Cryptography & Cryptanalysis

Unit IV

Q.1 Explain Diffie-Hellman key distribution algorithm

Ans : Diffie-Hellman Key Exchange

Diffie-Hellman key exchange is a cryptographic protocol used to establish a shared secret between two
parties over an insecure channel. It's a fundamental building block for secure communication, as it allows
two parties to securely exchange cryptographic keys that can be used for subsequent encryption and
decryption.

How it works:

1. Public parameters: Two public parameters are agreed upon: a large prime number p and a
generator g of the multiplicative group modulo p.

2. Key generation:

o Alice: Chooses a private key a and calculates A = g^a mod p.

o Bob: Chooses a private key b and calculates B = g^b mod p.

3. Key exchange:

o Alice sends A to Bob.

o Bob sends B to Alice.

4. Shared secret:

o Alice calculates the shared secret s = B^a mod p.

o Bob calculates the shared secret s = A^b mod p.

The key point is that both Alice and Bob can compute the same shared secret s without ever revealing
their private keys a and b. This is because the discrete logarithm problem, which is the inverse operation
of calculating g^a mod p, is believed to be computationally difficult for large values of p.

Advantages of Diffie-Hellman:

• Security: It provides a secure way to establish a shared secret over an insecure channel.

• Efficiency: The computations involved are relatively efficient.

• Widely used: Diffie-Hellman is a fundamental building block for many cryptographic protocols.

Disadvantages of Diffie-Hellman:

• Man-in-the-middle attacks: If an attacker can intercept the messages between Alice and Bob,
they can potentially compromise the key exchange. To mitigate this risk, Diffie-Hellman is often
combined with authentication protocols.

Diffie-Hellman key exchange is a crucial component of modern cryptography, enabling secure

communication over networks.

Q.2 Explain station-to-station key agreement scheme

Ans : Station-to-Station (STS) key agreement is a cryptographic protocol that allows two parties, typically
two stations or devices in a network, to establish a shared secret key securely. It's a variation of the Diffie-
Hellman key exchange protocol, specifically designed for point-to-point communication.

How STS Works:

 1. Public Parameters: Both parties agree on public parameters: a large prime number p and a
generator g of the multiplicative group modulo p.

2. Key Generation:

o Station A: Chooses a private key a and calculates A = g^a mod p.

o Station B: Chooses a private key b and calculates B = g^b mod p.

3. Key Exchange:

o Station A sends A to Station B.

o Station B sends B to Station A.

4. Shared Secret:

o Station A calculates the shared secret s = B^a mod p.

o Station B calculates the shared secret s = A^b mod p.

Key Differences from Diffie-Hellman:

• Point-to-Point: STS is specifically designed for point-to-point communication between two

stations, whereas Diffie-Hellman can be used in more general scenarios.

• Authentication: STS often includes mechanisms for authenticating the parties involved in the key
exchange to prevent man-in-the-middle attacks. This can be achieved using digital signatures or
other authentication protocols.

Applications of STS:

• Wireless networks: STS is commonly used in wireless networks to establish secure

communication between devices.

• Satellite communication: It can be used for secure communication between satellites and ground
stations.

• Point-to-point data links: STS can be used for secure data transmission over dedicated point-to-
point links.

In essence, STS is a secure and efficient method for two parties to establish a shared secret key over an
insecure channel. It's a fundamental building block for many cryptographic protocols and applications.

Q.3 Explain the process of fingerprinting

Ans : Fingerprinting is a biometric technique used to identify individuals based on the unique patterns of
ridges and valleys on their fingertips. It's one of the most widely used methods of biometric identification
due to its high accuracy and reliability.

Process of Fingerprinting:

1. Capture: A fingerprint is captured using a fingerprint scanner. This can be a standalone device,
integrated into a larger system, or even a smartphone. The scanner captures an image of the
fingerprint, typically using optical, capacitive, or ultrasonic technology.

2. Preprocessing: The captured image is preprocessed to remove noise, enhance the ridge patterns,
and normalize the size and orientation.

3. Feature Extraction: Key features of the fingerprint are extracted, such as minutiae points (endings
and bifurcations of ridges), ridge density, and orientation fields. These features are unique to each
individual's fingerprint.
 4. Matching: The extracted features are compared to a database of known fingerprints. A matching
algorithm calculates a similarity score between the query fingerprint and each fingerprint in the
database.

5. Identification: If a sufficiently high similarity score is found, the query fingerprint is identified as
belonging to the corresponding individual. Otherwise, it is considered a non-match.

Fingerprint Recognition Algorithms:

• Minutiae-based matching: This method compares the locations and orientations of minutiae
points in the fingerprints.

• Correlation-based matching: This method compares the overall ridge patterns and orientations in
the fingerprints.

• Neural network-based matching: This method uses artificial neural networks to learn and
recognize fingerprint patterns.

Applications of Fingerprinting:

• Law enforcement: Used for criminal identification and identification of victims.

• Access control: Used to control access to secure areas, such as offices, laboratories, or data
centers.

• Time and attendance tracking: Used to track employee attendance and work hours.

• Mobile devices: Used for unlocking smartphones and other devices.

Fingerprinting is a highly accurate and reliable method of biometric identification. It has a wide range of
applications and is widely used in both personal and professional settings.

Q.4 Explain the operations in identity based encryption scheme

Ans : Identity-Based Encryption (IBE) is a public key cryptographic system where a user's public key can
be any arbitrary string, such as their email address or phone number. This eliminates the need for a public
key infrastructure (PKI) to manage and distribute public keys.

Key Operations in IBE:

1. Setup:

o A trusted authority (TA) generates a master secret key and a public system parameter.

o The public system parameter is made publicly available.

2. Key Extraction:

o A user, with identity ID, requests a private key from the TA.

o The TA uses the master secret key and the public system parameter to generate a private
key corresponding to the user's identity.

o The TA securely transmits the private key to the user.

3. Encryption:

o A sender encrypts a message using the recipient's identity (public key) and the public
system parameter.

o The ciphertext can only be decrypted by the recipient with their corresponding private
key.

4. Decryption:
 o The recipient uses their private key and the public system parameter to decrypt the
ciphertext and recover the original message.

Advantages of IBE:

• Simplified key management: No need for a PKI to manage and distribute public keys.

• Enhanced security: IBE can provide better security against key compromise attacks.

• Scalability: IBE can handle large numbers of users and messages.

Disadvantages of IBE:

• Trusted authority: The TA is a single point of failure and must be trusted to protect the master
secret key.

• Computational overhead: IBE can be computationally more expensive than traditional public key
encryption schemes.

Applications of IBE:

• Email encryption: IBE can be used to encrypt emails directly using the recipient's email address as
the public key.

• Data storage: IBE can be used to encrypt data stored in the cloud, where the data can be
encrypted using the owner's identity as the public key.

• IoT security: IBE can be used to secure communication between IoT devices, where the devices'
identities can be used as public keys.

In summary, IBE is a powerful cryptographic technique that simplifies key management and offers
enhanced security. It's particularly well-suited for applications where a large number of users need to
securely communicate or store data.

Q.5 Explain the MTI key agreement scheme

Ans : MTI (Modified Tate Pairing) key agreement is a cryptographic protocol that allows two parties to
establish a shared secret key over an insecure channel. It's based on the pairing-based cryptography
paradigm, which uses mathematical structures called bilinear pairings to construct cryptographic
primitives.

How MTI Works:

1. System Parameters: A trusted authority (TA) generates and publishes system parameters,
including a finite field F_q, an elliptic curve E defined over F_q, and a bilinear pairing e on E.

2. Key Generation:

o User A: Chooses a random point P on the elliptic curve E and calculates Q_A = aP, where a
is A's private key.

o User B: Chooses a random point P on the elliptic curve E and calculates Q_B = bP, where b
is B's private key.

3. Key Exchange:

o User A sends Q_A to User B.

o User B sends Q_B to User A.

4. Shared Secret:
 o User A calculates the shared secret K_A = e(Q_B, aP).

o User B calculates the shared secret K_B = e(Q_A, bP).

The key point is that both User A and User B can compute the same shared secret K without ever
revealing their private keys a and b. This is due to the bilinear property of the pairing function, which
allows for the computation of the shared secret in a way that is independent of the individual private keys.

Advantages of MTI:

• Security: MTI is based on the hardness of the discrete logarithm problem on elliptic curves, which
is believed to be computationally difficult.

• Efficiency: MTI is relatively efficient compared to other pairing-based protocols.

• Flexibility: It can be used in various cryptographic applications, such as key exchange, digital
signatures, and identity-based encryption.

Applications of MTI:

• Secure communication: MTI can be used to establish secure communication channels between
devices or users.

• Digital signatures: MTI can be used to create digital signatures for verifying the authenticity and
integrity of data.

• Identity-based encryption: MTI can be used as a building block for identity-based encryption
schemes.

MTI is a powerful cryptographic protocol that offers security, efficiency, and flexibility. It's widely used
in various applications that require secure communication and data protection.

Q.6 Write a short note on Kerberos.

Ans : Kerberos is a network authentication protocol that provides mutual authentication between clients
and servers. It's widely used in corporate environments and other large networks to ensure secure access
to resources.

Key Features:

• Mutual Authentication: Both the client and server verify each other's identities, preventing
unauthorized access.

• Single Sign-On (SSO): Once a user is authenticated, they can access multiple resources without
having to re-enter their credentials.

• Ticket-Based Authentication: Kerberos uses tickets to grant access to resources. These tickets are
issued by a trusted third party called a Key Distribution Center (KDC).

• Strong Encryption: Kerberos uses strong encryption algorithms to protect the confidentiality and
integrity of authentication messages.

How Kerberos Works:

1. Ticket Granting Ticket (TGT): The client sends a request to the KDC to obtain a TGT. The TGT
contains information about the client and is encrypted using the KDC's secret key.

2. Service Ticket: When the client wants to access a resource, it presents the TGT to the KDC, which
issues a service ticket. The service ticket contains information about the client and the resource,
and it's encrypted using the server's secret key.
 3. Authentication: The client presents the service ticket to the server. The server decrypts the ticket
and verifies the client's identity. If the verification is successful, the server grants access to the
resource.

Advantages of Kerberos:

• Strong security: Kerberos provides a robust and secure authentication mechanism.

• Scalability: It can handle large networks with many clients and servers.

• Efficiency: Kerberos is efficient and can handle a large number of authentication requests.

• Widely supported: It's supported by most operating systems and network devices.

Disadvantages of Kerberos:

• Complexity: Kerberos can be complex to configure and manage.

• Single point of failure: The KDC is a single point of failure, and if it becomes compromised, the
entire system's security can be compromised.

• Time synchronization: Kerberos relies on accurate time synchronization between clients, servers,
and the KDC.

In summary, Kerberos is a powerful network authentication protocol that offers strong security,
scalability, and efficiency. It's widely used in enterprise environments to protect sensitive resources and
ensure secure access.

Q.7 Explain the Blom scheme

Ans : Blom Scheme is a cryptographic protocol used for group key agreement, which allows a group of
participants to establish a shared secret key securely without requiring pairwise key exchanges between
all members. This is particularly useful in scenarios where there are many participants and frequent
changes in the group membership.

How Blom Scheme Works:

1. Initialization:

o A trusted authority (TA) generates a public matrix G and a secret matrix S.

o The TA distributes the public matrix G to all participants.

2. Key Generation:

o Each participant, i, generates a random vector x_i and calculates their public key

y_i = x_i * G.

o The participant sends their public key y_i to the TA.

3. Key Distribution:

o The TA calculates the group key K = S * Y, where Y is a matrix formed by concatenating the
public keys of all participants.

o The TA securely distributes the group key K to all participants.

4. Key Derivation:

o Each participant, i, can derive the group key K using their private key x_i and the public
matrix G as follows: K_i = x_i * G * Y.

Advantages of Blom Scheme:

 • Efficiency: Blom Scheme requires only a single round of communication between the participants
and the TA, making it efficient for large groups.

• Security: The security of Blom Scheme relies on the hardness of the matrix inversion problem.

• Flexibility: It can be used in various applications, such as group communication, key distribution,
and access control.

Disadvantages of Blom Scheme:

• Trusted authority: The TA is a single point of failure and must be trusted to protect the secret
matrix S.

• Limited scalability: While Blom Scheme can handle large groups, its performance may degrade for
very large groups.

Applications of Blom Scheme:

• Group communication: Blom Scheme can be used to secure communication within a group, such
as in online forums or chat rooms.

• Key distribution: It can be used to distribute cryptographic keys to a group of participants.

• Access control: Blom Scheme can be used to implement access control mechanisms for a group of
users.

In summary, Blom Scheme is a secure and efficient group key agreement protocol that simplifies the
process of establishing shared secrets among multiple participants. It's widely used in various
applications where group communication and security are essential.

Q.8 Explain Diffie-Hellman key distribution algorithm

Ans : Same as Q1

Q.9 Write a short note on Kerberos.

Ans : Same as Question 6.

Q.10 Explain Diffie-Hellman key distribution algorithm

Ans : Same as Q1.

Q. 11 Explain the criteria used to evaluate multicast re-keying scheme.

Ans : Criteria for Evaluating Multicast Re-keying Schemes

Multicast re-keying schemes are essential for maintaining the security of multicast communications when
group membership changes. Here are the key criteria used to evaluate the effectiveness of these schemes:

1. Security:

• Confidentiality: The scheme should ensure that the re-keying process does not reveal any
information about the group members or their traffic patterns.

• Integrity: The scheme should protect against unauthorized modifications of the re-keying
messages.

• Authentication: The scheme should verify the authenticity of participants to prevent

unauthorized access.

2. Efficiency:

• Computational overhead: The scheme should minimize the computational cost for both the
sender and receivers.
 • Communication overhead: The scheme should minimize the amount of data that needs to be
transmitted for re-keying.

• Delay: The scheme should minimize the delay introduced during the re-keying process.

3. Scalability:

• Large groups: The scheme should be able to handle large multicast groups without significant
performance degradation.

• Dynamic membership: The scheme should efficiently handle changes in group membership, such
as joins and leaves.

4. Reliability:

• Robustness: The scheme should be resilient to network failures and errors.

• Availability: The scheme should ensure that the multicast communication remains secure even in
the presence of failures.

5. Simplicity:

• Implementation complexity: The scheme should be relatively easy to implement and deploy in
real-world networks.

6. Backward compatibility:

• Interoperability: The scheme should be compatible with existing multicast protocols and
standards.

7. Resistance to attacks:

• Security vulnerabilities: The scheme should be resistant to known attacks, such as denial-of-
service (DoS) attacks or replay attacks.

8. User experience:

• Transparency: The scheme should be transparent to users, minimizing the impact on their
perceived quality of service.

• Privacy: The scheme should protect user privacy by minimizing the collection and storage of
personal information.

By carefully considering these criteria, network administrators can select multicast re-keying schemes that
are both secure and efficient for their specific requirements.

Q.12 Explain station-to-station key agreement scheme.

Ans : Same as Q2