REVIEWER

EARTH AND LIFE SCIENCE

What is Science?
• Definition: The term “science” is derived from the Latin word scientia, meaning "knowledge," which comes from
the verb scire, meaning “to know.”
• Science: A systematic body of knowledge based on facts, truths, and evidence obtained through observation and
experimentation over time.
Branches of Science
1. Pure Science: Focuses on understanding theories and principles.
2. Applied Science: Focuses on applying theories and principles to develop new products and technologies.
Types of Science
• Natural Science: The study of nature and its phenomena.
• Social Science: The study of society and human behavior.
Natural Science Subdivisions
1. Physical Science: The study of matter and energy. This includes:
o Physics
o Chemistry
o Earth Science (Geology, Astronomy, Meteorology)
2. Biological Science: The study of living things. This includes:
o Biology
o Zoology
o Botany
o Pathology
o Cytology

Main Branches of Earth Science

1. Geology: Study of the solid Earth, its materials, and the processes that occur beneath and on its surface.
2. Meteorology: Study of the atmosphere, weather events, and variables that affect weather (pressure, temperature,
etc.).
3. Oceanography: Study of seawater composition, movements, coastal processes, seafloor topography, and marine
life.
4. Astronomy: Study of the universe, including celestial objects like stars, planets, and galaxies.
5. Cosmology: Study of the universe, analyzing its structure and features.

Theories on the Origins of the Universe

1. Creationist Theory: Proposes that a Supreme Being (God) created the universe, as narrated in the Bible.
2. Steady State Theory: Suggests the universe has always existed and will continue to exist indefinitely. This theory
was eventually rejected after Edwin Hubble’s discovery of the redshift.
3. Big Bang Theory: The most widely accepted theory; suggests that the universe originated from a massive
explosion (Big Bang) around 13.8 billion years ago. Key evidence includes:
o Redshift (expanding universe)
o Cosmic microwave background radiation
o Helium and hydrogen presence
4. Multiverse Theory: Proposes that our universe is one of many parallel universes.

Eras of the Universe (Following the Big Bang)

1. Planck Era: All forces unified.
2. GUT Era: Gravity becomes distinct.
3. Electroweak Era: Strong nuclear force becomes distinct.
4. Particle Era: Particles begin to form.
5. Era of Nucleosynthesis: Nuclear fusion creates helium and heavier elements.
6. Era of Nuclei: Electrons are not yet bound to nuclei.
7. Era of Atoms: Atoms form, leading to the birth of stars.
8. Era of Galaxies: Galaxies form, leading to the present day.

The Solar System

• Definition: The solar system consists of the Sun and the celestial bodies (planets, moons, asteroids, comets) that
are gravitationally bound to it.
• Formation: According to the Nebular Hypothesis, the solar system formed from a cloud of gas and dust around
4.6 billion years ago.
o Stages of Formation:
1. Collapse: Gas ball collapses, forming a rotating disk.
2. Spinning: The disk spins and cools.
3. Flattening: The disk becomes sphere-shaped.
4. Condensation: Cores form in the cooling disk.
5. Accretion: Cores become planets, and the central core becomes the Sun.

Planets in the Solar System

1. Terrestrial (Rocky) Planets: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars.
o Small, solid surfaces.
o Few or no moons, no rings.
2. Jovian (Gas Giant) Planets: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune.
o Large, gaseous.
o Many moons, rings, fast movement in space.
The Eight Planets
1. Mercury: Closest to the Sun, no moons, extreme temperatures.
2. Venus: Earth’s “twin,” hottest planet due to greenhouse effect.
3. Earth: Only known planet to support life, located in the Habitable Zone.
4. Mars: The "Red Planet," home to the largest volcano, Olympus Mons.
5. Jupiter: Largest planet, gas giant, known for the Great Red Spot.
6. Saturn: Known for its rings, second-largest planet.
7. Uranus: Has a unique sideways spin.
8. Neptune: Coldest planet, farthest from the Sun.

What Makes Earth Habitable?

• Earth is in the Goldilocks Zone (Habitable Zone), where conditions are just right for liquid water to exist.
• Atmosphere: Protects life by filtering harmful solar radiation.
• Key Factors:
o Temperature: Maintains liquid water.
o Water: Essential for life.
o Energy: Drives biological processes.
o Nutrients: Support growth and development.

Earth’s Subsystems
1. Geosphere: Solid part of the Earth, including rocks, soils, and landforms.
2. Hydrosphere: All water on Earth (oceans, lakes, rivers).
3. Atmosphere: Gaseous layer around the Earth, primarily nitrogen (78%) and oxygen (21%).
4. Biosphere: All life on Earth, including ecosystems in the sea, land, and air.

1. The Crust
• Description: The crust is the outermost solid layer of the Earth. It is thin compared to the other layers and is where
all life exists. It’s made of solid rocks and minerals.
• Types of Crust:
1. Continental Crust: Thicker (around 30-50 km) and less dense, made mostly of granite.
2. Oceanic Crust: Thinner (about 5-10 km), denser, and made mostly of basalt.
• Key Facts:
o Contains all the landforms, oceans, and human life.
o Temperature: Between 200°C and 400°C, cooler than the deeper layers.
o The crust is broken into tectonic plates that float on the semi-molten upper part of the mantle
(asthenosphere).

2. Mohorovičić Discontinuity (Moho)

• Location: Boundary between the crust and the mantle.
• Discovery: Named after Andrija Mohorovičić, a Croatian seismologist, who discovered this boundary using
seismic waves.
• Description: The Moho marks the change in seismic wave speeds and is a transition zone where materials go
from the less dense rocks of the crust to the denser rocks of the mantle.
• Thickness: Varies from 5 km below oceanic crust to 30-50 km below continental crust.

3. The Mantle
• Description: The mantle lies below the crust and makes up about 84% of Earth's volume. It extends to a depth of
around 2,900 km. The mantle is composed mostly of silicate minerals rich in iron and magnesium.
• Divisions of the Mantle:
1. Upper Mantle: Extends from the base of the crust to around 660 km deep.
▪ Includes the Lithosphere and Asthenosphere.
2. Lower Mantle: Extends from around 660 km to 2,900 km deep, where the temperature and pressure are
much higher.
3.1 Lithosphere
• Description: The rigid, outermost layer of the Earth, comprising the crust and the uppermost part of the mantle.
• Depth: Extends to about 100 km below the Earth's surface.
• Key Role: Broken into tectonic plates that float on the asthenosphere, responsible for earthquakes, volcanic
activity, and continental drift.
3.2 Asthenosphere
• Location: Beneath the lithosphere, extending down to around 660 km.
• Description: The asthenosphere is semi-molten and allows for the movement of tectonic plates due to its plasticity.
• Key Role: Convection currents in the asthenosphere drive plate tectonics.
3.3 Transition Zone
• Location: Between the upper and lower mantle, around 410-660 km deep.
• Description: The transition zone is marked by changes in the minerals' structure due to the increasing pressure
and temperature.
3.4 Lower Mantle
• Depth: From 660 km down to 2,900 km.
• Description: More solid and rigid than the upper mantle due to higher pressures, although still capable of slow,
creeping motion.
• Composition: Primarily silicate minerals, especially perovskite and bridgmanite.
• Temperature: Ranges from about 1,000°C near the top of the mantle to over 3,700°C near the core.
4. Gutenberg Discontinuity
• Location: Boundary between the mantle and the outer core, around 2,900 km below the Earth's surface.
• Discovery: Named after seismologist Beno Gutenberg.
• Description: The Gutenberg Discontinuity is where seismic waves abruptly slow down, indicating the transition
from solid mantle materials to the molten iron-nickel outer core.

5. The Core
The core is divided into two main layers: the outer core and the inner core. Together, they make up about 15% of Earth's
volume.
5.1 Outer Core
• Depth: Extends from 2,900 km to about 5,150 km below the surface.
• Description: The outer core is composed mostly of liquid iron and nickel. It is molten, and the movement of these
molten metals generates Earth’s magnetic field through a process called the geodynamo.
• Temperature: Ranges from 4,000°C to 5,000°C.
• State: Liquid, due to the intense heat that prevents the iron and nickel from solidifying.
• Key Role: Responsible for Earth’s magnetic field, which protects the planet from harmful solar radiation.
5.2 Lehmann Discontinuity
• Location: Boundary between the outer core and the inner core, around 5,150 km deep.
• Discovery: Named after Danish seismologist Inge Lehmann, who discovered it in 1936.
• Description: At this boundary, seismic waves change as they pass from the molten outer core into the solid inner
core.
5.3 Inner Core
• Depth: From 5,150 km to the center of the Earth at about 6,371 km.
• Description: The inner core is solid despite the extreme temperatures, which can reach up to 5,500°C. The
immense pressure (3.6 million atmospheres) keeps it in a solid state.
• Composition: Primarily composed of iron and nickel.
• Key Role: The slow rotation of the inner core relative to the outer core may also contribute to Earth's magnetic
field.

Earth's Magnetic Field

• Generated in the liquid outer core through the geodynamo process.
• The movement of molten iron creates electric currents, which produce magnetic fields.
• This magnetic field extends into space and forms the magnetosphere, which shields Earth from harmful solar
wind and cosmic radiation.

Minerals
Minerals are the basic components of rocks. They are identified by mineralogists based on specific characteristics and
properties.
Characteristics of Minerals:
1. Naturally Occurring: Created by Earth's natural processes.
2. Inorganic: Formed by physical processes, not by biological means.
3. Homogeneous Solid: Minerals have a definite volume and solid shape.
4. Definite Chemical Composition: Represented by a chemical formula.
5. Orderly Crystalline Structure: Atoms are arranged in a repeating, orderly pattern.
Properties of Minerals:
1. Color: The visible color, which may vary.
2. Streak: The color of a mineral when powdered.
3. Hardness: A mineral's resistance to being scratched, measured by the Mohs Scale of Hardness (Diamond = 10,
Talc = 1).
4. Cleavage: A mineral’s tendency to break along flat surfaces.
5. Transparency: Ability to let light pass through, influenced by its chemical composition.
6. Luster: How a mineral reflects light.
7. Tenacity: How a mineral reacts to stress.
o Brittle: Turns to powder.
o Malleable: Can be flattened by a hammer.
o Ductile: Can be stretched into wire.
o Flexible but Inelastic: Bends but stays in the new position.
o Flexible and Elastic: Bends and returns to its original position.
o Sectile: Can be sliced by a knife.

Rocks
Rocks are aggregates of minerals, categorized based on how they were formed. Petrology is the study of rocks, and
petrologists classify them into three main types: igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary.
Three Types of Rocks:
1. Igneous Rocks: Formed from the solidification of molten material (magma or lava).
o Extrusive/Volcanic: Formed from lava that cools quickly on Earth's surface, leading to small crystals (e.g.,
basalt).
o Intrusive/Plutonic: Formed from magma that cools slowly beneath the surface, leading to large crystals
(e.g., granite).
Classification of Igneous Rocks:
o Composition:
▪ Felsic: Light-colored, contains feldspar and silicates.
▪ Mafic: Dark-colored, contains magnesium and iron.
▪ Intermediate: Between felsic and mafic.
 ▪ Ultramafic: Very dark, highly rich in magnesium and iron.
o Texture:
▪ Aphanitic: Fine-grained.
▪ Phaneritic: Coarse-grained.
▪ Porphyritic: Large crystals with a fine-grained background.
▪ Glassy: Non-ordered, solid due to rapid cooling.
▪ Pyroclastic: Composed of ejected fragments.
Examples: Basalt, granite, obsidian, pumice, diorite, gabbro.
2. Metamorphic Rocks: Formed from pre-existing rocks through metamorphism (changes due to heat, pressure, or
chemical processes).
o Types of Metamorphism:
▪ Regional: Due to pressure and temperature changes over large areas.
▪ Contact: Caused mainly by heat from nearby magma.
o Classification:
▪ Foliated: Has a banded or layered appearance (e.g., mica).
▪ Non-foliated: Made up of a few minerals without layers (e.g., marble).
Examples: Quartzite, marble, slate, phyllite.
3. Sedimentary Rocks: Formed from the accumulation and compaction of sediments.
o Formation Process:
▪ Compaction: Pressure increases on layered sediments, binding them into solid rock.
Types of Sedimentary Rocks:
2. Clastic: Made from fragments of other rocks (e.g., conglomerate, sandstone, shale).
3. Chemical: Formed from the precipitation of minerals from a solution (e.g., halite).
4. Organic: Formed from the remains of living organisms (e.g., coal).

EXOGENIC PROCESS
• Exogenic processes refer to external processes that occur at or near the surface of Earth. These are powered by
solar energy and gravity.
• The earth’s surface is composed of water and landmasses. The solid portion is made out of rocks and minerals
that could experience changes either physically or chemically. The weathered materials are transported by
different agents from one place to another and will settle down in a particular area. These progressions that
happen are achieved by processes called exogenic processes. It includes weathering, mass wasting, erosion,
and deposition.
Weathering
• Weathering is the process of breaking down rocks either physically or chemically.
It can be divided into two types:
1. Mechanical Weathering (Physical Weathering)
• Mechanical weathering or physical weathering refers to the breakdown of rocks into pieces without any change in
its composition. The size and shape of rocks change, but the minerals remain intact.
Mechanical weathering occurs due to several factors:
• Pressure - Rocks under high pressure expand and fracture when the pressure is removed, such as granite that is
uplifted and exposed to the surface.
• Temperature - High temperatures cause rocks to expand, while low temperatures, especially near freezing, cause
rocks to contract, sometimes creating fractures.
• Frost Wedging - Water that seeps into cracks freezes and expands, causing rocks to break apart.
• Abrasion - Rocks collide with one another due to wind, water, or ice movement, wearing down their surfaces.
• Organic Activity - Roots of plants grow into rock fractures, expanding them over time.
• Human Activities - Quarrying, deforestation, construction, and other human activities contribute to mechanical
weathering.
2. Chemical Weathering
• Chemical weathering is the breakdown of rocks by chemical reactions. This can result in changes to the
composition of the rock. Common types include:
• Dissolution - Certain minerals, like halite and calcite, dissolve in water. This process forms features like stalactites
and stalagmites in caves.
• Hydrolysis - Water reacts with minerals like feldspar to form clay minerals.
• Oxidation - Oxygen reacts with iron-bearing minerals, resulting in rusting and the weakening of rocks.
Factors Affecting Weathering
1. Climate - Hot and wet climates accelerate chemical weathering, while cold and dry climates favor physical
weathering.
2. Rock Type - Different minerals weather at different rates. Rocks rich in feldspar weather faster than quartz-rich
rocks.
3. Rock Structure - Joints, cracks, and fractures in rocks make them more susceptible to weathering.
4. Topography - Steeper slopes experience more rapid physical weathering due to gravity.
5. Time - The longer a rock is exposed to weathering agents, the more it will weather.

EXOGENIC PROCESS: MASS WASTING

• Mass Wasting refers to the movement of rock, soil, and debris downslope under the influence of gravity.
Types of Mass Wasting:
• Rockfalls - Detached rock falls freely from a steep slope.
• Landslides - A mass of rock or soil moves rapidly down a slope.
• Mudflows - Saturated soil and debris flow down a slope.
• Creep - Slow, gradual movement of soil or rock downslope.
Factors Controlling Mass Wasting:
1. Slope Angle - Steeper slopes have a higher risk of mass wasting.
 2. Water Content - Water can add weight to materials, reducing friction and increasing the likelihood of movement.
3. Vegetation - Roots help bind soil and reduce the risk of mass wasting. Removal of vegetation increases the risk.
4. Geology - Weak rocks or structures, like clay layers or fault lines, are prone to failure.

EXOGENIC PROCESS: EROSION AND DEPOSITION

• Erosion is the removal and transportation of surface materials (soil, rock, etc.) by agents such as water, wind, ice,
and gravity.
• Deposition occurs when the transported material is laid down in a new location.
Agents of Erosion:
1. Water - Rivers, streams, and oceans move sediment from one place to another.
2. Wind - Wind carries small particles like sand and dust across distances.
3. Ice - Glaciers grind rocks and move debris as they flow.
4. Gravity - Mass wasting processes like landslides contribute to erosion.
Landforms Produced by Erosion:
• Valleys - Carved by rivers or glaciers.
• Canyons - Deep valleys with steep sides.
• Deltas - Formed at the mouth of rivers where sediment is deposited.

EVENTS THAT TRIGGER MASS WASTING PROCESSES:

1. Shocks and Vibrations - Earthquakes and man-made explosions can trigger landslides.
2. Slope Modification - Human activities like construction and deforestation can destabilize slopes.
3. Undercutting - Streams erode the base of a slope, weakening it and causing collapse.
4. Water Saturation - Heavy rains or melting snow can saturate soils, increasing their weight and leading to
landslides.
LANDSLIDE WARNING SIGNS:
• Cracks or bulges in the ground, leaning trees or fences, and changes in creek levels are warning signs of
potential landslides.

Endogenic Processes
Endogenic processes are internal processes that occur beneath Earth’s surface and lead to the reshaping of the planet's
landforms. These processes are driven by heat within the Earth's interior.

A. Heat in Earth’s Interior

1. Role of Heat:
o Heat energy is crucial for the livability of Earth, affecting volcanic activity, mountain building, and
earthquakes.
o The heat inside Earth originates from two main sources: Primordial Heat and Radiogenic Heat.
2. Primordial Heat:
o This heat accumulated during Earth's early formation. It comes from the accretional energy, where kinetic
energy from colliding particles was converted into thermal energy.
o The core stores primordial heat, which is transferred to the mantle and crust through convection and
conduction.
o Although the Earth's surface has cooled, the core remains extremely hot.
3. Radiogenic Heat:
o Produced by the decay of radioactive elements like Uranium, Thorium, and Potassium.
o Radiogenic heat contributes approximately 47 terawatts (TW) of heat flow from Earth's interior, equal in
amount to primordial heat.
o Without radiogenic heat, volcanic activity, earthquakes, and mountain formation would be significantly
reduced.
4. Distribution of Earth’s Internal Heat:
o Conduction: Heat transfer through solid materials, primarily affecting the lithosphere.
o Convection: Heat transfer through fluids, such as the mantle and outer core, drives tectonic plate
movements and volcanic activity.
o Radiation: Controls surface temperatures through the exchange of heat with the atmosphere; significant
only in the hottest parts of the core and lower mantle.

B. Magma Formation
1. Processes Leading to Magma Formation:
o Decompression Melting: Occurs when hot mantle rocks rise and experience a decrease in pressure,
causing them to melt.
o Flux Melting: Results from the addition of volatiles (substances with low boiling points) that lower the
rock’s melting point and facilitate melting.
o Heat Transfer Melting: Melting caused by rising magma transferring heat to surrounding rocks at
shallower depths.
2. Locations of Magma Formation:
o Mid-Oceanic Ridges: Magma rises due to mantle convection and decompression, forming new oceanic
crust.
o Mantle Plumes (Hot Spots): Heat and decompression from deep mantle sources generate magma,
forming volcanic features.
o Subduction Zones: Oceanic crustal rocks interact with seawater, leading to the formation of hydrous
minerals and melting due to changes in temperature and pressure.

Magmatism
Magmatism refers to the processes involving the formation and movement of magma beneath the Earth's crust. Magma,
when solidified, forms igneous rocks found on the Earth’s surface.
What is Magma?
• Magma: Semi-liquid hot molten rock found beneath the Earth’s surface, specifically in the melted mantle rock and
oceanic plate. Once solidified, it forms igneous rocks.
• Difference between Magma and Lava:
o Magma is molten rock located in the magma chamber of a volcano.
o Lava is magma that has reached the Earth's surface through a volcanic eruption.

Formation and Movement of Magma

1. Formation of Magma:
o Magma forms through partial melting in the lower crust and upper mantle (asthenosphere). This melting
occurs due to variations in temperature, pressure, and the presence of volatile materials like water and
carbon dioxide.
2. Why and How Magma Rises:
o Density Contrast: Magma is less dense than surrounding rocks and rises more quickly when the density
difference is greater.
o Magma Rising: As magma rises, it can pass through mineral grain boundaries and cracks in surrounding
rock, potentially being ejected to the surface or solidifying at shallower levels.
3. Viscosity:
o Viscosity: A measure of a fluid’s resistance to flow. Factors influencing magma viscosity include
temperature, silica content, and volatile content.
o Mafic Magma: Less viscous, hotter, and contains less silica.
o Silicic (Felsic) Magma: More viscous, cooler, and contains more silica.

Bowen’s Reaction Series

1. Overview:
o Bowen’s Reaction Series explains how minerals crystallize from magma at different temperatures. It
describes two branches: continuous and discontinuous.
2. Continuous Branch:
o Plagioclase Feldspar: Changes from calcium-rich to sodium-rich as temperature decreases.
3. Discontinuous Branch:
o Ferromagnesian Minerals: Olivine crystallizes first, then transforms into pyroxene, amphibole, and finally
biotite as temperature decreases.
4. Key Concepts:
o Mafic Magma: Crystallizes into pyroxene and calcium-rich plagioclase.
o Intermediate Magma: Crystallizes into diorite or andesite.
o Silicic Magma: More silicon-rich due to removal of earlier-formed minerals.

Magmatic Differentiation
1. Crystal Fractionation:
o Crystal Settling: Denser minerals crystallize first and settle, while lighter minerals crystallize later. This
process leaves the remaining magma more silicic.
2. Partial Melting:
o Partial Melting: Minerals like quartz and muscovite melt first at higher temperatures, producing basaltic
magma from ultramafic rock.
3. Magma Mixing:
o Magma Mixing: Occurs when two different magmas rise and mix, resulting in an intermediate magma
composition.
4. Assimilation/Contamination:
o Assimilation: Rising magma can melt and mix with surrounding crustal rocks, altering its chemical
composition unless the added material has a similar composition.

Metamorphism
1. Definition and Origin: Check. Defined as the change in rocks due to heat, pressure, and fluids. Origin from Greek
terms "meta" (change) and "morphe" (form).
2. Key Processes:
o Effects of heat, pressure, and chemically active fluids.
o Example: Coal turning into diamond.
3. Influencing Factors:
o Original mineral composition.
o Fluid composition.
o Pressure and temperature conditions.
4. Index Minerals: Identified and used for indicating metamorphic conditions.
5. Textural Changes:
o Foliation: Alignment of minerals into layers.
o Differential Stress: Effects on mineral alignment and grain shape.
6. Types of Metamorphism:
o Contact Metamorphism: Due to heat from magma/lava.
o Regional Metamorphism: Due to pressure and temperature over large areas.
7. Metamorphic Rock Classification:
o Foliated: Examples include slate, schist, gneiss.
o Non-Foliated: Examples include marble, quartzite.
8. Uses of Metamorphic Rocks:
o Slate and marble uses mentioned.
Igneous Rocks
1. Definition and Formation: Check. Formed from solidification of molten rock.
2. Types Based on Formation:
o Intrusive (Plutonic): Examples include granite, diorite.
o Extrusive (Volcanic): Examples include basalt, obsidian.
3. Classification Based on Composition:
o Ultramafic: Low silica, high density, dark color (e.g., peridotite).
o Mafic: Low silica, high density, dark color (e.g., basalt).
o Intermediate: Moderate silica, gray color (e.g., diorite).
o Felsic: High silica, low density, light color (e.g., granite).
4. Classification Based on Texture:
o Phaneritic: Large crystals (e.g., granite).
o Aphanitic: Small crystals (e.g., basalt).
o Vesicular: Gas bubbles (e.g., pumice).
o Porphyritic: Two crystal sizes (e.g., andesite porphyry).
o Glassy: No visible crystals (e.g., obsidian).

Continental Drift Theory

1. Introduction and Origin:
o Early Ideas: The idea that continents fit together like a jigsaw puzzle was discussed since the 1600s but
was not widely accepted.
o Wegener's Hypothesis: Proposed by Alfred Wegener in 1912, suggesting that a supercontinent named
Pangaea split into the continents we have today. Published in 1915 in The Origin of Continents and
Oceans.
o Initial Skepticism: Until the 1950s-60s, the idea was largely dismissed due to belief in fixed continents and
ocean basins.
2. Revival and New Data:
o 1960s Oceanographic Discoveries: New data revealed a dynamic ocean floor with ridges and trenches,
leading to the Seafloor Spreading Hypothesis, which supported the idea of drifting continents.
o Pangaea: Means ‘all land’ in Greek, referring to the ancient supercontinent.
3. Wegener’s Hypothesis:
o Mechanism: Wegener suggested that continents drifted due to tidal forces from the moon and sun. He
believed continents cut through the oceanic crust, though there was no proof of this mechanism.

Evidence Supporting Continental Drift

1. Fit of the Continents:
o Early Criticism: Initially dismissed due to the crude fit and natural modifications of shorelines.
o Refined Fit: Sir Edward Bullard (1965) showed a better fit along the continental slopes at about 2000
meters depth, though perfect alignment was still elusive due to geological processes.
2. Similarity in Geological Units:
o Rock Types and Ages: Identical rock types and structures on opposite sides of the Atlantic Ocean. For
example, the Appalachian Mountains align with ranges in Greenland, Ireland, and Norway.
3. Fossil Evidence:
o Fossil Matches: Similar fossils of extinct plants and animals found on continents now separated by
oceans. Examples include:
▪ Glossopteris: A seed fern found across southern continents.
▪ Mesosaurus: A freshwater reptile whose fossils are found in South America and Africa.
▪ Lystrosaurus and Cynognathus: Land reptiles found across multiple southern continents.
4. Glacial and Paleoclimate Evidence:
o Glacial Till and Striations: Evidence of ancient glaciers in regions that now have warm climates. Glacial
evidence in regions like Australia, South America, Africa, India, and Antarctica fits into a reconstructed
Pangaea.
5. Paleomagnetism and Polar Wandering:
o Magnetic Records: Magnetic minerals in rocks record the Earth's magnetic field direction at the time of
solidification.
o Polar Wandering: The apparent movement of magnetic poles through time, which supports the theory of
continental movement rather than a fixed magnetic pole.