Sociology Unit

1
Module 1 Sociological Concepts, Perspectives, Methods and culture
Module Coverage

 MODULE 1: SOCIOLOGICAL CONCEPTS

 SOCIOLOGICAL CONCEPTS
 SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES
 RESEARCH METHODS
 CULTURE
General Objectives

 Unit 1: The Sociological Perspective

 Module 1: Sociological concepts, perspective and methods
 General Objectives
 On completion of this Module, students should:
 Understand the development of Sociology as a discipline
 Understand the fundamental concepts in Sociology
 Understand the main theoretical perspectives in Sociology
 Understand the manifestations of culture in Caribbean society.
 Understand the key principles and practices of scientific research
 Demonstrate an awareness of ethical issues in research
Specific Objectives
 Specific Objectives
 Students should be able to:
 Trace the development of Sociology from the classical to the
contemporary period in mainstream and Caribbean Sociology.
 Discuss the fundamental concepts of Sociology
 Evaluate the theoretical perspective of Sociology
 Discuss issues related to cultural diversity and popular culture
 Explain the principles and practices of scientific research
 Distinguish among the various research methods
 Apply the research methods to a sociological issue
 Apply the ethical principles in research
 Concepts of Sociology
 Sociology is the study of human society, its origins, functions, and
problems. It focuses on relations among people, groups, classes,
organizations, and cultures.
 Value consensus – general agreement of the main values of society
 Collective conscience – set of shared beliefs, ideas, attitudes and
knowledge that are common to a social group or society
 Social order – the manner in which society maintains itself and functions
through the institutions of society
 Structure/superstructure- the framework of society held together by the
political system and other institutions of society
 Function – the manner in which one carries out their assigned task in
society meaning one’s role. The manner in which one conducts themselves
based on their role in society.
 Concepts of Sociology
 Role – this speaks to the specialized title that one is assigned by society, this can be
based on gender, educational attainment, profession even religious affiliation
 Power – the ability to influence others to carry out a task they wouldn’t normally do
on their own.
 Social change – a shift in the value system of a society that will lead to a difference
in the way society operates. The influence of social change maybe internal or
external
 Status – this speaks to the rank one has in society based on their role in society.
Based on that role the individual is seen as someone prestigious or ordinary
 Values – a belief, ideal, or principle that a person or group has that determines what
is correct, desirable, and proper.
 Norms- unwritten guidelines that should instruct a society on how to function.
 Concepts in Sociology
 Sanction – punishments or rewards use to maintain social order
 Social group – a set of persons with a set of shared values, social class or even age in
common that helps them in their interaction with each other. A social group consists of
two or more people who interact with one another and who recognize themselves as a
distinct social unit. The definition is simple enough, but it has significant implications.
Frequent interaction leads people to share values and beliefs.
 Primary group - A primary group is a group in which one exchanges implicit items, such
as love, caring, concern, animosity, support, etc. Examples, of these would be family
groups, love relationships, crisis support groups, church groups, etc. Relationships
formed in primary groups are often long-lasting and goals in themselves.
 Secondary group - often have an organized structure, formal rules, and an authority
figure who oversees the rules, members, and the project or task that the group is
involved in.
 In – group - Any group or category to which an individual belongs and membership in the
group fosters deep loyalty and a sense of identity. Example of In-group. In a game of
football, the home team including their fans (as opposed to the visiting team and their
fans, who are the out-group)
 Concepts in Sociology
 Out-group - The out-group is a group to which a person is not a member and is not
loyal to. The out-group includes everyone who is not a part of your in-group.
 Socialization - The act or process of an individual or group learning the expected
norms and customs of a group or society through social interaction
 Primary socialization - is when a child learns to interact, behave and talk in society
through family members.
 Secondary socialization - occurs during the school years and adolescent years and
happens through non-family influence.
 Agents - the social institutions of our culture also inform our socialization. Formal
institutions—like schools, workplaces, and the government—teach people how to
behave in and navigate these systems. Other institutions, like the media,
contribute to socialization by inundating us with messages about norms and
expectations.
 School – An institution responsible for the acquisition of skills and knowledge
 Concepts in Sociology
 Family – a group of persons related by blood or adoption with a shared
residence
 Peer group - The people an individual socializes with, that typically inform
and enforce societal norms.Persons whom he resembles in age, social class,
or otherwise, and he adjusts his values to conform to those of his group in a
constant process of change. Read More; influence on. Bullying. In bullying:
Background factors.
 Mass media - A medium is a means of communication such as print, radio, or
television. The mass media are defined as large-scale organizations which
use one or more of these technologies to communicate with large numbers of
people (‘mass communications’).
 Religion – the belief in a supernatural being or diety
 Culture – the way of life of a people/a design for living
Activity 1

 If sociologists deal with commonplace everyday experiences, can we say that

we are all
 sociologists?
 If not, why?
 How would you define ‘sociology’?
 Write down five words that come to mind when you hear the word ‘science’.
 Would you say that sociology is of the same status as the natural sciences?
Why?
Defining Sociology (review)
 Auguste Comte, who, is said to have been the founding father of the
subject, coined the term ‘sociology’. The term "Sociology" is said to
have its roots in the Greek words 'socio' meaning 'society' and 'logos'
meaning knowledge. In explaining what is sociology, different
sociologists have differing explanations due to the fact that there
are many theories in sociology.
 There is no one set or correct definition of what sociology is. Some
sociologists define sociology as the study of the structures in society,
while others define it as the study of individuals in society. Thus the
focus is on certain parts of society; a general definition therefore is
‘the study of human society and human social behaviour’. To better
understand sociology, one needs to examine the nature of sociology.
 The Nature of Sociology

Sociology is the scientific and systematic study of society.

It involves the study of human social life, groups and

societies. Sociologists observe social phenomena and look for
recurrent patterns of behaviour since they believe
behavioural patterns tend to repeat themselves and are fairly
predictable. They also look at how a society develops and
maintains its culture and how groups and institutions
influence human social behaviour.
The nature of Sociology
 Sociology involves gaining knowledge about the social world
from a sociological point of view. The sociological view of
society is special because sociologists, unlike laypersons,
tend to look at things from a holistic perspective, that is,
they look at all aspects of the phenomenon being studied.
The layperson, on the other hand, views society from an
individualistic position or what we call common sense
knowledge.
 Sociologists possess the sociological imagination, which
makes their view different from that of the layperson
because they are objective and look at the whole of society
and not just a certain viewpoint.
Sociological Imagination
 This term “Sociological Imagination” was coined in 1959 by
sociologist C. Wright Mills. The concept describes the ability to
see the impact of social forces on our lives. It is a special type of
awareness of the relationship between an individual and the
wider society. It requires us to view our own society as an
outsider would, devoid of biases, prejudices, cultural values and
attitudes.
 It is an awareness that enables a person to see beyond what is
apparent, (everyday occurrences) to see the links between their
immediate circumstances and other parts of the world
(countries, groups, societies), external forces, that help to shape
what takes place in that micro-environment.
 Relationship between Sociology and
other disciplines

Sociology and Psychology Similarity:

Both Sociology and Psychology are concerned with

attitudes, beliefs, behaviours, emotions and
interpersonal relationships of individuals in society.
Difference: Psychology focuses more on the individual
level of social behaviour while sociology considers the
individual within the context of the wider social groups in
society.
 The relationship between Sociology and
other disciplines

Sociology and Political Science Similarity:

Both Sociology and Political Science are concerned with the government and
the administration of society, distribution of power and peoples’ attitudes.
Difference: Political scientists analyze the different forms of government and
their underlying philosophies and study the political process, whereas a
sociologist examines the interrelationship between political structure and
behaviour and other aspect of society, such as the economy, religious
institutions, and the attitudes of various social groups.
The relationship between Sociology and
other disciplines
Sociology and Philosophy Similarity:

Both Sociology and Philosophy are concerned with

beliefs about the nature of life. Difference:
Philosophy is a system of abstract reasoning that
follows specific rules of logic.
Sociology is empirical; it seeks to discover
information about the real world by gathering data
about what people actually do.
 The relationship between Sociology and
other disciplines
Sociology and Anthropology Similarity:

Both Sociology and Anthropology are concerned with social life, including culture, beliefs, decision-making and
relationships.
Difference: Anthropology is more the study of the cultural characteristics of societies other than our own and a
comparison of their characteristics cross-culturally. Sociology is based on the scientific study of groups and
institutions in society
 The relationship between Sociology and
other disciplines

Sociology and Economics Similarity:

Both Sociology and Economics are concerned with how society produces and distributes goods and services.
Difference: While the economist concentrates on the economy in its own right, sociologist are more likely to
consider how the economy affects and is affected by other social processes and institutions.
Development of Sociology as a
Discipline- The French Revolution
 The two major events responsible for the development of Sociology as a
discipline is that of the French Revolution and Industrial Revolution
 The French Revolution occurred because the leaders Marie Antoinette and Louis
XVI were not good leader because they were young. The peasants were
overworked and underpaid and would have been thrown into prison if they
could not pay their taxes. The Jacobins decided to influence the people to free
all the prisoners and there would be the creation of a brotherhood to create
equality, fraternity and brotherhood. The people at the time were not guided
much by religion since they were suffering the effects of the dark ages where
bibles weren’t available to them to study and they had to depend on the
teaching of the religious leaders to guide them. The revolution increased the
feeling of French nationalism, and it set a precedent for a democratic French
government. Although it did not solve class inequalities, the French Revolution
led to the emergence of the middle class.
 https://french.lovetoknow.com/Cause_and_Effect_in_the_French_Revolution
The Development of Sociology as a
Discipline- French Revolution
 Financial Crisis
 At the time of the Revolution, Marie Antoinette and Louis XVI
were known for spending frivolously. Marie Antoinette
is frequently credit credited with callously saying "let them eat
cake" in response to finding out that Parisians were starving.
 However, it is probably more accurate to say that she was
totally unaware of the people's suffering. Louis XVI further
added fuel to the fire by dismissing financial ministers who
tried to bring about reform. People were going hungry, and it
appeared as if the monarchy just continued to spend
carelessly.
The Development of Sociology as a
Discipline- French Revolution
 Social Inequalities
 18th century France was still under a feudal system which further served to
breed contempt of the poorer classes towards the nobility. Taxes were
aggressively collected, but only from lower class. The king ruled as an
absolute monarch, although there was also an Estates General. However, even
when the Estates General was called, it was organized in such a way that only
those of nobility could truly have a voice. It was in this manner that the
people were shut out.
 It was in this climate that the seeds of revolution were planted and watered.
The Storming of the Bastille for
Democracy
What were the effects of the French
Revolution?
 Emerging middle class
 Democratic system
 The reign of Terror
 The end of Bourbon rule
 Loss of power of the Catholic Church
 Land ownership
 Nationalism
 Liberalism
 Communism
 The Development of Sociology as a
discipline-Industrial Revolution
 The causes of the Industrial Revolution can be seen from an
economic, social and technological point of view. From the
economic point of view, the availability of capital and the need
to expand trade were the most relevant causes.
 From the social point of view, the availability of labor due to the
agrarian revolution was an essential element for the
development of the Industrial Revolution.
 From the technological point of view, the appearance of the
steam engine and other inventions was the true trigger of this
process.
The Development of Sociology as a
discipline- Industrial Revolution
 Causes of the Revolution
 Available Capital
 Available Raw Material
 Availability of Labour
 Expansion of trade
 Use of Steam Engine
 The Development of Sociology as
discipline- Industrial Revolution

 Effects of the Revolution

 Demographic growth
 Internal and External Migration
 Sustainable Economy
 Capitalism and private property
 Industrialization of modern societies
Development of Sociology

 Sociology developed as a result of the changes that took place in

Europe during the late 18th and 19th centuries, that is, the
French Revolution and the Industrial Revolution. The industrial
revolution drastically changed the way goods were produced, and
consequently the organisation of social life.
 Prior to the industrial revolution, people farmed and lived in
feudal existence with the church influencing their way of life.
However, in the industrial era, cities developed due to the
emergence of factories and the social structure changed.
Traditional structures or institutions such as the family, religion,
education and politics were being broken down and replaced by
new ones and the influence of the church was declining.
 Development of Sociology

 The social thinkers of the time were concerned with these changes,
which, to them, fostered chaos and instability in society. Along with
these changes, however, major discoveries in the natural sciences were
taking place, which gave social thinkers hope for society.
 The natural sciences made advances such as Newton’s Theory which
unraveled the mysteries of the natural world. Social thinkers, therefore,
believed that the mysteries of the social world could also be unraveled.
They believed that the laws of the social world could be discovered and,
once they were found, order and stability would be restored to society.
 Thus, the changes which occurred in Europe along with the discoveries
in the physical and natural sciences, led to a new way of thinking about
the social world, and scholars turned to science to provide answers to
the issues of the day. This resulted in a new discipline called sociology.
 Early Sociologists- Auguste Comte (1798-
1857) - Functionalism
 Comte is considered the founding father of sociology and he outlined “What
a science of society should be”. He stressed that sociology should be
scientific, much like the natural sciences. He felt that sociology should be
rooted in positivism, that is, knowledge should be derived from observable
facts, rather than from superstition, fantasy, or other non-empirical
(nonverifiable) sources. He believed that the social world was governed by
a set of laws, which made it possible for the study of society to be
scientific in nature.
 He felt that by studying society in this way, sociology would help correct
the ills of society. Thus sociology was seen as “the queen of all sciences”
and sociologists as belonging to a “priesthood of humanity”, by Comte,
because sociology and sociologists would be able to restore order in society.
Comte’s work laid the groundwork for the development of Sociology as it is
known today. Many of Comte's doctrines were later adapted and developed
by social philosophers, especially the Functionalists.
 Emile Durkheim (1858-1917)-
Functionalism
Durkheim is referred to as the first real “sociologist” and he founded
the first school of sociology in France in 1887. Durkheim, a
functionalist, like Comte was concerned about the changes which
occurred in Europe and the chaos and disorder it created in society.
The major question that he sought to answer was “What makes social
order in society”.
 Once one discovers the answer to this question then social disorder
can be understood and prevented in society. The answer, according to
Durkheim, was the 4 underlying set of moral rules, norms, beliefs and
values that gives members of society the shared feeling of belonging
and which holds society together in harmony and equilibrium.
 Emile Durkheim- Functionalism
 Durkheim is very important in the development of the
discipline, first due to his focus on social facts, which he
sees as influencing an individual’s thoughts and behaviour
in society. Durkheim developed the idea of positivism to
the study of social facts and carried out one of the first
sociological studies, which utilised scientific methods to
learn more about "Suicide".
 Secondly, he established sociological methods in The Rules
of the Sociological Method (1895), which outlines methods
to be used in studying the social sciences, and are used by
many researchers even today
 Karl Marx (1818-1883)- Marxism
 Marx, like Comte, was a well-known philosopher, social scientist
and historian. However, unlike Comte, Marx was a revolutionary,
which was reflected in his work. Marx also shared Durkheim’s
interest in society and the changes that were taking place, but
adopted a different approach.
 Marx felt that the Industrial Revolution was responsible for
social conflict, inequality, and social polarisations* into groups,
which he identified as the proletariat and the bourgeoisie. Thus,
he was of the view that social relation between these groups is
characterised by conflict not harmony. Marx is important to the
development of sociology, as the founder of what is known as
the conflict perspective.
 Max Weber (1864-1920)- Interactionism

 Weber was a German economist and historian and, like Marx, was critical of
capitalism and the social class system it produces. However, he thought Marxist
thinking was centered on economic determinism. He agreed that economic
factors drove society but he also placed importance on ideas and values in
shaping society. A major concept developed by Weber, Verstehen, which means
sympathetic understanding, formed the basis of an area of sociology known as
Interpretive Sociology.
 This branch of Sociology is very wide and can be subdivided into many other
perspectives. These focus upon the micro aspect of sociology, that is, the small-
scale interactions between individuals. Unlike Comte and Durkheim, Weber felt
that sociologists can only understand the reality of social actors by seeing the
world through other people’s eyes. The branches of interpretive sociology include
symbolic interaction, ethnomethodology and phenomenology.
 The Development of Caribbean Sociology

Early sociological theorizing in the Caribbean took the form

mainly of social, political, and economic writings with
historical underpinnings. The literature concentrated on the
period from slavery onward through the period of
independence in the 1960s.
The issues, which were discussed, ranged from the legacy of
slavery and colonialism, development issues, migration, as
well as the 'brain drain’ that plagued many of the territories.
The Development of Caribbean Sociology

There is a wealth of literature in these areas, which emanated

from historians, economists, social workers, demographers and
geographers, but there was an absence of sociologists. Today, in
the Caribbean, much of these writings form the basis for
Sociology theorizing. The work of renowned sociologists such as
Auguste Comte, Karl Marx, Talcott Parsons and Emile Durkheim,
form the basic groundwork which informs Caribbean sociological
theorizing.
Caribbean Sociology, like sociology in other parts of the world, is
informed by functionalism, Marxism and symbolic interactionism.
 The Development of Caribbean Sociology

More specific work, which could be applied distinctively to the

Caribbean region, was usually informed by work done in other
parts of the world. For example, M. G. Smith described the
Caribbean as having a plural society.
Smith drew from J. S. Furnivall's work on plural societies, and
applied the concept of plural societies to the Caribbean. R. T.
Smith, in writing on family, used as the basic starting point for
his analysis, the traditional family forms of European societies,
mainly on the nuclear family. To many writers, these traditional
family forms are viewed as the norm, and any other family
structures are seen as deviations from the norm or adaptations.
 The Development of Caribbean Sociology
 The early works sought to explain the trends, as well as the reasons
underlying the cohesiveness in Caribbean societies. Some of these works
also sought to categorise Caribbean societies or identify characteristics
that distinguish Caribbean societies. Among other works, which have
engaged the attention of sociologists in the Caribbean, is the manner in
which the migrant populations sought to find solutions to the living
conditions which were dictated to them.
 Other works covered areas such as migration and the "brain drain" which
many Caribbean sociologists view as a response to unemployment and
harsh living conditions. In "My Mother Who Fathered Me", Edith Clarke
(1966) looks at migration from a rural Caribbean community. Clarke
examines the implications of migration on the community, and the
impact on the livelihood of the family members who were left behind.
 The Development of Caribbean Sociology

➢ Family Land is an example of what many writers see as a

response to living conditions. Many sociologists claim that family
land was the ex-slaves’ answer to the problem of land scarcity.
➢ Through this system, a person provided for those who came
after him, by allowing the land to belong to none in particular,
but by allowing all, even future generations, the use of the land.
Hymie Rubenstein (1987), sought to explain the existence of
several families occupying the same plot of land. This was a
practice that was not observed in European and Western
societies.
 The Development of Caribbean Sociology
Other areas, which have been covered by Caribbean sociologists,
include the topic of race and culture. Sociologists and others have been
debating whether there has been retention of the culture of the major
races, or whether there has been any diffusion.
Some sociologists have also been occupied with women's issues. Patricia
Mohammed has done extensive work on women of East Indian descent in
the Caribbean, whilst Rhoda Reddock has also looked at the Caribbean
women, including their role in history. Reddock interviewed persons in
the society to document important facts about the life and times of
Tubal Uriah Buzz Butler*.
 The Development of Caribbean Sociology
Such information should have been otherwise lost to society with the
death of the informants concerned. Through this method of research,
Reddock was able to document the part played by women in the
events that led up to the Butler Riots in Trinidad in the 1930s.
Reddock described the part played by Elma Francois, a migrant to
Trinidad, and through her work was able to show that Caribbean
women had been left out of history just as in other historical writings.
Today the Caribbean has a wealth of sociologists who are making
contributions in every sphere of the real world. The following have
made invaluable contributions to Caribbean sociology:
Sociology Unit 1

Teacher K. Smith

Sociology as a Science
 Exam Questions – Reach September 16, 2024 –
home work – sociology as a science
 CAPE 2004/2005/2007
 “Sociology cannot be a science because its subject matter is too
varied, abstract and difficult to measure.”
Do you agree or disagree with this statement? Support your response
by referring to the characteristics of the discipline of Sociology as
well as the nature of human social behavior.” [25 marks]

 • CAPE 2011
 Critics of sociology have challenged the view that sociology is a
science. Discuss TWO of the MAIN criticisms of sociology as a
science. Support your response with reference to ONE named
sociological study of society.[25 marks]
Sociology as a Science

 What Is A Science? Tischler (l999) defines a science as "a body

of systematically arranged knowledge that shows the operation
of general laws". Tischler (1999) indicates that the term also
refers to "the logical, systematic methods by which that
knowledge is obtained". Comte was among the first theorists to
advocate the use of scientific principles in the study of the
social sciences.
 His argument was that the behaviour of humans was governed
by the same laws of cause and effect as those that pertained
to the study of the natural sciences and that this behaviour
was measurable. This way of thinking led to the development
of a school of thought which Comte called "positivism".
 Sociology as a Science

 In the 20th Century, this term 'positivism' adopted a more

scientific stance in which the theorists of the day
emphasized scientific verification. However, the
positivists have concluded that in general, sociology and
the sciences have five characteristics in common.
 1. It is empirical It is based on facts and information
obtained through various methods of observation as
opposed to speculation or imagination. It is based on what
has been seen and recorded.
 Sociology as a Science
 2. It is theoretical Information collected through
research is organised in the form of theories,
which consist of coherent and logically related
principles. According to Haralambos (2000), a
theory is a set of ideas that provides an
explanation of something.
 In Sociology there are different theoretical
perspectives (different approaches to the study of
the same phenomena).
 Sociology as a Science
 3. It is cumulative The sociologists builds upon the efforts of
the predecessors. Most new theories develop, modify,
expand and refine the older ones.
 4. It is objective The sociologist does not allow personal
preferences, biases and feelings to influence the research.
 5. It is non-ethical This is related to the previous point. The
researcher’s own values or opinions should not affect the
research findings. The scientist’s duty is to discover the
truth: to identify, describe, analyse and explain, but not to
say whether it is good or bad.
Sociology is a Science

 According to Giddens (1986), science is the use of

systematic methods of research and investigation and the
logical analysis of arguments in order to develop an
understanding of a particular subject matter.
 Many researchers are of the view that sociology possesses
these characteristics both in its procedures and the
character of its findings. Sociological research adopts the
following steps of the scientific method.
 Sociology is a Science
 1. Sociology studies human behaviour, which is not easily
quantifiable (always changing) but sociology has developed
approaches to overcome this problem. Sociology depends on
'empirical', research-based facts and not on value judgements or
emotions or even opinions.
 Empiricism restricts knowledge to the domain of experience, and
establishes that knowledge should be based on experience. The
theory underlying sociology is based on observation or even
experiments as Comte had advocated for empiricism.
 2. Sociology is considered to be theoretical since its subject matter
is concerned with knowledge obtained from observation and
experiments and not through speculation.
 Sociology is a Science

3. The cumulative nature of Sociology implies that the knowledge

transmitted from one generation to another is built up on
knowledge that was compiled by previous generations. In this way,
if knowledge is not refuted, it contributes to the stock of
knowledge of subsequent generations, and is used as a base for
adding to that stock.
 4. Research that is non-ethical must be objective, and free from
values. The sociologist must not allow personal biases and
emotions to influence the work. In studying society, there will be
several concepts which the research may not support, for
example, single parenting, where women decide to have a family
and support that family out of wedlock
 Sociology is a Science
 Even though the sociologist may not approve of this type of family
pattern, the research should not allow personal bias and opinions to
creep in and influence the work. This is one of the requirements of
a science, that the subject matter be non-ethical, and value free.

 The laws of positivism dictate that a science can be empirical,

theoretical, cumulative, objective and non-ethical. Thus when a
body of knowledge conforms to these criteria, it can be deemed
scientific. Sociology has been deemed to be empirical, theoretical,
cumulative, objective and non-ethical, and as such, it is considered
a science.
 Sociology is a Science

 According to Auguste Comte goes through 3 stages

 The theological stage
 The metaphysical stage
 The scientific/positivist stage

 Based on Emile Durkheim’s Study on Suicide, scientific

methods were used to understand the phenomenon.
 Activity

 Explain the difference stages of Comte’s Theory of

positivism to an understanding of society.
 Outline the steps that Durkheim used in order to conduct
his study of suicide.
 Outline the findings of the study on suicide by Durkheim.
 Discuss the importance of studying Comte and Durkheim
on their work on Sociology being a scientific discipline.
Auguste Comte- Stages of Society

 The theological stage where society is guided by religion

 The metaphysical stage where society is guided by the
thoughts of philosophers and prolific writers. Humans are
guided by reasoning of the world based on their
experiences
 The scientific stage where society is guided through an
understanding of society through the use of observation
and experiments in order to understand social reality
through social facts. Focused on classification and
observations not opinions.
Durkheim’s Study of Suicide

 Durkheim’s study of suicide

 The text of Suicide offered an examination of how

suicide rates at the time differed by religion.
Specifically, Durkheim analyzed differences between
Protestants and Catholics. He found a lower rate of
suicide among Catholics and theorized that this was
due to stronger forms of social control and cohesion
among them than among Protestants.
 Durkheim’s Study of Suicide

 Demographics of Suicide: Study Findings

 Additionally, Durkheim found that suicide was less
common among women than men, more common among
single people than among those who are romantically
partnered, and less common among those who have
children.
 Further, he found that soldiers commit suicide more
often than civilians and that curiously, rates of suicide
are higher during peacetime than they are during wars.
 Durkheim’s Study of Suicide

 Correlation vs. Causation: Suicide's Driving Forces

 Based on his gleanings from the data, Durkheim argued that
suicide can be a result not only of psychological or emotional
factors but of social factors as well. Durkheim reasoned that
social integration, in particular, is a factor.
 The more socially integrated a person is—that is, the more he
or she is connected to society, possessing of a feeling of
general belonging and a sense that life makes sense within the
social context—the less likely he or she is to commit suicide.
As social integration decreases, people are more likely to
commit suicide.
 Durkheim’s Study of Suicide
 Durkheim's Typology of Suicide
 Durkheim developed a theoretical typology of suicide to
explain the differing effects of social factors and how they
might lead to suicide:
 Anomic suicide is an extreme response by a person
who experiences anomie, a sense of disconnection from
society and a feeling of not belonging resulting from
weakened social cohesion. Anomie occurs during periods of
serious social, economic, or political upheaval, which result
in quick and extreme changes to society and everyday life.
In such circumstances, a person might feel so confused and
disconnected that they choose to commit suicide.
Durkheim’s Study of Suicide

 Altruistic suicide is often a result of excessive regulation of

individuals by social forces such that a person may be moved to kill
themselves for the benefit of a cause or for society at large.
 An example is someone who commits suicide for the sake of a
religious or political cause, such as the infamous Japanese Kamikaze
pilots of World War II, or the hijackers that crashed the airplanes
into the World Trade Center, the Pentagon, and a field in
Pennsylvania in 2001. In such social circumstances, people are so
strongly integrated into social expectations and society itself that
they will kill themselves in an effort to achieve collective goals.
 Your thoughts?
 Durkheim’s Study of Suicide

 Egoistic suicide is a profound response executed by

people who feel totally detached from society.
Ordinarily, people are integrated into society by
work roles, ties to family and community, and other
social bonds.
 When these bonds are weakened through retirement
or loss of family and friends, the likelihood of
egoistic suicide increases. Elderly people, who suffer
these losses most profoundly, are highly susceptible
to egoistic suicide.
 Durkheim’s Study of Suicide

 Fatalistic suicide occurs under conditions of

extreme social regulation resulting in
oppressive conditions and a denial of the self
and of agency. In such a situation a person may
elect to die rather than continue enduring the
oppressive conditions, such as the case of
suicide among prisoners.
 https://www.thoughtco.com/study-of-suicide-by-emile-durkheim-3026758
 Durkheim’s Study of Suicide

 Durkheim explored the various suicide rates amongst

different religious groups and specifically between the
Catholics alongside the Protestants. He discovered that
the suicide rates were lower amongst the Catholics
when compared to the Protestants (Stark & William,
1996).
 Durkheim believed that the low rates of suicide among
the Catholic were a result of the religion’s vibrant
social control mechanisms (Stark &William, 1996).
 Durkheim’s Study of Suicide , 2024– Reach
September 17
 Egoistic Suicide Findings
 Durkheim revealed that the unmarried people, specifically males, committed
suicide more often than their married counterparts due to their less bondage
with the established social norms’ goals. Apparently, similar problems affected
the widows.
 Among 1Million widows aged 65 years, 628 of them committed suicide while
amongst I million men aged 65 years, only 461 did commit suicide (Lukes, 1985).
The sample composition was appropriate as the age bracket comprised of
married men to the large extend (Almost 90%) (Lukes, 1985).
 Durkheim’s analysis however indicated that despite the fact that the widows
had a higher likelihood of committing suicide than married persons, their
suicide rate was lower when compared to that of single individuals (Ritzer,
1992).
 Durkheim’s Study of Suicide

 Durkheim linked the figures to the family factor as he was of

the view that a simpler conclusion would turn out as
problematic (Ritzer, 1992). It would be problematic due to the
changes in the marriages numbers that occurred during this
period as the suicide rates tripled.
 Significantly, Durkheim was quick to note that the factor was not
simply marriage but a marriage that had children (Ritzer, 1992).
This is because marriages with children had lower suicide rates
when compared to infertile families (Thompson, 2002). Thus, the
main factor was considering family like a basic social unit but
not marriage.
 Durkheim’s Study of Suicide
 Additionally, Durkheim further studied the wars
and crises roles on suicide rates. He discovered
during the course of social crises (for instance,
revolutions) alongside wars; the suicide rates
dropped remarkably (Bellah, 1973).
 In overall, he found out a more religious society
had lower suicide rates and also the strength of
family relationships determined the magnitude of
suicide rate
 Durkheim’s Study of Suicide

 Altruistic Suicide Findings

 Durkheim stated that the suicide rate in altruistic societies
was generally low as personal interests were not viewed as
important (Thompson, 2002). Durkheim viewed the armed
forces with this perspective and was really surprising to find
out that suicide rates occurred at a high rate within the
military service (Thompson, 2002).
 It was startling due to the fact that the military, just like
religions as well as cohesive societies should exhibit strong
solidarity and moreover the people in the military are
usually the most physically fit in the society (Durkheim,
1951).
 Durkheim’s Study of Suicide

 Besides,it was not right to attribute the suicide

causes to either the military service hatred or
even the failure to get used to military service
routines (Durkheim, 1951).
 Thiswas because it was evident that suicide rates
were directly proportional to the military service
length (Durkheim, 1951). Additionally, senior
officers committed suicide at a higher rate than
their juniors (Bellah, 1973)
 Durkheim’s Study of Suicide

 Moreover, the elite units were affected by higher suicide

rates than the normal units (Bellah, 1973). Finally, the
suicide rate was low in the units which demonstrated
weaker military spirit (Bellah, 1973).
 Therefore, Durkheim stated that the senior military
officers had to abandon the personal individuality to cope
with the service requirements as it increased their risk of
committing suicide (Lukes, 1985).
 Durkheim’s Study of Suicide

 Anomic Suicide Findings

 In this situation, people fail to recognize
their appropriate positions in the society.
 Durkheim explained this moral disorder state
as that which the desires of the individuals
are limitless, thereby resulting to personal
infinite disappointments (Ritzer, 1992).
 Durkheim’s Study of Suicide
 Fatalistic Suicide Findings
 Durkheim suggested that Fatalistic suicides mainly occur in
the exceedingly oppressive societies which make people to
opt for death other than continue living in such societies
(Durkheim, 1951). Generally, this is one of the rarest
reasons which can push an individual to committing suicide
(Durkheim, 1951).
 However, fatalistic suicides are common features in prisons
as individuals choose to die other than going on with the
abusive, excessively regulated prison life which denies
them the opportunity to fulfill their desires (Durkheim,
1951).
 Durkheim’s Study of Suicide
 Basis of the study
 The Durkheim’s suicide types had their basis on the twin
social forces imbalance degrees which are the moral
regulation alongside the social integration. Durkheim
revealed how impacts on the social aggregate aspects such
as; war can lead to increased altruism, booms in economy
or catastrophe contribute to anomie.
 Durkheim’s suicide analysis indicates the way in which
social facts on the contrary to biological as well as
psychological facts can be stressed upon, and bring about
constructive methods of examining individuals’ actions.
Durkheim’s Study of Suicide

 Besides, suicide rates are considered as social facts

as they express social currents that affect people and
the society as whole.
 Despite the fact that psychology study is also
essential in resolving individual motives and the
process through which certain circumstances push
people to committing suicide; it is equally important
to undertake circumstances analysis within the
prevailing individual’s social currents (Durkheim,
1951).
 Durkheim’s Study of Suicide
 Other Findings
 Durkheim as a matter of fact established that the suicide
rates in males were higher than in females; the singles had a
higher rate of committing suicide than the married; suicide
rates were also higher in the infertile couples than the fertile
ones; protestants committed more suicide incidences as
compared to the Catholics alongside Jews;
 Soldiers were more vulnerable to suicide than Civilians; there
were more suicide incidences in the peaceful times than in
war periods; Scandinavian countries exhibited higher suicide
rates and lastly the people who had accomplished higher
education level were at a higher risk of committing suicide.
 Durkheim’s Study of Suicide

 Criticisms
 However, the Durkheim suicide study has received a wide range of
criticism from various sources. It has actually been criticized as the
perfect example of logical error which is commonly termed as
ecological fallacy (Freedman, 2002).
 Durkheim’s conclusions on personal behavior on the basis of
aggregate statistics have been termed as misleading (Freedman,
2002). This is because the Simpson’s (1987) paradox has revealed
how erroneous it is to analyze micro events in macro properties
terms.
 Durkheim’s Study of Suicide
 Conclusion
 Durkheim’s work brings out issues that affect people directly. In
addition, he tends to possess vibrant structural society view, as
well as the mode in which everyone within the society is affected
by various social facts and how it is a must for each to comply
with them. Durkheim indeed tried to have the situation where
the social roles are distinguished from psychological, economical
alongside biological roles.
 This is actually be observed within his social influences view on
the rate of suicides, in which he studies several factors and
determines their effect on the propensity to commit suicide
(Ritzer, 1992).
 https://www.ukessays.com/essays/sociology/durkheims-study-of-suicide-sociology-essay.php
 Sociology should not be considered as a
Science
 There are those who argue for the study of sociology differently and claim
that the methodology of the natural sciences cannot be adhered to in the
study of sociology. This school of thought is of the view that sociology is
not a science for the following reasons.
 1. The subject matter of sociology is that of human beings and not
physical matter, sociological theories cannot predict individual behaviour,
because unlike matter, individuals have free will and are unpredictable.
 2. Sociological theories are based on assumptions of existing reality
(researcher’s reality) which are really based on ideologies that exist in
society. 3. Objective reality does not exist in sociology; sociologists deal
with the meanings that people attach to their actions which results in a
subjective reality of society.
 Sociology should not be considered as a
Science

 Another major concern is whether sociology can or should be value

free. Theorists such as the interactionists believe that the only way
to understand social reality is by studying the subjective meanings
given by people.
 This debate continues in sociology with those of the positivist school
of thought claiming that sociology is a science and the study of
society is possible using the methods of the natural sciences. The
social action or interactionist theorists claim that sociology deals
with people and cannot be studied using the methods of the natural
sciences.
Questions

 What do you think - is Sociology a Science, or not?

 Give reasons for your response.
 Think of other reasons which would present
difficulties for studying Sociology as one would
study the natural sciences.
 How does the study of Stanley Milgram show that
Sociology is actually a Science?
Stanley Milgram
Stanley Milgram
 How do we study society?

 In explaining how societies or parts of societies work,

sociologists attempt to go beyond opinion or speculation. Social
researchers provide evidence to support their theory or claims
to the operation of society. Sociological theorizing is divided
into two major categories, the macro perspectives and the
micro perspectives.
 The theoretical orientation of the sociologist would greatly
influence the methodology and research methods used by
researchers in carrying out social research in society.
 Macro and Micro Perspectives Macro perspectives attempt to
construct theories that place emphasis on the wider societal
constraints on individuals’ action. These theories assume that
man is a product of society and as such individuals have no
control of their actions but rather are passive beings whose
actions are shaped by the structures in society.
 Any explanation of human action must, therefore, start by
examining the structures of society. Focus is on external factors
that can be observed and measured objectively in explaining
the working of society. Macro theories advocate the positivist
approach to research.
stop

 Micro or Social Action Perspectives Social action theory attempts to discover

the assumptions underlying the routine taken for granted action of everyday
life. According to this approach, to understand the working of society, the
focus must be on the individuals’ themselves to understand small-scale
interaction in society. The theories under this category are symbolic
interactionism, ethnomethodology and phenomenology. The perspectives
advocate the interpretivist approach to research.
Methodology
Any academic subject requires the use of a methodology to reach its findings.
Methodology examines how sociologist gather information and construct or
develop theoretical explanation for action. In sociology, due to the division in
theoretical thought, there is also a division in use of methodological tools in
conducting social research. There are researchers who use quantitative methods
and those who use qualitative methods.