Germanic Languages and Linguistic Universals 1st Edition John Ole Askedal Ian Roberts Tomonori Matsushita Hiroshi Hasegawa
Germanic Languages and Linguistic Universals 1st Edition John Ole Askedal Ian Roberts Tomonori Matsushita Hiroshi Hasegawa
Germanic Languages and Linguistic Universals 1st Edition John Ole Askedal Ian Roberts Tomonori Matsushita Hiroshi Hasegawa
com
OR CLICK BUTTON
DOWLOAD NOW
More products digital (pdf, epub, mobi) instant
download maybe you interests ...
https://ebookmeta.com/product/japanese-a-linguistic-introduction-
yoko-hasegawa/
https://ebookmeta.com/product/constructions-in-contact-
constructional-perspectives-on-contact-phenomena-in-germanic-
languages-1st-edition-hans-c-boas/
https://ebookmeta.com/product/the-oxford-handbook-of-universal-
grammar-ian-roberts-editor/
Multilingualism: Understanding Linguistic Diversity 2nd
Edition John Edwards
https://ebookmeta.com/product/multilingualism-understanding-
linguistic-diversity-2nd-edition-john-edwards/
https://ebookmeta.com/product/electricity-electromagnetism-and-
electric-circuits-1st-edition-matsushita/
https://ebookmeta.com/product/contemporary-linguistic-analysis-
an-introduction-9th-edition-john-archibald/
https://ebookmeta.com/product/a-handbook-on-legal-languages-and-
the-quest-for-linguistic-equality-in-south-africa-and-beyond-1st-
edition-zakeera-docrat/
https://ebookmeta.com/product/hispanic-child-languages-typical-
and-impaired-development-1st-edition-john-grinstead/
Germanic Languages and Linguistic Universals
The Development of the Anglo-Saxon Language
and Linguistic Universals (DASLU)
Volume 1
Germanic Languages and Linguistic Universals
Edited by John Ole Askedal, Ian Roberts, Tomonori Matsushita
and Hiroshi Hasegawa
Germanic Languages
and Linguistic Universals
Edited by
Ian Roberts
University of Cambridge
Tomonori Matsushita
Senshu University
Hiroshi Hasegawa
Senshu University
Germanic languages and linguistic universals / edited by John Ole Askedal, Ian Roberts,
Tomonori Matsushita, and Hiroshi Hasegawa.
p. cm. (The Development of the Anglo-Saxon Language and Linguistic Universals,
issn 1877-3451 ; v. 1)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
1. Germanic languages--Grammar. 2. Universals (Linguistics) 3. English language--
Grammar. 4. English language--Old English, ca. 450-1100. I. Askedal, John Ole,
1942-
PD99.G47 2009
430'.045--dc22 2008054507
isbn 978 90 272 1068 5 (Hb; alk. paper)
PREFACE
John Ole ASKEDAL, Ian ROBERTS, Tomonori MATSUSHITA and Hiroshi HASEGAWA ...... 1
2. Generative Grammar
Reflexive Binding as Agreement and its Locality Conditions within the Phase System
Hiroshi HASEGAWA ................................................................................................... 85
Movement in the Passive Nominal: A Morphological Analysis
Junji HAMAMATSU .................................................................................................. 107
On Tritransitive Verbs
Ryohei MITA.............................................................................................................. 121
REFERENCES
Askedal, John Ole. 1995. “Geographical and Typological Description of
Verbal Constructions in the Modern Germanic Languages”. Drei
Studien zum Germanischen in alter und neuer Zeit [NOWELE
Supplement Vol. 13]. John Ole Askedal u. Harald Bjorvand (eds).
Odense: Odense University Press, 95–146.
Baker, Mark. 1996. The Polysynthesis Parameter [Oxford Studies in
Comparative Syntax]. New York: Oxford University Press.
2001. The Atoms of Language: The Mind’s Hidden Rules of
4 John Ole ASKEDAL, Ian ROBERTS, Tomonori MATSUSHITA and Hiroshi HASEGAWA
0. INTRODUCTION
The aim of this paper is to provide a comparative, typologically and
diachronically oriented overview of certain salient structural features of
modern Germanic languages. Some of the phenomena I discuss invite
problematization in terms of grammaticalization and/or contact-linguistic
theory.
The languages dealt with are the Germanic standard languages English,
German, Dutch, West Frisian, Danish, Swedish, Norwegian with both
standard varieties Riksmål/Bokmål and Nynorsk, Faroese and Icelandic.1
From a partly historical partly geographical perspective these languages are
assigned to a North and a West Germanic group, both of which are
subdivided into a non-insular and an insular sub-group. Cf. (1):2
1
The following abbreviations are used: Eng. = English, Ger. = German, Du. = Dutch, WFr.
= West Frisian, Da. = Danish, Swed. = Swedish, Norw. = Norwegian, RM/BM =
Riksmål/Bokmål, NN = Nynorsk, Far. = Faroese, Icel. = Icelandic, and Germ. = Germanic.
– For reasons of space, I shall have to omit Luxembourgish and the vast range of dialects
as well as the Germanic diaspora consisting of Yiddish, Pennsylvania German and
Afrikaans.
2
Synchronically, in particular in view of present-day mutual intelligibility relationships,
the division into Insular and Mainland Scandinavian is more adequate than the traditional
historical bipartition into West Scandinavian, comprising Icelandic, Faroese and
Norwegian, and East Scandinavian, consisting of Swedish and Danish (cf. Harbert 2007:
19).
8 John Ole ASKEDAL
Through different kinds of language contact, the West Germanic languages have
become more or less Latinized or Romanized. For this reason we are in the case of
these languages today dealing with European rather than specifically Germanic
languages. (Braunmüller 2000: 271; my translation, J.O.A.)
of modern German (2.4), one would like to know what specific Latin
parallels there are. The assumption in (2.5) refers to a traditional but overly
simplified view of what was a very complex process in the history of
German word order (cf. Scaglione 1981: 109–117); later and final position of
the finite verb in subordinate clauses were by no means dependent on Latin
influence for their occurrence but their frequency of use may have been
reinforced by it (cf. Andersen 2007: 74–88, Prell & Andersen 2004: 165–169,
177 f.).
Braunmüller proposes a similar relationship between Mainland
Scandinavian and ‘West Germanic’:
Since Hanseatic times, Mainland Scandinavian has assumed so many West Germanic
genetic and typological characteristics that the West Germanic languages have
moulded the character of the modern Germanic languages in their entirety.
(Braunmüller 2000: 271; my translation, J.O.A.)
And then Ruth told him how she came into possession of
Hetty, of how Henrietta had come to grief, ending with,
"And there isn't another one like Hetty in all the world,
Uncle Sidney. I love her so dearly."
He put his hand on her head. "No," he said, "of course, you
don't have to give her up. Lillian certainly spoils that boy,"
he added half to himself.
And Ruth was going away satisfied, leaving her uncle to his
newspaper and the comfort of the library fire, when he
called her back. "Here are some picture papers," he said,
"don't you want to look at them?"
CHAPTER XI
Signed, Simon Petty
IT was a week later that Ruth was in her room with Hetty
sitting before her on the window seat. The house was very
still. Bertie's howls did not cleave the air. The swish, swish
of Mrs. Mayfield's silken petticoats was no longer heard;
even Mademoiselle's high-pitched voluble French did not
pierce the silence.
"I am very glad they didn't decide to take me, Hetty," said
Ruth. "I'd much rather not go. Oh my, isn't it lovely to get
rid of Bertie? Don't you feel glad that you don't have to stay
down in your cave? Now that I haven't those hateful verbs
to learn, I shall have time to sew for you, Hetty. I've hardly
dared to more than take you out to look at you for a week,
for although Uncle Sidney said I was not to give you up,
Bertie would have come and taken you without the asking if
you were within reach."
"Bless the child," murmured Mr. Mayfield. "I think then since
you do not really care to go that we will leave you here," he
added.
The quiet house was the result of all this, and Ruth was
actually less lonely than when the coming and going of
visitors, whom she never saw, the bustle of entertainments
in which she had no part, and the noisy clamor of Bertie
stirred the household.
"I think I'll take you down in the nursery now," she said to
Hetty. "It's nice and warm there where the sunshine comes
in the windows. I'll begin your new frock. Think of it, I have
hardly looked at my box of pieces since I came. They will
remind me of home so much. I shouldn't mind pulling out
the stitches from old coats or doing anything, if I could only
sit by Aunt Hester and hear Billy whistling in the wood-
shed. There's that striped pocket; I'll use that."
Ruth unrolled the pocket. Something hard was in the
bottom of it. She drew it out. She had forgotten the little
wad of paper she had put there so long before. She pulled
out the crumpled mass and began to smooth out the
wrinkles. Something was written on the paper. She tried to
read it, but the writing was too cramped and illegible for her
childish powers. She could, however, make out the
signature which was in quite different handwriting. The
letters, big and black, were easily read.
At five o'clock it was quite dark. The lights in the hall were
lighted and Katie came to turn them on in the nursery.
Later, Martin appeared with Ruth's supper on a tray. At the
sight of the lonely little figure, his dignity unbent.
"I can't say I quite echo your wish, miss. Cook made you a
little cake just for yourself and she said I was to tell you the
cream toast was special good. Is there anything else you
would care for, miss? Oysters or a bit of cold ham?"
Ruth surveyed the tempting supper prepared for her: cream
toast, broiled chicken, a small pot of cocoa, a fresh sponge
cake scalloped and with a hole in the middle into which hole
Martin had stuck a bunch of violets. Amber jelly and some
fruit completed the bill of fare. Wouldn't Billy's eyes open if
he could see all this served on beautiful cut glass and
china? The thought of Billy reminded Ruth of the paper she
had found in the pocket.
"There is only one thing I want, Martin," she said. "I wish
you would read something for me."
"I can make out the Simon Petty," said Ruth by way of
encouragement.
"It's to tell that some money has been paid. This here," he
pointed to the paper, "seems to say that Francis Blackberry,
or some such name, has paid Petty five thousand dollars—
payment in full of money advanced. It reads like that."
"You know the parties, then? How did you happen to get
hold of this?"
"There is war relics, but this kind is a man's widow, the wife
he leaves behind him."
"It would buy a pretty good house in some places. But your
supper is getting cold, miss."
"Oh, well, I'll eat it. Thank you ever so much, Martin, for
telling me all about the receipt. Tell Maria I am much
obliged for the cake; it is so brown and lovely, and thank
whoever put the dear little bunch of violets in the middle.
You may go now, Martin."
"It's a little lady," he said to the cook. "She didn't forget the
'Thank you' to send you, and was as pleased as Punch at
the cake and flowers. She's a high and mighty way, too,
when she needs it, and that's what a lady should have."
"I'll do it," she said. "I'll write to him this very evening and
get Martin to mail the letter for me."
She set to work as soon as her supper was over and
managed a tolerably fair page to send to the doctor. The
spelling was not so good as the handwriting, for the latter
was something upon which Ruth prided herself.
"RUTH HENRIETTA
BRACKENBURY."
It was rather a vague letter, but might have had its effect if
the doctor had been at home when it arrived. He had gone
to a convention, however, and, as he expected to return in a
couple of days, he had ordered his mail to be held at home
for him.
Ruth waited one, two, three days; then she took alarm.
Suppose the letter had been lost. She knew such things did
sometimes occur.
And so the longing to see Aunt Hester and Billy, Lucia and
Annie, Dr. Peaslee and all her well tried friends grew
stronger each day. And at the end of the week, she had
made her plans and had revealed them to Martin who,
solemn and stiff enough in his office as butler, had
nevertheless, a warm heart and did his best to cheer the
loneliness of the little girl.
"I don't exactly know, miss," was the reply. "But I can easy
find out. I'll look it up this evening. I've got to go out before
supper."
Ruth counted out her store. "I have that much," she said,
"and a little over. Oh, Martin, couldn't you put me on the
train for Springdale?"
"Dear me, miss," said Martin, "I'm sure I should miss you
mighty much."
"Thank you, Martin. You always say kind things and I wish
you lived in Springdale instead of here."
"I can't say I wish that, but I shouldn't mind going there for
a visit of a day. I've an old friend from England who has a
shop there and I've promised to go to see him for many a
long day."
"Oh, I wish you would go; I think it is very nice that you
have a friend there. I wonder if I know him. What is his
name, Martin?"
"I think I know just who he is," said Ruth, in a pleased tone.
"You see, Martin, I am really here only on a visit; I said that
always, and that if ever something fine should happen I
would go straight back to Aunt Hester. Maybe this receipt is
just like finding money, and oh, how I should love to
surprise them and be the one to take the receipt to Aunt
Hester."
Martin stood with the carafe of water in his hand. He
seemed to be thinking deeply.
"Do you think uncle would mind very much?" Ruth asked. "I
know Aunt Lillie wouldn't, and when I 'splained about the
receipt, it would be all right, wouldn't it, Martin?"
"I think so, miss. I'll have to think it over. I could get off for
a couple days as well as not," he said half to himself.
"James would see to things, I suppose. I'll speak to Katie
when I go down," he said to Ruth. "I think perhaps Mr.
Mayfield wouldn't mind if I took you there myself and
brought you back."
"Oh, but—" Ruth began to say that maybe she would not
come back, but she thought better of it. So she hastened to
say: "I think you are as good as you can be, Martin."
Ruth knew well enough who the she meant, but she made
no comment. What was Aunt Lillie to her now that she was
to see Aunt Hester? She went to sleep and once laughed
out loud because she dreamed that Stray, dressed up in
Martin's livery, was taking her to see Dr. Peaslee.
CHAPTER XII
A Journey
She put her hand confidently in Martin's when she was lifted
from the carriage and possessing himself of the valise in
which Katie had packed Ruth's clothing, the butler took his
way to the cars, smiling down at the child as he seated
himself by her side.
The hours seemed long but, as she drew nearer and nearer
to her destination and certain points along the way began to
look familiar, Ruth could scarcely restrain herself. She
bobbed up and down in her seat, chattered like a magpie to
Martin and once in a while gave a little squeak of pleasure
as some well-known landmark caught her attention.
The doctor piloted her to a seat across the aisle from the
one in which she had been sitting.
"He is a nice man, a very nice man, indeed," Ruth went on.
"He looks much finer in his livery, and he is very stern and
straight when he is in the dining-room though you wouldn't
think it to see him now when he looks just like any one
else."
"What receipt?"
Ruth fumbled in her bead bag and drew forth the paper.
"This," she said. "I didn't want to send it to Aunt Hester till I
knew whether it was worth anything. Martin says it is a
receipt from," she lowered her voice, "Simon Petty to
Francis Brackenbury, only he will call it Blackberry. You
know Uncle Sidney told them I was named Mayfield and
they don't know I am really Ruth Brackenbury."
"The rascal!" Ruth heard him say under his breath. "The
unmitigated scoundrel!"
"I should say it was. Where on earth did you get it, Miss
Mouse?"
"Oh, I do, I do. I would never have gone away only Billy
said it would be better for Aunt Hester and she wouldn't
have to work so hard."
The doctor's arm went around the child and he drew her
close to him.
The doctor was silent but he shook his head as if over the
evil of the man. "He's a pretty sick mortal," the doctor told
her, "and he has not long to live, but he will live long
enough to set this matter straight or my name is not Tom
Peaslee. Now you sit here; I want to go over to speak to
your friend Martin."
"I'm going home, I'm going home. There's the church, and
there's the steeple. Soon I'll see all my good people. I'm
going home, I'm going home."
The train stopped. The doctor took Ruth by the hand. Martin
followed with the baggage and in another moment the train
was winding its way down the track leaving Ruth and her
friends on the platform of the station at Springdale.
But Ruth did not heed. For her there was no to-morrow, if it
meant a return journey.
She skipped along by the side of the doctor till they came in
sight of the little brown house. Then the child's desire out-
ran the doctor's pace.
"Oh, would you mind if I went on?" she asked. "I can't
stand it, if I don't."
The doctor loosed his clasp of her hand and she sped like an
arrow toward the house. Her trembling fingers fumbled with
the latch of the gate. She heard a sharp excited bark from
Stray. It was a waste of time to knock at the front door, and
she flew around to the kitchen bursting in half laughing, half
crying.
The sobs which Ruth had choked back broke forth then into
a real fit of weeping. The love for which the little heart had
been starving was here, and the child wept on Aunt Hester's
shoulder gasping out:
"Come in, Tom," she said. "How did you happen to bring
back my little girl?"
"Let her tell you. I just stopped to say 'howdy,' then I'll be
off. Come here, Ruth, I want to speak to you. Excuse
secrets, Hetty."
"Old Petty is awful sick; they say he can't live. Squire Field
has got a new horse, a beauty, bay with one white stocking.
Phil Reed's little dog is dead. Phil wanted to buy Stray but
me and Aunt Hester couldn't part with him. There's a new
teacher at our school; he's A No. 1, I tell you," and so on.
Meanwhile, Miss Hester and Ruth sat with arms around each
other, Ruth answering the many questions and finding it
hard to keep back the fact of the receipt.
"I say, you look like a howling swell in that hat," said the
observant Billy. "Ain't you going to take it off and stay
awhile?"
"But Billy—"
"It's bought and paid for, the man said so, and he said it
was for you."
Billy paused in the act of drawing forth packages.
Miss Hester flushed but did not forbid the unpacking of the
basket. It held many dainties: a roasted chicken, a glass of
jelly, fruit, crackers, cheese and a delicious cake.
"Ah, yes, but you didn't throw it away; that's just the
point," said the squire smiling.
"Why didn't you say before this that you did not press it
because you had no lawyer's fee?" asked the Squire sharply.
"Didn't you know I would have taken the case on the
chance of its coming out all right?"
True to his promise, Martin came the next day but Miss
Hester would not let Ruth go.
She was not long in doing this, and as Mrs. Mayfield was by
no means anxious that Ruth should make her home with
her uncle, she persuaded him that it was best to leave Ruth
with her adopted aunt. Mr. Mayfield came to Springdale to
talk the matter over. He found Ruth so happy and so eager
to remain where she was that he made no effort to take her
away. He offered a certain sum to be paid yearly for her
support, but Miss Hester refused proudly.
"I don't see how you could give up all that," said some of
them.
"It's great, ain't it?" said Billy as she came up. "Aunt Hester
says I can keep chickens and I'm makin' a coop for a hen
I'm goin' to get from Fred Felton. I'm goin' to do some work
for him to pay for it. He's no good doin' anything with tools
and I told him I'd help him out and take my pay in stock.
I'm goin' to try to get some eggs that way, too, and I'll set
my hen and have some chickens, then I'll get other
chickens. This is a fine place to keep them, there's so much
room they can have a chicken yard and they won't get out
to scratch up the flowers. Maybe if I am lucky with my
chickens, I can save enough money to do somethin'
worthwhile after a time."
"It will be too lovely to have chickens and flowers both," she
said. "Shall you keep chickens or will you have a store when
you grow up, Billy?"
"I'll cut it for you," said Billy viewing his copy with a
satisfied air.
Billy shook his head. "No, sir, I don't want my name in any
such place. Where I want it is on a sign over a store door.
William Beatty and Company in gold letters. I'll cut that
name now. Where do you want it?"
She touched with her lips each letter of the name which
Billy had just rudely carved upon the rough bark.
She folded her hands after this ceremony and stood looking
up at the soft blue sky across which fleecy clouds were
drifting.
Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions will
be renamed.