation;

• because its manufacturing process consumes low amounts of electricity, CLT has very
favourable ecological assessment. Overall the utilization of adhesives is very limited, which
also reduces the total impact on the environment. Formaldehyde-free panels are largely
available on the market.

(HFA, NEU 2010a; TRADA Technology, 2011)

University of Edinburgh MSc Advanced Sustainable Design, year 11/12

A sustainable approach to materials and construction systems: Engineered Timber [10]

Material Floor span capability Height capacity

Steel 7m for metal deck floors > 100 storeys

Concrete 9m for solid slabs > 100 storeys

Masonry 7.5m for hollow core floor 7 storeys

Platform timber frame 6m for engineered timber joists 7 storeys or 20 m

CLT panels 8m for panels 12 storeys

Table 6.
Span and height capabilities of mainstream structural materials in multi-storey buildings (TRADA Technology, 2011)

Solid Wood Panel

It is a multi-layered board, with a symmetric lay-up
consisting of parallel outer layers and at least one core
layer, oriented perpendicularly to them. The individual
lamellae are sorted, planed prior to their assembly into
the boards, thus minimising swelling and shrinkage
due to climatic changes (HFA, OG 2010g).

Figure 8 (HFA, OG 2010g)

Laminated Veneer Lumber (LVL)

LVL is manufactured in a continuous process, that
consists in bonding individual - spruce or pine –
veneers with their individual ends offset and with fibres
primarily in the same direction. PF resins are generally
used as adhesives.
LVL finds application as bracing element in load-
bearing floors and ceilings, and can be used in the
same applications as glulam (HFA, OG 2010c). Figure 9 (HFA, OG 2010c)

University of Edinburgh MSc Advanced Sustainable Design, year 11/12

A sustainable approach to materials and construction systems: Engineered Timber [11]

Plywood
Veneer plywood
Plywood is a panel consisting of an assembly of layers
glued together, usually odd in number (3, 5 or 7) and
not exceeding 7 mm in thickness. Each veneer is laid
down with its grain at right angles to the adjacent
layer, and all the veneers are orientated with their
plane parallel to the surface of the panel. Plywood is a
very versatile product: it offers high strength to weight Figure 10 (HFA, OG 2010f)
properties and it performs well under severe exposure conditions; the choice of the adhesives
for its manufacturing determines the panels’ suitability for internal or external use.
Four types of plywood are commonly available in the UK: marine plywood (BS 1088), structural
plywood, utility plywood, decorative / overlaid plywood.
Production varies depending on several factors, but it usually includes the following sequence of
processes:
• Log conditioning
• Peeling
• Clipping
• Drying
• Jointing or veneer repair
• Grading
• Adhesive application
• Pressing
• Trimming, filling and sanding

Core plywood (Blockboard / Laminboard)

Blockboard uses for its core strips of wood, each not more than 30 mm wide; laminboard cores
are composed of strips of veneer on edge (or occasionally strips cut from plywood). The strips
are laid separately and glued or otherwise joined together to form a slab. One or more veneers
is glued to each face with the direction of the grain of the core strips running at right angles to
that of the adjacent veneers.
Introduction of block or laminboard manufacturing facilities by ply mills is aimed to utilise
residues to produce low cost types of panel suited to interior purposes. The technique of
manufacturing core plywood developed alongside the plywood industry from the turn of the
century and the method of production is similar to that for plywood.
(HFA, OG 2010f; TRADA Technology, 2003; Thoemen et al., 2010)

University of Edinburgh MSc Advanced Sustainable Design, year 11/12

A sustainable approach to materials and construction systems: Engineered Timber [12]

Fibreboards
They are manufactured from fibres of ligno-cellulosic
material. According to the manufacturing process, they
are divided into two main categories: wet process and
dry process boards.

Wet process boards Figure 11 (HFA, OG 2010d)

Generally produced without the addition of a synthetic resin; the primary
bond derives from the felting of the fibres and their inherent adhesive properties.
The boards are classified according to their density:
• Hardboards: ρ > 900kg/m3
• Mediumboards: 400kg/m3 < ρ < 900kg/m3
• Softboards: 230kg/m3 < ρ < 400kg/m3.

The production process is essentially as follows:

• Chipping
• Reduction to fibres
• Board (wet lap) forming
• Pressing and curing (hardboards and medium boards)
• Curing insulating board
• Finishing

(TRADA Technology, 2003; Thoemen et al., 2010)

Dry process boards

The dry process was developed from the traditional wet process and the fibre is produced in the
same way. However, an adhesive is added to the fibres and they are dried to below 20%
moisture content before mat forming and pressing. Differences in the production process are:
• Resin application
• Drying / storage
• Mat-forming
• Pressing
• Trimming and sanding

University of Edinburgh MSc Advanced Sustainable Design, year 11/12

A sustainable approach to materials and construction systems: Engineered Timber [13]

Medium density fibreboard (MDF)

In MDF the fibres of ligno-cellulosic material are felted together with the primary bond normally
derived from a bonding agent. The properties of the material can be modified or enhanced by
changing the composition of the synthetic binder or by incorporation of other additives during or
after manufacture.
MDF is the most common dry process board. The particular machining and finishing attributes,
combined with good working properties and a wide range of available sheet thicknesses and
sizes allow MDF to find multiple applications in construction, e.g. skirtings, architraves, window
boards, wall linings and decorative facades.

(HFA, OG 2010d; TRADA Technology, 2003; Thoemen et al., 2010)

Oriented Strand Board (OSB)

OSB is a multi-layered wood-based composite, with
each layer made from long slender wood strands
bonded by a polymeric adhesive. Similarly to plywood,
the strands are orientated in each layer in the main
axis of the board. Due to the high aspect ratio of the
strands (length to width up to 10:1), the board's
bending strength is particularly high in the direction of
the strand. Figure 12 (HFA, OG 2010e)
Oriented Strand Boards are widely used for wall sheathing, flooring underlays, roof sheathing
and decking. Four classes of boards are defined according to BS EN Standards, serving from
general purpose to heavy duty load-bearing for use in humid conditions. However they are not
recognised in the standards as being suitable for exterior use.
The process of producing wood strands and of aligning them along the length of the board was
developed during the 1970s in Germany and replaced the original waferboard production. OSB
manufacture has many similarities with that of particleboard. It includes:
• Debarking
• Waferising, strand cutting and drying
• Blending
• Mat forming
• Pressing
• Trimming, conditioning and sanding

(HFA, OG 2010e; TRADA Technology 2003; Thoemen et al. 2010)

University of Edinburgh MSc Advanced Sustainable Design, year 11/12

A sustainable approach to materials and construction systems: Engineered Timber [14]

Wood particleboard (or ‘chipboard’)

Wood particleboard is manufactured from small wood
particles or particles from lignocellulosic raw materials
and a binder (usually a synthetic resin). The particles
are not aligned in a particular way, but generally
oriented parallel to the plane of the board. It is usually
referred to in the UK as ‘chipboard’.
Boards can be of uniform construction, of graded
density or of distinct 3 or 5-layer construction. Their Figure 13 (HFA, OG 2010h)
final thicknesses vary from 3 to 50 mm.
The European Standard (BS EN 312) defines six categories of boards, according to their
suitability: from furniture to loadbearing types and humid interior conditions.
The production of wood particleboard originated in Germany at the beginning of the 20th century,
following the discovery of synthetic thermo-setting adhesives. It entails mechanically breaking
up wood – mostly green logs - and reconstituting it by the means of the adhesives.
The process is usually highly automated and is not very demanding in terms of raw materials
and skilled labour (unlike, for instance that of plywood).
The basic stages are:
• Debarking
• Chipping or milling (often from green logs, but at the present time increasing levels of
recycled timber are being used)
• Drying
• Sifting / particle classification
• Glue blending
• Mat forming
• Pressing
• Trimming and sanding
• Extruded Particleboard

(HFA, OG 2010h; TRADA Technology, 2003; Thoemen et al., 2010)

University of Edinburgh MSc Advanced Sustainable Design, year 11/12

A sustainable approach to materials and construction systems: Engineered Timber [15]

Cement-bonded particleboard
Cement-bonded particleboard is a wood composite
consisting of small wood particles and a mineral
bonding agent (e.g. Portland or magnesite cement).
Boards are manufactured as single-layered or multi-
layered and also as sandwich composites (e.g. in
combination with rigid foam or cork insulation boards).
Boards’ density can vary according to finality; they can
be used for thermal and acoustic insulation, as internal Figure 14 (HFA, OG 2010a)

walls or load-bearing and bracing panelling.

Thanks to the mineral content, cement-bonded particleboard offer a superior behaviour in fire
and are suitable for exterior use: they are highly resistant to weathering, insects and fungi.
The production is quite different from other particleboards, because wood content is low (20-
30% by weight) and the boards are pressed at a relatively low temperature. It includes the
following stages:
• Raw materials
• Flaking and milling
• Sifting / screening
• Blending and forming
• Pressing and curing
• Trimming, maturing / conditioning

(HFA, OG 2010a; TRADA Technology, 2003; Thoemen et al., 2010)

University of Edinburgh MSc Advanced Sustainable Design, year 11/12

A sustainable approach to materials and construction systems: Engineered Timber [16]

Structural Insulated Panels (SIP)

Structural Insulated Panels are prefabricated lightweight building units. They combine
engineered timber with rigid foam, thus providing structural support and thermal insulation in
one system.
They are sandwich panels made of:
face layers

core layer 70 to 250mm

face layer

Two high density face layers, e.g.: A central core of rigid cellular insulation e.g.:
- oriented strand boards, such as OSB - Polyurethane (PUR)
- Polyisocyanurate (PIR)
- cement particle board
- Phenolic foam (PF)
with thicknesses of 8 to 15mm. - Expanded polystyrene (EPS)
- Extruded polystyrene (XPS)

Like other massive timber elements, SIPs can serve as walls or roof.
They are usually manufactured off-site, due to the fact that a high quality standard of production
is needed to meet their performance requirements.
Two different fabrication techniques exist:
1. The foam core is pre-cut and is cold pressed between two facing OSB boards, after the
application of the adhesive.
2. The foam is poured into pre-spaced facing, thus binding them together.
SIPs are often employed as principal loadbearing components and are currently used in
domestic and light industrial construction of up to three storeys. SIPs are a very interesting
modern method of construction; thanks to their characteristics they can meet market’s pressing
demands for thermal efficiency and speed of construction. (Hairstans, 2010; BRE, 2004)

University of Edinburgh MSc Advanced Sustainable Design, year 11/12

A sustainable approach to materials and construction systems: Engineered Timber [17]

4. Ecological impact of engineered timber products and wood-based panels

Abiotic resource [g Sb eq] Photosmog [g C2H2]

Cement-bonded p.board 2409 Cement-bonded p.board 88

Particleboard humid 3137 Particleboard humid 158
Particleboard dry 2403 Particleboard dry 156
OSB (PF adh) 2580 OSB (PF adh) 269
OSB (MUPF/PMDI adh) 2361 OSB (MUPF/PMDI adh) 265
Plywood (PF adh) 5214 Plywood (PF adh) 353
Plywood (UF adh) 4542 Plywood (UF adh) 358
CLT (PF adh) 2538 CLT (PF adh) 307
CLT (UF adh) 2244 CLT (UF adh) 310
Glue laminated timber 1660 Glue laminated timber 210
Duo&Trio, planed, kiln-dried 628 Duo&Trio, planed, kiln-dried 120
Duo&Trio, sawn, kiln-dried 447 Duo&Trio, sawn, kiln-dried 71
Duo&Trio, sawn, air-dried 145 Duo&Trio, sawn, air-dried 60

Figure 15 Figure 16

Global Warming Potential [kg CO2 eq] Global Warming Potential [kg CO2 eq]*

Cement-bonded p.board 804 Cement-bonded p.board 281

Particleboard humid 270 -788 Particleboard humid
Particleboard dry 206 -875 Particleboard dry
OSB (PF adh) 250 -786 OSB (PF adh)
OSB (MUPF/PMDI adh) 296 -740 OSB (MUPF/PMDI adh)
Plywood (PF adh) 538 -424 Plywood (PF adh)
Plywood (UF adh) 459 -504 Plywood (UF adh)
CLT (PF adh) 271 -775 CLT (PF adh)
CLT (UF adh) 236 -810 CLT (UF adh)
Glue laminated timber 202 -571 Glue laminated timber
Duo&Trio, planed, kiln-dried 95 -701 Duo&Trio, planed, kiln-dried
Duo&Trio, sawn, kiln-dried 68 -728 Duo&Trio, sawn, kiln-dried
Duo&Trio, sawn, air-dried 20 -775 Duo&Trio, sawn, air-dried

Figure 17 Figure 18. * values take into account the storage of carbon in wood

University of Edinburgh MSc Advanced Sustainable Design, year 11/12

A sustainable approach to materials and construction systems: Engineered Timber [18]

Acidification [g SO2 eq] Over-fertilization [g PO4 - eq]

Cement-bonded p.board 2586 Cement-bonded p.board 256

Particleboard humid 1960 Particleboard humid 149
Particleboard dry 1722 Particleboard dry 149
OSB (PF adh) 1983 OSB (PF adh) 172
OSB (MUPF/PMDI adh) 2568 OSB (MUPF/PMDI adh) 177
Plywood (PF adh) 3612 Plywood (PF adh) 297
Plywood (UF adh) 3288 Plywood (UF adh) 298
CLT (PF adh) 1818 CLT (PF adh) 148
CLT (UF adh) 1674 CLT (UF adh) 148
Glue laminated timber 1750 Glue laminated timber 173
Duo&Trio, planed, kiln-dried 649 Duo&Trio, planed, kiln-dried 70
Duo&Trio, sawn, kiln-dried 344 Duo&Trio, sawn, kiln-dried 32
Duo&Trio, sawn, air-dried 144 Duo&Trio, sawn, air-dried 17

Figure 19 Figure 20

PEI non-renewable [MJ] PEI renewable [MJ]

Cement-bonded p.board 4397 Cement-bonded p.board 6346

Particleboard humid 7738 Particleboard humid 12103
Particleboard dry 4904 Particleboard dry 13593
OSB (PF adh) 5476 OSB (PF adh) 17367
OSB (MUPF/PMDI adh) 4868 OSB (MUPF/PMDI adh) 17382
Plywood (PF adh) 11115 Plywood (PF adh) 27402
Plywood (UF adh) 9392 Plywood (UF adh) 27406
CLT (PF adh) 5339 CLT (PF adh) 21740
CLT (UF adh) 4602 CLT (UF adh) 21742
Glue laminated timber 3335 Glue laminated timber 19640
Duo&Trio, planed, kiln-dried 1381 Duo&Trio, planed, kiln-dried 12125
Duo&Trio, sawn, kiln-dried 1012 Duo&Trio, sawn, kiln-dried 9293
Duo&Trio, sawn, air-dried 308 Duo&Trio, sawn, air-dried 8740

Figure 21 Figure 22

Figures 15-22 show the assessment of ecological impact for engineered timber products (collected and adapted from ÖIBÖ, 2002).

University of Edinburgh MSc Advanced Sustainable Design, year 11/12

A sustainable approach to materials and construction systems: Engineered Timber [19]

It is relevant to look more in detail at the Global Warming Potential, expressing the percentage
contributions of each process. This represents quite effectively the level of technology
embedded in each wood-based product, and consequently it can reveal how manufacturing
processes affect the ecological footprint of engineered timber.

Breakdown of GWP contributions

100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40% Other
30% Transport
20%
Electric Energy
10%
Thermal Energy
0%
Glue Laminated Timber

Cross Laminated Timber

Plywood (PF adh)

OSB (MUPF/PMDI adh)

Particleboard P5 (PF adh)

Cement-bonded p.board
Adhesives
Raw materials

Figure 23
Chart showing the GWP potential for wood-based products (collected and adapted from ÖIBÖ, 2002).

University of Edinburgh MSc Advanced Sustainable Design, year 11/12

A sustainable approach to materials and construction systems: Engineered Timber [20]

global warming potential [Kg CO2 equivalent]

-1

sawn timber
-0.5 (12% moisture)
glue-laminated timber OSB
plywood chipboard P2
laminated beams softwood (12% moisture)
softwood
(12% moisture) three-ply board
0
sawn timber technology input
(65% moisture)

0.5 structural solid timber

softwood (15% moisture)

1.5 wood-cement
board
MDF

2
Figure 24
Chart showing the GWP potential for wood-based products (adapted from Hartwig et al., 2009).

As indicated on the charts, it can be stated in conclusion that the more processed is timber, in
manufacturing engineered products, the higher the loss of ecological benefits - in terms of LCA
and GWP - associated with its native properties. This challenges the popular idea that wood-
based products can be universally sustainable, regardless of their application in construction
(see table 7).

University of Edinburgh MSc Advanced Sustainable Design, year 11/12

A sustainable approach to materials and construction systems: Engineered Timber [21]

Material / application Columns Load- Dry Interior Furniture Ecological

/ beams bearing/ screed finish Assessment
planking
Solid wood panel ☺ Low to moderate potential impact in most environmental
o o - favourable criteria. Considerable energy consumption during the kiln
drying of timber. The product is untreated product and has a
low proportion of binding agent.
Glue-laminated timber ☺ gen. Low impact in most of the environmental criteria, although the
+ favourable, substantial amounts of electricity consumed during the
weaknesses manufacturing process result in a high acidification potential.
exist Use of adhesives is relatively low.

Veneer plywood; Manufacturing process of veneers is energy intensive, esp.

Blockboard/Laminboard o o + + with regards to electrical energy. Adhesives are used in a high
medium
proportion and form an important part of the product; they
favourable
further contribute to the total environmental impact.
Laminated veneer lumber High potential impact in most of the environmental criteria
- - medium assessed, due to a very energy intensive manufacturing
favourable process; adhesives contribute to total impact.

Laminated flat-pressed ☺ gen. Low impact in most of the environmental criteria, although it
board + + o - favourable, presents high acidification potential. The relatively high use of
weaknesses adhesives contributes to the total environmental impact, since
exist they might contain formaldehyde.
Cement chipboard Very high potentials in GWP, acidification and over-
o o o medium fertilization. The high energy consumption in the manufacture
favourable of the binding agent (cement) contributes significantly to the
overall impact. Boards are not recyclable.
Oriented strand board ☺ Low to moderate potential impact in most of the environmental
(OSB) + + o favourable, criteria assessed, thanks to a moderate utilization of
weaknesses adhesives. Nevertheless the manufacturing involves a
exist considerable consumption of electrical energy.

Medium-density fibreboard - - medium Made from thinnings. High proportion of adhesives that might
(MDF) favourable contain formaldehyde.

+: low environmental impact o: low environmental impact - : high environmental impact, compared to other products.

Table 7. Applications and environmental assessment for wood-based products (Hartwig et al., 2009; ÖIBÖ, 2002).

University of Edinburgh MSc Advanced Sustainable Design, year 11/12

A sustainable approach to materials and construction systems: Engineered Timber [22]

5. Contemporary use of timber

Modern methods of construction

Office of the Deputy of the Prime Minister (OPDM) defined MMC as “a process to produce
more, better quality homes in less time” (Hairstans 2010, p.11); the definition gives a fairly good
idea about how the demand for efficiency and product quality prompted major investigations of
off-site techniques.
MMC can be broken down into four main categories:

1 Panellised Construction Units are produced in a factory environment and assembled

on-site to produce a three dimensional structure. CLT, SWP
or SIPs panels are suitable.
Open Panels Only a skeletal structure is produced.

Closed Panels It involves a higher degree of prefabrication. Advanced panels

that incorporate services, doors, windows, insulation, internal
finishes and external cladding.
2 Volumetric Construction It involves the factory manufacturing of three dimensional
structures prior their transportation to site. Modules can be
empty shells or fully complete with services, internal features
& external finishes.
3 Hybrid techniques They combine both panelised and volumetric approaches.
Areas that are typically highly service or more repeatable,
such as kitchens and bathrooms (also known as pods), are
fully fitted out with all sinks, sanitary ware and tiling. The rest
of the dwelling is usually built using panellised units.
4 Other / Non Off-site Methods of Constructions that use floor or roof cassettes, pre-cast
Construction concrete foundation assemblies, mechanical engineering
composites etc.

The evolution of construction techniques, both timber frame (see figures 25, 26) and massive
timber (figures 27, 28), has proceeded along with an increasing share of off-site manufacturing
prior to the installation on-site. Varying forms of off-site construction for engineered timber have
progressed to become modern methods of construction (Hairstans, 2010).

Figure 25 Figure 26 Figure 27 Figure 28

Platform frame Closed panel platform frame Square log Cross laminated timber
Figures 25, 26, 27, 28. Evolution of construction techniques based on timber (Hairstans, 2010).

University of Edinburgh MSc Advanced Sustainable Design, year 11/12

A sustainable approach to materials and construction systems: Engineered Timber [23]

Figure 29 Figure 30 Figure 31

Wall panels Floor cassette Roof system
Figures 29, 30, 31. Crane erections of off-site produced components (Hairstans, 2010).

Reusable and adaptable structures

Following the comparative overview of engineered timber products based on their technological
input, it can result interesting to consider their benefits with regards to their use in the short and
in the long terms.

Long-term applications Short-term applications

To maintain a high level of carbon storage, it is Temporary or short-term constructions tend to

required that the timber is re-used a number of bring with them a very efficient use of material.
times, following a cascade principle. The native qualities and the ageing
For that purpose, chemical treatments (i.e. characteristics of timber components do not
preservatives and coatings) should be represent such a critical factor as the rapid
minimised so as to allow extensive re-use. turnover of material. As a result, high-tech
Design musts deal with the inner qualities of wood-based products are highly suitable for
the material, and provide intelligent solutions these applications.
using a reduced range of components.
Table 8.
Design principles for short-term and long-term timber structures (Hartwig et al., 2009).

Moving up the scale and looking at

structures, or whole buildings, ‘reuse’
implies that they are no longer needed for
their original purpose and will need to
adapt to new functions. Adaptability
exists when a building can be modified
internally for change of use, or when a
structure can be disassembled and re-
erected in a new form.
Figure 32. 2005 Serpentine Gallery, London (Baumans, 2005)
© All rights reserved.

University of Edinburgh MSc Advanced Sustainable Design, year 11/12

A sustainable approach to materials and construction systems: Engineered Timber [24]

With regards to that, there are some key criteria that, if followed from the early stages of design,
would let timber structures to be adapted or reassembled for reuse.

Modular planning Horizontally, panel and component sizes have to be

taken into account when preparing the layout.
M&E services should be distributed with minimal
perforation of the structure.
Vertically, module heights and provision for floor and
ceiling systems have to be considered.
Panelisation and connection Panel dimensions usually depend on ease of handling
and installation, together with the dimensions of material
in stock.
Structures designed for factory production are generally
likely to be adaptable for reuse. Commonly the
construction consists in connecting together prefabricated
modules on site. The process can be reversed and the
modules disassembled, provided that connections are
accessible without damages to the finishes.
Cladding, finishes and fixing Cladding should respect the structural panels. Wet trades
or, for instance, plasterboard would limit the reusability
and thus should be replaced by dry systems of cladding.
Foundations It is advisable to design systems that have the least
impact to the ground. Therefore suspended floor cassette
systems supported from piles are to be preferred to
integral concrete foundation and slab systems.
Building services The use of ducts will permit to minimise perforation of the
structure and linings.
Durability and robustness Selection of durable materials is necessary if the
structure has to endure several ‘cycles’ of use.
Table 9.
Design principles for adaptability and reuse (adapted from TRADA Technology, 2008).

University of Edinburgh MSc Advanced Sustainable Design, year 11/12

A sustainable approach to materials and construction systems: Engineered Timber [25]

6. Case studies

Cross-laminated timber panel school, Open Academy, Norwich

The Open Academy is the currently the largest solid timber panel building in the UK.
Crucial for the contractor’s bidding success were the key advantages offered by massive timber
construction: sensible savings in construction time and major environmental benefits.

Figure 33
View during the construction of Open Academy, Norwich (KLH UK, 2009).

Thanks to its versatile structural capabilities, CLT applied really well to most significant features
of the design:
• cantilevered stairs: exposed timber treads underneath and exposed timber walls;
• curved walls: facetted CL panels, provided in 2.4m lengths;
• atrium roof: CL panels, acting as a rigid horizontal diaphragm; they are supported by 12
glulam arches.
The CL panels are 162mm thick in the walls, 230mm thick in floors and flat roofs, and 78mm
thick in the atrium roof. The structure is stiff and stable, thanks to the inherent properties of the
geometry. Horizontal wind loading is transferred through diaphragm action of the floor and roof
plates. The wall panels withstand axial, racking and bending loads effectively; additionally they
provide lateral stability and transfer horizontal loads to the foundations.
CLT presented higher initial costs but subsequent valuable economies, such as a shorter
programme, pre-cut openings, made off-site and ready to host windows and doors without
additional framing, simplified fixing for services, no need of scaffolding and finally reduced risks
for the workforce.

University of Edinburgh MSc Advanced Sustainable Design, year 11/12

A sustainable approach to materials and construction systems: Engineered Timber [26]

With regards to the environmental impact, as illustrated in the previous chapters, massive
timber has the lowest embodied energy of any building material. The carbon footprint of the
Open Academy has been calculated to be approximately half that of an analogous steel or
concrete structure. Thanks to the additional estimated 3000t of CO2 sequestration, the building
results to have a ‘negative’ carbon footprint.
The chosen environmental strategies of passive solar design and natural ventilation required
high performance for the building fabric and reduction of heating, cooling and artificial lighting
demands. CL panels guaranteed air tightness of less than 5 m3/hm2, half of the building
regulations requirement (TRADA Technology, 2010).

Re-Thinking School, BRE Innovation Park, 2007

Constructed in the BRE Innovation
Park in Watford, this ‘mini’ school
embeds sustainability as a core
element of its curriculum.
It aimed to be demonstrative of all
the building principles that shall
guide the schools of the future; as a
result, every part of the design,
construction and operation was
looked at as an educational
opportunity.
Figure 34. Re-thinking School, BRE Innovation Park (NBT, 2007).

The school was conceived to showcase the potential of modern methods of constructions to be
sustainable, low operational and embodied energy, cost effective and aesthetically valuable.
Designed to be relocated, the school is built in Solid Wood Panels (SWP) manufactured off-site
from recycled off-cuts and then assembled on site through screwed butt joints. The timber
structure lies on a steel frame with screw piles foundations, which facilitate removal prior to
relocation. The building in Watford has two and a half storeys, but the solid timber systems
could potentially go up to ten.
Post-completion tests demonstrated that, thanks to the state of the art cutting and joining of the
panels, the structure achieved a high level of air tightness, delivered the desired acoustic
performance and benefitted from excellent thermal behaviour of the solid wood panels (TRADA
Technology, 2008).

University of Edinburgh MSc Advanced Sustainable Design, year 11/12

A sustainable approach to materials and construction systems: Engineered Timber [27]

7. References

BRE, 2004. An introduction to building with Structural Insulated Panels (SIPs), Watford: BRE.

Dinwoodie, J.M., 2000. Timber, its nature and behaviour, Taylor & Francis.

Eriksson, P.E., 2004. Comparative LCAs for wood and other construction methods. In
Proceedings of World Conference on Timber Engineering.

Hairstans, R., 2010. Off-site and Modern Methods of Timber Construction: A Sustainable
Approach, TRADA Technology Ltd.

Hartwig, J., Zeumer, M. & Viola, J., 2009. Sustainable use of materials: wood and wood-based
products. DETAIL Green, (2/2009), pp.56-59.

HFA, NEU, 2010a. Cross laminated timber. Available at:

http://www.dataholz.com/Public/Baustoffe/Datenblaetter/en/bsp_en.pdf [Accessed
November 19, 2011].

HFA, NEU, 2010b. Glued laminated timber. Available at:

http://www.dataholz.com/Public/Baustoffe/Datenblaetter/en/bsh_en.pdf [Accessed
November 19, 2011].

HFA, NEU, 2010c. PSL (Parallam). Available at:

http://www.dataholz.com/Public/Baustoffe/Datenblaetter/en/fsh_en.pdf [Accessed
November 19, 2011].

HFA, OG, 2010a. Cement-bonded Particleboard. Available at:

http://www.dataholz.com/Public/Baustoffe/Datenblaetter/en/spz_en.pdf [Accessed
November 19, 2011].

HFA, OG, 2010b. Double and triple laminated beams (Duo-& Triobeams). Available at:
http://www.dataholz.com/Public/Baustoffe/Datenblaetter/en/dtb_en.pdf [Accessed
November 19, 2011].

HFA, OG, 2010c. Laminated veneer lumber (LVL). Available at:

http://www.dataholz.com/Public/Baustoffe/Datenblaetter/en/lvl_en.pdf [Accessed
November 19, 2011].

HFA, OG, 2010d. MDF. Available at:

http://www.dataholz.com/Public/Baustoffe/Datenblaetter/en/mdf_en.pdf [Accessed
November 19, 2011].

HFA, OG, 2010e. Oriented Strand Board. Available at:

http://www.dataholz.com/Public/Baustoffe/Datenblaetter/en/osb_en.pdf [Accessed
November 19, 2011].

HFA, OG, 2010f. Plywood. Available at:

http://www.dataholz.com/Public/Baustoffe/Datenblaetter/en/bfu_en.pdf [Accessed
November 19, 2011].

HFA, OG, 2010g. Solid wood panel. Available at:

http://www.dataholz.com/Public/Baustoffe/Datenblaetter/en/swp_en.pdf [Accessed
November 19, 2011].

University of Edinburgh MSc Advanced Sustainable Design, year 11/12

A sustainable approach to materials and construction systems: Engineered Timber [28]

HFA, OG, 2010h. Wood Particleboard. Available at:

http://www.dataholz.com/Public/Baustoffe/Datenblaetter/en/spa_en.pdf [Accessed
November 19, 2011].

KLH UK, 2009. Open Academy, Norwich, Available at:

http://www.klhuk.com/media/3139/openacademynorwich06.jpg [Accessed November 25,
2011].

Kretschmann, D.E., 2010. Mechanical Properties of Wood. In Forest Products Laboratory, ed.
Wood Handbook. Wood as an Engineering Material. Madison, WI: US Department of
Agriculture Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory, pp. 100-145.

NBT, 2007. Re-Thinking School, BRE Innovation Park, Available at: http://www.natural-
building.co.uk/images/nbt_images_large/School-for-the-future-eco-school.jpg.

ÖIBÖ, 2002. Ökologische Kennwerte von Holz und Holzwerkstoffen in Österreich,

Österreichisches Institut für Baubiologie und Ökologie GmbH.

Stark, N., Cai, Z. & Carll, C., 2010. Wood-Based Composite Materials. In Forest Products
Laboratory, ed. Wood Handbook. Wood as an Engineering Material. Madison, WI: US
Department of Agriculture Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory, pp. 252-279.

Thoemen, H., Irle, M. & Sernek, M., 2010. Wood-based Panels. An Introduction for Specialists,
Brunel University Press. Available at: http://www.ahb.bfh.ch/NR/rdonlyres/6388C45C-
8399-47AA-A833-
589576D903BA/0/WoodBased_PanelsThoemen_et_alISBN9781902316826.pdf.

Thun, M., 2010. Wood in Architecture, Interior and - Product Design – a Homage to a Building
Material. DETAIL, (06/2010), pp.552-670.

TRADA Technology, 2010. Cross-laminated timber panel school. Open Academy, Norwich.
Available at: http://www.trada.co.uk/casestudies/overview/CL_Academy_Norwich/
[Accessed November 25, 2011].

TRADA Technology, 2011. Cross-laminated timber: introduction for specifiers, High Wycombe:
TRADA Technology.

TRADA Technology, 2003. Introduction to wood-based panel products, High Wycombe: TRADA
Technology.

TRADA Technology, 2008. Reusable and adaptable wood structures : sustainable solutions for
a changing world, High Wycombe: TRADA Technology.

Wilson, P.L., 2001. Designing with timber, adleader in association with ARCA the Journal of
Scottish Architecture. Available at:
http://www.forestry.gov.uk/pdf/designingwithtimber.pdf/$FILE/designingwithtimber.pdf.

University of Edinburgh MSc Advanced Sustainable Design, year 11/12