The Skeletal System

Parts of the skeletal system

- Bones (skeleton)
- Joints
- Cartilages
- Ligaments (bone to bone) (tendon=bone to muscle)
Divided into two divisions
- Axial skeleton
- limbs and girdle

Functions of Bones
1. Support of the body
2. Protection of soft organs
3. Movement due to attached skeletal muscles
4. Storage of minerals and fats
5. Blood cell formation

Bones of the Human Body

- The skeleton has 206 bones
- Two basic types of bone tissue
1. Compact Bone - Homogeneous
2. Spongy bone
- Small needle-like pieces of bone
- Many open spaces

Classification of Bones
1. Long bones
- Typically longer than wide
- Have a shaft with heads at both ends
- Contain mostly compact bone
Examples: Femur, humerus

2. Short bones
- Generally cube-shape
- Contain mostly spongy bone
Examples: Carpals, tarsals
3. Flat bones
- Thin and flattened
- Usually curved
- Thin layers of compact bone around a layer of
spongy bone
Examples: Skull, ribs, sternum
 4. Irregular bones
- Irregular shape
- Do not fit into other bone classification categories
Example: Vertebrae and hip

Classification of Bones on the Basis of Shape

Gross Anatomy of a Long Bone

Diaphysis
- Shaft
- Composed of compact bone
Epiphysis
- Ends of the bone
- Composed mostly of spongy bone
Structures of a Long Bone
Periosteum
- Outside covering of the diaphysis
- Fibrous connective tissue membrane
Sharpey’s fibers
- Secure periosteum to underlying bone
Arteries
- Supply bone cells with nutrients

Articular cartilage
- Covers the external surface of the epiphyses
- Made of hyaline cartilage
- Decreases friction at joint surfaces
Medullary cavity
- Cavity of the shaft
- Contains yellow marrow (mostly fat) in adults
- Contains red marrow (for blood cell formation) in infants

Bone Markings
- Surface features of bones
- Sites of attachments for muscles, tendons, and ligaments
- Passages for nerves and blood vessels
- Three broad categories of bone markings
- Projections for muscle attachment
- Surfaces that form joints
- Depressions or cavities – indentations
Microscopic Anatomy of Bone
1. Osteon (Haversian System)
- A unit of bone
2. Central (Haversian) canal
- Opening in the center of an osteon
- Carries blood vessels and nerves
3. Perforating (Volkman’s) canal
- Canal perpendicular to the central canal
- Carries blood vessels and nerves
Lacunae
- Cavities containing bone cells (osteocytes)
- Arranged in concentric rings
Lamellae
- Rings around the central canal
- Sites of lacunae
Canaliculi
- Tiny canals
- Radiate from the central canal to lacunae
- Form a transport system

Changes in the Human Skeleton

- In embryos, the skeleton is primarily hyaline cartilage
- During development, much of this cartilage is replaced by bone
- Cartilage remains in isolated areas
- Bridge of the nose
- Parts of ribs
- Joints

Bone Growth
- Epiphyseal plates allow for growth of long bone during childhood
- New cartilage is continuously formed
- Older cartilage becomes ossified
- Cartilage is broken down
- Bone replaces cartilage
- Bones are remodeled and lengthened until growth stops
- Bones change shape somewhat-
- Bones grow in width

Long Bone Formation and Growth

Types of Bone Cells
1. Osteocytes
- Mature bone cells
2. Osteoblasts
- Bone-forming cells
3. Osteoclasts
- Bone-destroying cells
- Break down bone matrix for remodeling and release of calcium
- Bone remodeling is a process by both osteoblasts and osteoclasts
Bone Fractures
- A break in a bone
- Types of bone fractures
1. Closed (simple) fracture – break that
does not penetrate the skin
2. Open (compound) fracture – broken
bone penetrates through the skin
- Bone fractures are treated by reduction and
immobilization
- Realignment of the bone

Common Types of Fractures

Transverse fractures: go more or less straight across the bone.

Oblique fractures: are diagonal breaks across the bone.
Spiral fractures: happen when one or both halves of the bone are
twisted.
Comminuated fractures: break the bone into more than two pieces.
Avulsion fractures: mean pieces of the bone have been pulled apart.
Impacted fractures: are the opposite of avulsion fractures. These
happen when a piece of bone is pushed down into another piece of
bone.
Fissure fractures: are cracks in the bone.
Greenstick fractures: happen when the bone bends and breaks
partially, but not completely.

Repair of Bone Fractures

- Hematoma (blood-filled swelling) is formed
- Break is splinted by fibrocartilage to form a callus
- Fibrocartilage callus is replaced by a bony callus
- Bony callus is remodeled to form a permanent patch
Stages in the Healing of a Bone Fracture

Axial Skeleton
- Forms the longitudinal part of the body
- Divided into three parts
- Skull
- Vertebral column
- Bony thorax
Skull
- Two sets of bones
- Cranium
- Facial bones
- Bones are joined by sutures
- Only the mandible is attached by a freely movable joint
Human Skull, Superior View
Paranasal Sinuses
- Hollow portions of bones surrounding the nasal cavity
- Functions of paranasal sinuses
- Lighten the skull
- Give resonance and amplification to voice

Hyoid Bone
- The only bone that does not articulate with another bone
- Serves as a moveable base for the tongue

Fetal Skull
Fontanelles – fibrous membranes connecting the cranial bones
- Allow the brain to grow
- Convert to bone within 24 months after birth

Vertebral Column
- Vertebrae separated by intervertebral discs
- The spine has a normal curvature
- Each vertebrae is given a name according to its
location
Structure of a Typical Vertebrae

Bony Thorax
- Forms a cage to protect major
organs
- Made-up of three parts
1. Sternum
2. Ribs
3. Thoracic vertebrae

Pectoral (Shoulder) Girdle

- Composed of two bones
Clavicle – collarbone
Scapula – shoulder blade
- These bones allow the upper limb
to have exceptionally free
movement

Bones of the Shoulder Girdle

Bones of the Upper Limb
- The arm is formed by a
single bone
- Humerus

- The forearm has two bones

- Ulna
- Radius
 - The hand
- Carpals – wrist
- Metacarpals – palm
- Phalanges – fingers

Bones of the Pelvic Girdle

- Hip bones
- Composed of three pair of fused bones
Ilium
Ischium
Pubic bone
- The total weight of the upper body rests on the
pelvis
- Protects several organs
Reproductive organs
Urinary bladder
Part of the large intestine

Pelvis

Gender Differences of the Pelvis

Bones of the Lower Limbs

- The thigh has one bone

- Femur – thigh bone

- The leg has two bones

1. Tibia
2. Fibula

- The foot
- Tarsus – ankle
- Metatarsals – sole
- Phalanges – toes
Joints
- Articulations of bones
- Functions of joints
Hold bones together
Allow for mobility
- Ways joints are classified
Functionally
Structurally

Functional Classification of Joints

1. Synarthroses – immovable joints
2. Amphiarthroses – slightly moveable joints
3. Diarthroses – freely moveable joints

Structural Classification of Joints

1. Fibrous joints
- Generally immovable
2. Cartilaginous joints
- Immovable or slightly moveable
3. Synovial joints
- Freely moveable

Fibrous Joints
- Bones united by fibrous tissue – synarthrosis or
largely immovable.

Cartilaginous Joints – mostly amphiarthrosis

- Bones connected by cartilage
- Examples
- Pubic symphysis
- Intervertebral joints

Synovial Joints
- Articulating bones are separated by a joint
cavity
- Synovial fluid is found in the joint cavity
Features of Synovial Joints-Diarthroses
- Articular cartilage (hyaline cartilage) covers the ends of bones
- Joint surfaces are enclosed by a fibrous articular capsule
- Have a joint cavity filled with synovial fluid
- Ligaments reinforce the joint

Structures Associated with the Synovial Joint

Bursae – flattened fibrous sacs
- Lined with synovial membranes
- Filled with synovial fluid
- Not actually part of the joint
Tendon sheath
- Elongated bursa that wraps around a tendon

Synovial Joint

Types of Synovial Joints Based on Shape

Inflammatory Conditions Associated with Joints
1. Bursitis – inflammation of a bursa usually caused by a blow or friction
2. Tendonitis – inflammation of tendon sheaths
3. Arthritis – inflammatory or degenerative diseases of joints
- Over 100 different types
- The most widespread crippling disease in the United States

Clinical Forms of Arthritis

1. Osteoarthritis
- Most common chronic arthritis
- Probably related to normal aging processes
2. Rheumatoid arthritis
- An autoimmune disease – the immune system attacks the joints
- Symptoms begin with bilateral inflammation of certain joints
- Often leads to deformities

Gouty Arthritis
- Inflammation of joints is caused by a deposition of urate crystals from the blood
- Can usually be controlled with diet