Module 4

Analysis of Structure
OVERVIEW
In this module, we will apply the concept of equilibrium of force systems
in structural analysis of rigid structures. Determinacy and stability will also be
discussed. Different types of supports and their corresponding reactions will be
taken up. 2D and 3D framing structures will be given focus.

LEARNING OUTCOMES

After studying this module, you must be able to:

1. Apply the concept of forces, moment of forces and static equilibrium to
analysis of rigid structures.

REVIEW: MOMENT OF FORCE

Moment of Force – Scalar Definition

A force produces a turning effect or moment about a point

O that does not life on its line of action. In scalar form, the
moment magnitude is the product of the force (F) and the moment
arm or perpendicular distance (d) from point O to the line of action
of the force.
Mo = F d

The direction of the moment is define using the right-hand

rule. Mo always acts along an axis perpendicular to the plane
containing F and d, and passes through the point O.

Rather than finding d, it is normally easier to

resolve the force into its x and y components,
determine the moment of each component about the
point, and then sum the results. This is called the
principle of moments.

Mo = Fd = Fx y – Fy x

Example: Determine the resultant moment of the

four forces acting on the rod shown in the figure
about point O.

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Moment of Force – Vector Definition

Since three-dimensional geometry is generally

more difficult to visualize, the vector cross product should
be used to determine the moment. Here Mo = r
x F, where r is a position vector that extends form point O
to any point A, B, or C on the line of action of F.
Mo = rA × F = rB × F = rC × F
If the position vector r and force F are expressed
as Cartesian vectors, then the cross product results from
the expansion of a determinant.

𝐢 𝐣 𝐤
Mo = r × F = | 𝑟𝑥 𝑟𝑦 𝑟𝑧 |
𝐹𝑥 𝐹𝑦 𝐹𝑧

𝐢 𝐣 𝐤
For element i: | 𝑟𝑥 𝑟𝑦 𝑟𝑧 | = i (ryFz – rzFy)
𝐹𝑥 𝐹𝑦 𝐹𝑧
Remember the negative sign.

𝐢 𝐣 𝐤
For element j: | 𝑟𝑥 𝑟𝑦 𝑟𝑧 | = – j (rxFz – rzFx)
𝐹𝑥 𝐹𝑦 𝐹𝑧

𝐢 𝐣 𝐤
For element k: | 𝑟𝑥 𝑟𝑦 𝑟𝑧 | = k (rxFy – ryFx)
𝐹𝑥 𝐹𝑦 𝐹𝑧

Therefore, the vector notation of the moment is

Mo = r × F = (ryFz – rzFy) i – (rxFz – rzFx) j + (rxFy – ryFx) k

Example: Two forces act on the rod shown. Determine

the resultant moment they create about the flange at O.
Express the result as a Cartesian vector.

Moment about an Axis

If the moment of a force F is to be determined about

an arbitrary axis a, then the projection of the moment onto
the axis must be obtained. Provided the distance da that is
perpendicular to both the line of action of the force and the
axis can be found, then the moment of the force about the
axis can be determined form a scalar equation.
Ma = F d a

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Example:

Note that when the line of action of F intersects the axis then the moment of F
about the axis is zero. Also, when the line of action of F is parallel to the axis, the
moment of F about the axis is zero.

In three dimensions, the scalar triple product should be

used. Here ua is the unit vector that specifies the direction of the
axis, the r is a position vector that is directed form any point on
the axis to any point on the line of action of the force. If M a is
calculated as a negative scalar, then the sense of direction of Ma
is opposite to ua.
𝑢𝑎𝑥 𝑢𝑎𝑦 𝑢𝑧
Ma = ua ∙ (r × F) = | 𝑟𝑥 𝑟𝑦 𝑟𝑧 |
𝐹𝑥 𝐹𝑦 𝐹𝑧

Example: Determine the moment MAB produced by the force F in the figure, which
tends to rotate the rod about the AB axis.

Couple Moment

A couple consists of two equal but opposite forces that act a perpendicular
distance d apart. Couples tend to produce a rotation without translation.

The magnitude of the couple moment is M = Fd, and its

direction is established using the right-hand rule.
M = Fd

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 If the vector cross production is used to determine
the moment of a couple, then r extends from any point on
the line of action of one of the forces to any point on the line
of action of the other force F that is used in the cross
product.
M= r× F

A resultant couple moment is simply the vector sum of all the couple moments
of the system.

Example:

1. Determine the resultant couple 2. Determine the couple moment

moment of the three couples acting on acting on the pipe shown in the figure.
the plate in the figure. Segment AB is directed 30° below the
x-y plane.

Coplanar Distributed Loading

A simple distributed loading can be represented by its resultant force, which is

equivalent to the area under the loading curve. This resultant has a line of action that
passes through the centroid or geometric center of the area or volume under the
loading diagram.

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Examples:

1. A distributed loading of p = (800x) 2. The granular material exerts the

Pa acts over the top surface of the distributed loading on the bema as
beam shown in the figure. Determine shown in the figure. Determine the
the magnitude and location of the magnitude and location of the
equivalent resultant force. equivalent resultant of this load.

LESSON 1: EQUILIBRIUM OF A RIGID BODY

Supports for Rigid Bodies Subjected to Two-Dimensional Force Systems

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Free-Body Diagram

Procedure:
1. Draw outlined shape.
2. Show all forces and couple moments. Those generally encountered are
due to (1) applied loadings, (2) reactions occurring at the supports or at
points of contact with other bodies, and (3) the weight of the body.
3. Identify each loading and give dimensions.

Equations of Equilibrium

1. Apply the moment equation of equilibrium, ΣMo = 0, about a point O that lies
at the intersection of the lines of two unknown forces. In this way, the
moments of these unknows are zero about O, and a direct solution for the
third unknown can be determined.
2. When applying the force equilibrium equations, ΣFx = 0 and ΣFy = 0, orient
the x and y axes along lines that will provide the simplest resolution of the
forces into their x and y components.
3. If the solution of the equilibrium equations yields a negative scalar for a force
or couple moment magnitude, this indicates that the sense is opposite to that
which was assumed on the free-body diagram.

LESSON 2: CONDITIONS FOR EQUILIBRIUM OF PARALLEL FORCES

The sum of all the forces is zero.

ΣF=0
The sum of moment at any point O is zero.
ΣMO=0

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SAMPLE PROBLEMS

1. Determine the reactions for the beam shown.

100 lb/ft

Solution:
Σ𝑀𝑅2 = 0
10R1+4(400) =16(300) +9[14(100)]
R1=1580 lb answer
Σ𝑀𝑅1 = 0
10R2+6(300)=14(400)+1[14(100)]
R2=520 lb answer

2. The roof truss shown is supported by a roller at A and a hinge at B. Find the
values of the reactions.

Replace the 3-20 kN and 2-10 kN forces by a single 80 kN force

ΣMB=0
15RA = 10(60) + 7.5(80) + 5(50)
RA = 96.67 kN answer

ΣMA=0
15RB = 5(60) + 7.5(80) + 10(50)
RB = 93.33 kN answer

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PROBLEM EXERCISES

1. Determine the reactions for the beam shown.

200 lb

350 lb
200 lb

2. Determine the reactions for the beam loaded as shown.

15 kN
20 kN/m

3. The cantilever beam shown in the Figure is built into a wall 2 ft thick so that
it rests against points A and B. The beam is 15 ft long and weighs 100 lb
per ft.
5000 lb

15 ft

4. The upper beam in Figure shown is supported at D and a roller at C which

separates the upper and lower beams. Determine the values of the
reactions at A, B, C, and D. Neglect the weight of the beams.
80 kN 150 kN

300 kN A A

5. For the system of pulleys shown below, determine the ratio of W to P to

maintain equilibrium. Neglect axle friction and the weights of the pulleys.

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LESSON 3: EQUILIBRIUM OF NON-CONCURRENT FORCE SYSTEM
(COPLANAR FORCE SYSTEMS)

There are three equilibrium conditions that can be used for non-
concurrent, non-parallel force system.
The sum of all forces in the x-direction or horizontal is zero.
ΣFx=0 or ΣFH=0
The sum of all forces in the y-direction or vertical is zero.
ΣFy=0 or ΣFV=0
The sum of moment at any point O is zero.
ΣMO=0
The three equilibrium conditions can solved up to three unknowns in the
system.

SAMPLE PROBLEMS
1. The frame shown below is supported in pivots at A and B. Each member
weighs 5 kN/m. Compute the horizontal reaction at A and the horizontal and
vertical components of the reaction at B.

Solution:
Length of DF
LDF = √42 + 32 = 5 m
Weights of members
WAB=6(5)=30 kN WCE=6(5)=30 kN
WDF=5(5)=25 kN
ΣMB=0
6AH=3WCE+2WDF+6(200)
6AH=3(30)+2(25)+6(200)
AH=223.33 kN
ΣFH = 0
BH=AH
BH=223.33 kN answer

ΣFV=0
BV=WAB+WCE+WDF+200
BV=30+30+25+200
BV=285 kN answer

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 2.Compute the total reactions at A and B on the truss shown.

3. The beam shown is supported by a hinge at A and a roller on a 1 to 2

slope at B. Determine the resultant reactions at A and B.

PROBLEM EXERCISES
1. A boom AB is supported in a horizontal position by a
hinge A and a cable which runs from C over a small
pulley at D as shown in the figure. Compute the tension
T in the cable and the horizontal and vertical
components of the reaction at A. Neglect the size of
the pulley at D.

2. Repeat problem #1 if the cable pulls the boom AB into

a position at which it is inclines at 30° above the
horizontal. The loads remain vertical.

3. The truss shown in the figure 4. Compute the total reactions at

is supported on roller at A and A and B for the truss shown.
hinge at B. Solve for the
components of the reactions.

6. The forces acting on a 1-m

length of a dam are shown in the
figure below. The upward
ground reaction varies uniformly
from an intensity of p1 kN/m to p2
kN/m at B. Determine p1 and p2

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 and also the horizontal shown in Fig. P-358. Determine
resistance to sliding. P, R, and T.

7. The uniform rod in Fig. P-357

weighs 420 lb and has its center
of gravity at G. Determine the
tension in the cable and the
reactions at the smooth 9. A 4-m bar of negligible weight
surfaces at A and B. rests in a horizontal position on
the smooth planes shown.
Compute the distance x at which
load T = 10 kN should be placed
from point B to keep the bar
horizontal.

8. A bar AE is in equilibrium under

the action of the five forces

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LESSON 4: SIMPLE TRUSSES

A truss is a structure composed of slender members joined together at

their end points. The members commonly used in construction consist of
wooden struts or metal bars. In particular, planar trusses lie in a single plane
and are often used to support roofs and bridges. The truss shown in Fig. 6-1a
is an example of a typical roof-supporting truss. In this figure, the roof load is
transmitted to the truss at joints by means of a series of purlins. Since this
loading acts in the same plane as the truss, Fig. 6-1b, the analysis of the forces
developed in the truss members will be two-dimensional.

In the case of a bridge, such as shown in Fig. 6-2a, the load on the deck
is first transmitted to stringers, then to floor beams, and finally to the joints of
the supporting side trusses. Like the roof truss, the bridge truss loading is also
coplanar, Fig. 6-2b.

When bridge or roof trusses extend over large distances, a rocker or

roller is commonly used for supporting one end, for example, joint A in Fig. 6-
1a and 6-2a. This type of support allows freedom for expansion or contraction
of the members due to a change in temperature or application of loads.

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Assumption for Design

To design both the members and the connections of a truss, it is

necessary first to determine the force developed in each member when the truss
is subjected to a given loading. To do this we will make two important
assumptions:

• All loadings are applied at the joints. In most situations, such as for bridge
and roof trusses, this assumption is true. Frequently the weight of the
members is neglected because the force supported by each member is
usually mush larger than its weight. However, if the weight is to be included
in the analysis, it is generally satisfactory to apply it as a vertical force, with
half of its magnitude applied at each end of the member.

• The members are joined together by smooth pins. The joint connections
are usually formed by bolting or welding the ends of the members to a
common plate, called a gusset plate, as shown in Fig. 6-3a, or by simply
passing a large bolt or pin through each of the members, Fig. 6-3b. We can
assume these connections act as pins provided the center lines of the joining
members are concurrent, as in Fig. 6-3.

Because of these two assumptions, each truss member will act as a two
force member, and therefore the force acting at each end of the member will be
directed along the axis of the member. If the force tends to elongate the
member, it is a tensile force (T), Fig. 6-4a; whereas if it tends to shorten the
member, it is a compressive force (C), Fig. 6-4b. In the actual design of a truss
it is important to state whether the nature of the force is tensile or compressive.
Often, compression members must be made thicker than tension members
because of the buckling or column effect that occurs when a member is in
compression.

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Simple Truss.

If three members are pin connected at their ends they form a triangular
truss that will be rigid, Fig. 6-5. Attaching two or more members and connecting
these members to a new joint D forms a larger truss, Fig.6-6. This procedure
can be repeated as many times as desired to form an even larger truss. If a
truss can be constructed by expanding the basic triangular truss in this way, it
is called a simple truss.

LESSON 5: THE METHOD OF JOINTS

This method is based on the fact that if the entire truss is in equilibrium,
then each of its joints is also in equilibrium. Therefore, if the free-body diagram
of each joint is drawn, the force equilibrium equations can then be used to obtain
the member forces acting on each joint. Since the members of a plane truss are
straight two-force members lying in a single plane, each joint is subjected to a
force system that is coplanar and concurrent. As a result, only ΣFx = 0 and ΣFy
= 0 needed to be satisfied for equilibrium.

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 For example, consider the pin at joint B of the truss in Fig. 6-7a. Three
forces act on the pin, namely, the 500-N force and the forces exerted by
members BA and BC. The free-body diagram of the pin is shown in Fig. 6-7b.
Here, FBA is “pulling” on the pin, which means that the member BA is in tension;
whereas FBC is “pushing” on the pin, and consequently member BC is in
compression. These effects are clearly demonstrated by isolating the joint with
small segments of the member connected to the pin, Fig. 6-7c. The pushing or
pulling on these small segments indicates the effect of the member being either
in compression or tension

When using the method of joints, always start at a joint having at least
one known force and at most two unknown forces, as in Fig. 6-7b. In this way,
application of ΣFx = 0 and ΣFy = 0 yields two algebraic equations which can be
solved for the two unknowns. When applying these equations, the correct sense
of an unknown member force can be determined using one of two possible
methods.

• The correct sense of direction of an unknown member force can, in many

cases, be determined “by inspection.” For example, FBC in Fig. 6-7b must
push on the pin (compression) since its horizontal component, FBC sin 45°,
must balance the 500-N force (ΣFx = 0). Likewise, FBA is a tensile force
since it balances the vertical component, FBC cos 45° (ΣFy = 0). In more
complicated cases, the sense of an unknown member force can be
assumed; then, after applying the equilibrium equations, the assumed sense
can be verified from the numerical results. A positive answer indicates that
the sense is correct, whereas a negative answer indicates that the sense
shown on the free-body diagram must be reversed.

• Always assume the unknown member forces acting on the joint’s free-body
diagram to be in tension; i.e., the forces “pull” on the pin. If this is done, then
numerical solution of the equilibrium equations will yield positive scalars for
members in tension and negative scalars for members in compression, once
an unknown member force is found, use its correct magnitude and sense (T
or C) on subsequent joint free-body diagrams.

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Procedure for Analysis

The following procedure provides a means for analyzing a truss using

the method of joints.

• Draw the free-body diagram of a joint having at least one known force and
at most two unknown forces. (If this joint is at one of the supports, then it
may be necessary first to calculate the external reactions at the support.)

• Use one of the two methods described above for establishing the sense of
an unknown force.

• Orient the x and y axes such that the forces on the free-body diagram can
be easily resolved into their x and y components and then apply the two
force equilibrium equations ΣFx = 0 and ΣFy = 0. Solve for the two unknown
member forces and verify their correct sense.

• Using the calculated results, continue to analyze each of the other joints.
Remember that a member in compression “pushes” on the joint and a
member in tension “pulls” on the joint. Also, be sure to choose a joint having
at most two unknowns and at least one known force.

SAMPLE PROBLEM

1. Determine the force in each member of the truss shown in Fig. 6-8a and
indicate whether the members are in tension or compression.

Fig. 6-8a

Solution:

Since we should have no more than two unknown forces at the joint and
at least one known force acting there, we will begin our analysis at joint B.

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 FBD of Joint B

Fig. 6-8b

Joint B. The free body diagram of the joint at B is shown in Fig. 6-8b, Applying
the equations of equilibrium, we have

Since the force in member BC has been calculated, we can proceed to analyze
joint C to determine the force in member CA and the support reaction at the
rocker.

FBD of Joint C

Fig. 6-8c

Joint C. From free-body diagram of joint C, Fig. 6-8c, we have

FBD of Joint A

Fig. 6-8d

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Joint A. Although it is not necessary, we can determine the components of the
support reactions at joint A using the results of FCA and FBA. From the free-body
diagram, Fig. 6-8d, we have

Therefore, we have:

Note: The results of the analysis are summarized in Fig. 6-8e. Note that
the free-body diagram of each joint (or pin) shows the effects of all the
connected members and external forces applied to the joint, whereas the
free-body diagram of each member shows only the effects of the end joints
on the member.

2. Determine the force in each member of the truss

shown in Fig. 6-9a and indicate whether the members
are in tension or compression.

Solution:

Since joint C has one unknown and only two

unknown forces acting on it, it is possible to start at this
joint, then analyze joint D, and finally joint A. This way
the support reactions will not have to be determined
prior to starting the analysis.

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 FBD of Joint C

Fig. 6-9b
Joint C. By inspection of the force equilibrium, Fig 6-9b, it can be seen that
both members BC and CD must be in compression.

FBD of Joint D

Fig. 6-9c

Joint D. Using the result FCD = 400N (C), the force in members BD and
AD can be found by analyzing the equilibrium on joint D. We will assume
FAD and FBD are both tensile forces or you can use inspection to determine
the correct direction of these forces, Fig 6-9c.

ΣFy = 0; 2
- FBD (2√5) - FAD cos 45° = 0
ΣFx = 0; 4
FBD (2√5) + FAD sin 45° - 400 = 0
4
FBD (2√5) + FAD sin 45° = 400

Using your calculator, input the coefficients of the two (2) equations.
FBD = 894.43 N (T)
FAD = -565.69 N = 565.69 (C)

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 FBD of Joint A

Fig. 6-9d

Joint A. The force in member AB can be found by analyzing the

equilibrium of joint A. Fig 6-9d. We have
ΣFx = 0; (565.69) cos 45° - FAB = 0
FAB = 400 N (C)

Zero-Force Members

Truss analysis using the method of joints is greatly simplified if we can

first identify those members which support no loading. These zero-force
members are used to increase the stability of the truss during construction and
to provide added support if the loading is changed.

The zero-force members of the truss can generally be found by

inspection of each of the joints. For example, consider the truss shown in Fig.
6-11a. If a free-body diagram of the pin at joint A is drawn, Fig. 6-11b, it is seen
that members AB and AF are zero-force members. (We could not have come
to this conclusion if we have considered the free-body diagrams of joints F and
B simply because there are five unknowns at each joint.) In similar manner,
consider the free-body diagram of joint D, Fig 6-11c. Here again it is seen that
DC and DE are zero-force members. From these observations, we can
conclude that if only two members form a truss joint and no external load
or support reaction is applied to the joint, the two members must be zero-
force members. The load in the in Fig 6-11a is therefore supported by only
five members as shown in Fig. 6-11d.

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 Now consider the truss shown in Fig. 6-12a. The free-body diagram of
the pin at joint D is shown in Fig. 6-12b. By orienting the y axis along members
DC and DE and the x axis along member DA, it is seen that DA is a zero-force
member. Note that this is also the case for member CA, Fig. 6-12c. In general,
if three members form a truss joint for which two of the members are
collinear, the third member is a zero-force member provided no external
force or support reaction is applied to the joint. The truss shown in Fig. 6-
12d is therefore suitable for supporting the load P.

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PROBLEM EXERCISES

1. Determine the force in each member of the truss shown and state if the
members are in tension or compression.

2. Determine the force in each member of the truss, and state if the members
are in tension or compression. Set P = 800lb.

3. Determine the force in each member of the truss and state if the members
are in tension or compression. The load has a mass of 40 kg.

4. Determine the force in each member of the truss in terms of the load P, and
indicate whether the members are in tension or compression.

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LESSON 6: THE METHOD OF SECTIONS

When we need to find the force in only a few members of a truss, we

can analyze the truss using the method of section. It is based on principle that
if the truss is in equilibrium then any segment of the truss is also in equilibrium.

In the method of sections, a truss is divided into two parts by taking an

imaginary “cut” (shown here as a-a) through the truss.

Since truss members are subjected to only tensile or compressive forces

along their length, the internal forces at the cut member will also be either
tensile or compressive with the same magnitude. This result is based on the
equilibrium principle and Newton’s third law.

Procedure for Analysis:

The process used in the method of sections is outlined below:

1. In the beginning it is usually useful to label the members in your truss.

This will help you keep everything organized and consistent in later
analysis. In this book, the members will be labeled with letters.

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2. Treating the entire truss structure as a rigid body, draw a free body
diagram, write out the equilibrium equations, and solve for the external
reacting forces acting on the truss structure. This analysis should not
differ from the analysis of a single rigid body.

3. Next you will imagine cutting your truss into two separate sections. The
cut should travel through the member that you are trying to solve for the
forces in, and should cut through as few members as possible (The cut
does not need to be a straight line).

4. Next you will draw a free body diagram for either one, or both sections that
you created. Be sure to include all the forces acting on each section.

• Any external reaction or load forces that may be acting at the

section.
• An internal force in each member that was cut when splitting the
truss into sections. Remember that for a two force member, the
force will be acting along the line between the two connection
points on the member. We will also need to guess if it will be a
tensile or a compressive force. An incorrect guess now though will
simply lead to a negative solution later on. A common strategy then
is to assume all forces are tensile, then later in the solution any
positive forces will be tensile forces and any negative forces will
be compressive forces.

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• Label each force in the diagram. Include any known magnitudes
and directions and provide variable names for each unknown.

5. Write out the equilibrium equations for each section you drew a
free body diagram of. These will be extended bodies, so you will
need to write out the force and the moment equations.

• For 2D problems you will have three possible equations for

each section, two force equations and one moment equation.

• For 3D problems you will have six possible equations for each
section, three force equations and three moment equations.

6. Finally, solve the equilibrium equations for the unknowns. You can
do this algebraically, solving for one variable at a time, or you can
use matrix equations to solve for everything at once. If you
assumed that all forces were tensile earlier, remember that
negative answers indicate compressive forces in the members.

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SAMPLE PROBLEMS

1. Determine the force in member CF of the truss show in Fig. 6-17a. Indicate
whether the member is in tension or compression. Assume each member is
pin connected.

Fig 6-17a
Solution:

Free-Body Diagram. Section aa in Fig. 6-17a will be used since this

section will “expose” the internal force in member CF as “external” on
the free-body diagram of either the right or left portion of the truss. It is
first necessary, however, to determine the support reactions on either
the left or right side. Verify the results shown on the free-body diagram
in Fig. 6-17b

Fig. 6-17b

The free-body diagram of the right portion of the truss, which is the
easiest to analyze, is shown in Fig. 6-17c. There are three unknowns,
FFG, FCF, and FCD.

Fig. 6-17c

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 Equations of Equilibrium. We will apply the moment equation about
point O in order to eliminate the two unknowns FFG and FCD. The location of
point O measured from E can be determined from proportional triangles, i.e.,
4/(4 + x) = 6/8 + x), x = 4m. or stated in another manner, the slope of member
GF has a drop of 2 m to a horizontal distance of 4 m, Fig. 6-17c, then from D
to O the distance must be 8 m.

An easy way to determine the moment of FCF about point O is to use the
principle of transmissibility and slide FCF to point C, and then resolve FCF into
its two rectangular components, We have

2. Determine the force in member EB of the roof truss show in Fig. 6-18a.
Indicate whether the member is in tension or compression.

Fig. 6-18a
Solution:
Free-Body Diagram. By the method of sections, any imaginary section
that cuts through EB, Fig. 6-18a, will also have to cut through three other
members for which the forces are unknown. For example, section aa cuts
through ED, EB, FB, and AB. If a free-body diagram of the left side of this
section is considered, Fig. 6-18b, it is possible to obtain FED by summing
moments about B to eliminate the other three unknowns; however, FEB cannot
be determined from the remaining two equilibrium equations. One possible way
of obtaining FEB is first to determine FEB is first to determine FED from section
aa, then use this result on section bb, Fig 6-18a, which is shown in Fig 6-18a,
which is shown in Fig. 6-18c. Here the force system is concurrent and our
sectioned free-body diagram is the same as the free-body diagram for the joint
at E.

Fig. 6-18b

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 Fig. 6-18c

Equations of Equilibrium. In order to determine the moment of FED

about point B, Fig 6-18b, we will use the principle of transmissibility and slide
the force to point C and then resolve it into its rectangular components as
shown. Therefore,

Considering now the free-body diagram of section bb, Fig 6-18c, we have

PROBLEM EXERCISES

1. Determine the force in each members KJ, KD, and CD of the Pratt
truss. State if the members are in tension or compression.

2. Determine the force in members EF, CF, and BC of the truss. State if
the members are in tension or compression.

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3. Determine the force in members DC, HI, and JI of the truss. State if
members are in tension or compression.

4. Determine the force in members JK, CJ, and CD of the truss, and
state if the members are in tension or compression.
5. Determine the force in members HI, FI, and EF of the truss, and state
if the members are in tension.

Problem 4 & 5

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LESSON 7: FRAMES AND MACHINES

Frames and machines are two types of structure which are often
composed of pin-connected multiforce members, i.e., members that are
subjected to more than two forces. Frames are used to support loads, whereas
machines contain moving parts and are designed to transmit and alter effect of
forces. Provided a frame or machine contains no more supports or members
than are necessary to prevent its collapse, the forces acting at the joints and
supports can be determined by applying the equations of equilibrium to each of
its members. Once these forces are obtained, it is then possible to design the
size of the members, connections, and supports using the theory of mechanics
of materials and an appropriate engineering design code.

Free-Body Diagrams. In order to determine the forces acting at the

joints and supports of a frame or machine, the structure must be disassembled
and the free-body diagrams of its parts must be drawn. The following important
points must be observed:

• Isolate each part by drawing its outlined shape. Then show all the
forces and/or couple moments that act on the part. Make sure to label
or identify each known and unknown force and couple moment with
reference to an established x, y coordinate system. Also, indicate any
dimensions used for taking moments. Most often the equations of
equilibrium are easier to apply if the forces are represented by their
rectangular components. As usual, the sense of an unknown force or
couple moment can be assumed.
• Identify all two-force members in the structure and represent their
free-body diagrams as having two equal but opposite collinear forces
acting at their points of application. By recognizing the two-force
members, we can avoid solving an unnecessary number of
equilibrium equations.
• Forces common to any two contacting members act with equal
magnitudes but opposite sense on the representative members. If the
two members are treated as a “system” of connected members, then
these forces are “internal” and are shown on the free-body diagram
of the system; however, if the free-body diagram of each member is
drawn, the forces are “external” and must be shown on each of the
free-body diagrams.

The following examples graphically illustrate how to draw the free-body

diagrams of a disassembled frame or machine. In all cases, the weight of the
members is neglected.

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Sample Problems

1. For the frame shown in Fig. 6-21a, draw the free-body diagram of (a) each
member, (b) the pin at B, and (c) the two members connected together.

Fig. 6-21a

Solution:

Part (a). By inspection, members BA and BC are not two-force members.

Instead, as shown on the free-body diagram, Fig. 6-21b BC is subjected
to a force from the pins at B and C and the external couple moment M.
The pin forces are represented by their x and y components.

Fig. 6-12b

Part (b). The pin at B is subjected to two forces, i.e., the force of
member BC and the force of member AB. For equilibrium these forces or
their respective components must be equal but opposite, Fig. 6-21c.
Realize that Newton’s third law is applied between the pin and its
connected members, i.e., the effect of the pin on the two members, Fig.
6-21b, and the equal but opposite effect of the two members on the pin.
Fig. 6-21c.

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 Fig. 6-12c

Part (c). The free-body diagram of both members connected

together, yet removed from the supporting pins at A and C, is shown in
Fig. 6-12d. The force components Bx and By are not shown on this
diagram since they are internal forces (Fig. 6-21b) and therefore cancel
out. Also, to be consistent when later applying the equilibrium equations,
the unknown force components at A and C must act in the same sense
as those shown in Fig 6-21b.

Fig. 6-21d

2. Determine the horizontal and vertical components of force which the

pin at C exerts on members BC of the frame in Fig. 6-26a.

Fig. 6-26a

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Solution I:

FBD:
By inspection it can be seen that AB is a two-force member. The free-
body diagrams are shown in Fig. 6-26b.

Fig 6-26b

Equations of Equilibrium:
The three unknowns can be determined by applying the three equations
of equilibrium to member CB.

Solution II:

FBD:
If one does not recognize the AB is a two-force member, then more work
is involved in solving this problem. The free-body diagrams are shown in
Fig 6-26c.

Fig. 6-26c

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 Equations of Equilibrium. The six unknowns are determined by
applying the three equations of equilibrium to each member.

Member AB

Member BC

The result for Cx and Cy can be determined by solving these equations

in following sequence: 4, 1, 5, then 6. The results are
By = 1000 N
Bx = 577 N
Cx = 577 N
Cy = 1000 N

By comparison, Solution I is simpler since the requirement that FAB in Fig.

6-26b be equal, opposite, and collinear at the ends of member AB
automatically satisfies Eqs. 1, 2, and 3 above and therefore eliminates
the need to write these equations. As a result, save yourself some time
and effort by always identifying the two-force members before starting
the analysis.

Assigned Readings:

Read your reference books in Engineering Mechanics Statics,

Chapter 6. Solve more similar problems from the exercises given above.

Suggested Readings:

You can also try to access the internet, aside from your reference
books. You can access and watch you tube, just search for our topic and
you will see videos of professors discussing about these topics that we
have undertaken in this module.

References:
• Hibbeler, R.C., Engineering Mechanics, Statics, 14th Edition, 2016
• Khurmi, R.S., A Textbook of Engineering Mechanics
• Singer, Ferdinand L., Engineering Mechanics, Statics and
Dynamics, 3rd Edition

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