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Honghua Men
Xi Xiao Editors

Report of Strategic
Studies in China
(2019)
Once-in-a-Century Transformation and
China’s Period of Strategic Opportunity
Report of Strategic Studies in China (2019)
Honghua Men Xi Xiao

Editors

Report of Strategic Studies


in China (2019)
Once-in-a-Century Transformation
and China’s Period of Strategic Opportunity

123
Editors
Honghua Men Xi Xiao
School of Political Science School of International and Public Affairs
and International Relations Jilin University
Tongji University Changchun, Jilin, China
Shanghai, China

The editors thank Korea Foundation for its financial support for the research.

ISBN 978-981-15-7731-4 ISBN 978-981-15-7732-1 (eBook)


https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-7732-1

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature
Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021
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Singapore
Editorial Board of Strategic Studies in China

Editor

Honghua Men, Tongji University

Editorial Board

Jae-Ho Chung, Seoul National University


Angang Hu, Tsinghua University
Feng Liu, Nankai University
Yinhong Shi, Renmin University of China
Changhe Su, Fudan University
Akio Takahara, the University of Tokyo
Yongsheng Tang, PLA Defense University
Fan Wang, China Foreign Affairs University
Xi Xiao, Jilin University
Zicheng Ye, Peking University
Xianchen Zhang, Chinese Ministry of Commerce
Tianyong Zhou, Central Party School

v
Preface: Shaping China’s Period of Strategic
Opportunity Amid Once-in-a-Century
Transformation

Abstract This article reviews the profound changes in the past century and their
impact on the world. The authors believe that the greatest challenge to China in this
context is how to secure and extend China’s period of strategic opportunity, and
actively shaping this period should be regarded as the core trend of China’s
response. The past century is fundamentally driven by the acceleration of the
technological and industrial revolution as well as the vicissitude of major powers. It
is also a century full of uncertainty and radical changes in ideas and values. What
dazzles all is that China is moving to the center of the world stage from the edge
and is becoming one of the most influential factors. Against this background, apart
from following the traditional ideas such as seizing, making good use of, and
maintaining strategic opportunities, China should put its strategic priority on
extending and actively shaping the period of strategic opportunity. This article
suggests that the cornerstone is to focus on China’s all-round development and
opening-up, the key is to develop a global vision and provide new strategic
opportunities for the world, and the support comes from a stronger presence in the
region and an optimized geopolitical and economic environment.

Keywords Once-in-a-century transformation • Period of strategic opportunity •


China • Strategic studies

Co-authors Honghua Men, Distinguished Professor, Dean of the School of


Political Science and International Relations, President of the Institute for China
and World Studies, Tongji University; Xi Xiao, Distinguished University Professor,
School of International and Public Affairs, Jilin University.

Since the end of the Cold War, especially the beginning of the twenty-first century,
there has been an increasing interdependence and interplay between global trans-
formation and China’s rise. The world is now in an era of major development,
transformation and adjustment, and is undergoing a once-in-a-century transforma-
tion. Meanwhile, China is embracing a golden era since modern times, which is also

vii
viii Preface: Shaping China’s Period of Strategic Opportunity Amid …

a critical moment for the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation. The third decade
of the twenty-first century will be important for the three centennial goals of China.
As the first goal of building a moderately prosperous society in all aspects by 2020
is about to be achieved, it is necessary to think deeply about another major strategic
issue, i.e., how to positively respond to the major changes so that a solid foundation
can be laid for the second goal. As General Secretary Xi Jinping points out, we
must “focus on two overall situations: domestically we are working toward the
great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation, and internationally the world is under-
going the greatest changes never seen in a century. This is where we should start
from when we plan our work.”
Throughout the history, the world has always been in a changing state. The
once-in-a-century transformation has some unique implications, with profound and
far-reaching impact on China in particular. Changes will bring rare opportunities
and severe challenges to China’s peaceful development. In view of this, whether
China is still in an important period of strategic opportunity has drawn wide
attention and even triggered heated debate in the academic community of strategic
studies. Moreover, how China can seize, make good use of, maintain, extend and
shape this period is regarded as a core issue about China’s response to the changes.

China and the Once-in-a-Century Transformation

Change is a normal state of the world, and “once-in-a-century transformation”


proposed by General Secretary Xi Jinping has its unique meanings. Since the end
of the Cold War, Chinese policymakers have been attaching great importance to the
evolving world landscape and the possible impact of global changes on China.
They believe that China need to reshape its international strategy according to the
key external conditions. The world has witnessed even more profound and complex
changes since the 2010s. The reports of the 19th National Congress of the
Communist Party of China have expounded that “the world is in an era of major
development, transformation and adjustment.” Overlooking the evolution of human
history, Xi Jinping insightfully points out that “the world is undergoing the greatest
changes never seen in a century.”
At the Diplomatic Envoys’ Working Meeting on December 28, 2017, he first
proposed that “we are facing the greatest changes never seen in a century.” At the
Central Conference on Foreign Affairs in June 2018, he systematically expounded
his deep understanding of the changes, pointing out that “China is in the best period
of development since modern times, and the world is undergoing the greatest
changes never seen in a century. The two are intertwined and interact with each
other…. There are numerous new opportunities and challenges in this changing
world. The international order is undergoing profound adjustment. The interna-
tional structures of power are changing drastically toward peace and development,”
“we need to analyze the evolution of the international situation during the world’s
Preface: Shaping China’s Period of Strategic Opportunity Amid … ix

transformation period, and understand the basic characteristics of China’s external


environment at such a historic turn, so as to make overall plans and carry out work
in the field of external relations.” At the BRICS Business Forum in July 2018, he
pointed out that “the next decade will be a crucial one in which new global growth
drivers will take the place of old ones. The next decade will see faster changes in
the international landscape and the international alignment of forces. The next
decade will see a profound reshaping of the global governance system.” In a
keynote speech at the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) CEO Summit in
November 2018, he emphasized that “the changes we are encountering in the world
are unseen in a century…. Mankind has once again reached a crossroads.” At the
Working Conference on Military Affairs of the Central Military Commission in
January 2019, he stressed that “today’s world is facing a once-in-a-century trans-
formation, and China’s development is still in an important period of strategic
opportunity, along with growing risks and challenges, predictable or not.” At the
fourth plenary session of the 19th Central Committee of CPC in 2019, he clearly
stated that “today’s world is undergoing changes unseen in a century, and our
country is in a critical period to realize the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation.
We are required to follow the trend and address the principal contradictions and
changes in our society. We must also work hard on our great programs, under-
takings, cause and dream to constantly meet people’s new expectations for a better
life and address various risks and challenges on the way forward.” In a nutshell, Xi
Jinping pays great attention to the rare opportunities and profound challenges
brought about by the changes, based on which he gives guidance on China’s overall
strategic blueprint and the work in the field of external relations.
The major changes are closely related to the international vicissitudes after the
Cold War, the rise and fall of major powers and the collective rise of major
developing countries, the transformation of the Western countries as a consequence
of the global financial crisis in 2008, as well as the acceleration of a new world
order driven by the new round of technological revolution. This is an evolving
process in which the emerging powers are competing with the established ones. The
changes are so unprecedented in breadth and depth that they are profoundly
reflected in: (i) balance of power. Great changes have taken place among major
powers, between the bloc of developed countries and that of developing countries,
and between state actors and non-state ones; (ii) shift of development paradigm.
The paradigm is transforming from industrialization to sustainability, largely driven
by climate change; and (iii) a new round of technological revolution, mainly the
development of emerging technologies such as artificial intelligence (AI) and
Internet of things (IoT) that may be used to replace human labor. The authors
believe that the most fundamental forces driving changes are the technological
and industrial revolution and the acceleration of the rise and fall of major
powers. The new technological revolution is reshaping the world at a faster pace.
The rapid advancement of technology is not only a result of the changes but also a
driving force for the changes. Emerging technologies like AI, big data, the Internet,
space technology, biotechnology and quantum technology are fully developing to
promote the generation of new tools, industries and forms of business. The new
x Preface: Shaping China’s Period of Strategic Opportunity Amid …

round of technological revolution and industrial transformation is triggering revo-


lutionary growth in economic, social and military forces, which in turn will change
the way national strength is enhanced, the content of international competition and
traditional forms of war, and driving the extension of globalization in breadth and
depth. In this sense, it is one fundamental force driving major changes in the world.
The other is the rise and fall of major powers.
Entering the twenty-first century, the incremental portion of the world’s eco-
nomic growth has been mainly contributed by developing countries. This is a major
change in the modern history of the world development, leading to a cease of
unipolarity for the international political and economic structure. Broadly, the world
order is seeing a change from Western-centric to non-Western-centric, or juxta-
position. At a time when globalization is adjusted, the international power structure
is reshaped, and the technological revolution is in progress, this change is just in its
infancy and there is still a long way to go. It is noteworthy that emerging market
countries as a whole are experiencing a painful process from rise to decline or
transition, in spite of good economic performance of a handful of countries such as
China and India. The change is deeply reflected in the sheer uncertainty of the
world. In the face of changes, major powers are stepping up their internal and
external adjustments to seize the strategic commanding heights and secure their
own advantage in the competition. This has accelerated a profound evolution of the
international landscape, and uncertainty and instability are becoming prominent.
A rise in unilateralism and protectionism has challenged the international multi-
lateralism and global governance system. The world at a crossroads is now facing a
significant choice between unilateralism and multilateralism, confrontation and
dialogue, or isolation and openness. What is more noteworthy is the radical
change in ideas and values. In the face of changes, any country, however strong it
is, can neither remain aloof from the world nor be a savior of the world. Instead, all
countries should work together to address the changes. In view of the fact that each
country needs to handle its own problems in collaboration with other countries,
international cooperation appears to be more precious than ever before. However,
due to the significant change in balance of power, the “anti-globalization” populist
climate is spreading in the USA and other Western countries. Protectionism,
ant-globalization and even neo-isolationism are once again on the rise in the USA.
In this context, strategic competition among major powers has become increasingly
fierce. The authors believe that the world is still in an early stage of change, and the
international system is approaching a critical point of transformation. At a time
when globalization is adjusted, the international structures of power are moving
toward balance, and the technological revolution is just unfolding, the world is now
standing at a new crossroads and there will be necessarily all kinds of differences,
confusion and concerns from country to country.
One of the most notable performances is that China is moving to the center of the
world stage from the edge and becoming one of the most influential factors. China’s
rapid development and far-reaching influence is an extraordinary phenomenon
never seen in a century. At critical moments like this, it is transforming from a big
country to a major power. Its strategic vision has attracted worldwide attention. As
Preface: Shaping China’s Period of Strategic Opportunity Amid … xi

countries around the world are generally confused about the future, China is fol-
lowing the trends of the times to actively build a new type of international relations
and a global community of shared future, while push the global governance system
to develop in a more just and reasonable direction. It is becoming a cornerstone in
this changing world. As Xi Jinping pointed out in a speech at the special seminar of
provincial and ministerial officials to study and implement the spirit of the fifth
plenary session of the 18th National Congress of CPC, “twenty or even 15 years
ago, economic globalization was mainly driven by the USA and other Western
countries. Today, however, China is considered the biggest force driving global
trade and investment liberalization and facilitation, and we are proactively fighting
against Western countries’ protectionism of all kinds.” We need to let the world
understand China from a global vision. As a rising power, China’s development and
transformation will not only change itself, but also have a significant impact on the
world. China’s all-round rise has driven the rise of other developing countries and
further cooperation in the developing world. In this sense, it plays a leading role in
promoting strategic cooperation and positive competition. Besides, China is
becoming a world power while rising as a socialist power in the East. The enormous
changes unseen in a century are regarded as a confrontation between capitalism and
socialism. The changes will inevitably pose severe challenges to China’s strategic
opportunity period, and reversely China’s future direction will also have a signif-
icant impact on the changing situation.

China’s Period of Strategic Opportunity Amid Changes

The greatest challenge to China brought about by the changes is whether its period
of strategic opportunity will continue. Over the years, the period of strategic
opportunity has been a buzzword used by the Chinese leadership to advance reform
and development. How to embrace the period is regarded as a priority for China’s
strategic plan. Opportunity is inherently uncertain and non-permanent, with
necessity and contingency combined. In an era of major changes, restructuring and
reshuffle, opportunities and challenges naturally coexist, and the former may be
greater than the latter. Strategic opportunity is not merely a strategic position, but a
combination of strategic competition, challenge, breakthrough, balance, crisis and
turnaround. The period of strategic opportunity refers to a specific period in history
as a result of various factors at home and abroad that can provide a country with
good opportunities for development while having a global, long-term and decisive
influence on its destiny. From a global perspective, the period of strategic oppor-
tunity is a result of changes in various paradoxical movements around the world. In
such a period, opportunities are generated under the influence of various factors at
home and abroad. From a national perspective, this period is an intermediate stage
in which a country is ready for rapid development. It is critical to a transition from
quantitative change to qualitative change. It can be treated as an ecosystem where
xii Preface: Shaping China’s Period of Strategic Opportunity Amid …

opportunities and challenges coexist and intertwine. On the one side of coin, there
are development opportunities and good environments, and on the other side, there
are often hidden threats and actual challenges. In view of this, strategic opportu-
nities are closely associated with strategic challenges. The formation and extension
of this period depend on objective factors at home and abroad, but more impor-
tantly, we can take the initiative to shape it.
Grasping strategic opportunities for development has been a valuable experience
since the People’s Republic of China was founded. Based on an insight into the
international situation, Mao Zedong proposed the “one-line” strategy and the “Two
Middle Grounds” and “Three Worlds” theory successively. He seized the strategic
opportunities and led China to achieve independence and diplomatic breakthroughs,
and break the blockade and encirclement of great powers, with the aim of growing
into a major power in the world. From the non-aligned independent and peaceful
foreign policy to the primary goal of peaceful development, Deng Xiaoping cap-
tured the rare opportunities in global changes and guided China toward reform,
opening-up and economic rise. From the end of the twentieth century to the
beginning of the twenty-first century, major changes took place in both domestic
and international situations. Jiang Zemin seized the historic opportunities in that
context and made strategic judgments with guiding significance. In a speech at the
graduation ceremony of the provincial and ministerial officials’ class for further
studies of the Party School of the CPC Central Committee on May 31, 2002, Jiang
noted that “the first two decades of the twenty-first century are an important period
of strategic opportunity for our country. We must seize such opportunities to create
a promising future.” The report of the 16th National Congress of CPC further
defines the time frame of this period. As a result, the 20-year period of building a
moderately prosperous society in all aspects has been closely linked to the 20-year
period of strategic opportunity whose breadth and depth are greatly extended. Hu
Jintao also stressed the importance of seizing strategic opportunities to achieve
leapfrog development, saying that “for China or other countries in the world, the
key to a successful society is about seizing opportunities for accelerated develop-
ment. Opportunities are extremely precious and fleeting. In a critical period, it is
possible for underdeveloped countries to develop by leap and bounds if they seize
opportunities; the incumbent major powers are also likely to fall behind the times if
they miss opportunities.” From China’s development experience, especially in
2000–2010, almost every strategic breakthrough was closely related to the trans-
lation of crises into opportunities. From 2010 to 2020, in response to any potential
global financial crisis, competition is prevailing over cooperation in the interna-
tional community. And the world pattern is undergoing profound changes. China
seems to have suddenly fallen into some strategic dilemma, under severe strategic
pressures in security, economic, political and other fields. US President Donald
Trump has always regarded China as a strategic opponent since he took office.
Then, does China’s period of strategic opportunity exist? Opinions vary across
different communities, but many people hold a negative view.
General Secretary Xi Jinping is convinced of and optimistic about China’s
period of strategic opportunity after an in-depth study was made. He pointed out in
Preface: Shaping China’s Period of Strategic Opportunity Amid … xiii

the report of the 19th National Congress of CPC that the current situations at home
and abroad are undergoing profound and complex changes, and China is still in a
critical period of strategic opportunity for development, faced with both bright
prospects and severe challenges. Strategic opportunities and major risks coexist,
while bright prospects are in parallel with severe challenges, which is a striking
feature of socialism with Chinese characteristics in the new era. At the opening
ceremony of a seminar to study and implement the spirit of the 19th National
Congress of CPC on January 5, 2018, Xi Jinping emphasized that China is in a
period of historic opportunities for a bright future. At the Central Economic
Working Conference in December 2018, he stressed that China is still and will be in
a long period of important strategic opportunities. In a world undergoing
unprecedented changes in a century, crises more than often go hand in hand with
opportunities, which may bring great opportunities for the great rejuvenation of the
Chinese nation. By saying China will be in a long period of important strategic
opportunities, the Chinese policymakers demonstrate their confidence and deter-
mination. Xi Jinping also has an insight into the domestic and international situa-
tions, emphasizing that “today’s world is undergoing profound changes unseen in a
century, and it is a crucial time for us to realize the great rejuvenation of our nation.
The closer we are to the goal, the more complex the situation is, and the more
arduous the task becomes.” Xi Jinping made an overall judgment and work
deployment in his speech at the symposium to promote the rise of central China in
May 2019. He said that “China is still in an important period of strategic oppor-
tunity for development, but the international situation grows more complicated day
by day. We should be aware of various long-lasting and complicated disadvantages
at home and abroad, so that we can get properly prepared for all kinds of difficulties.
Above all, we must do our own things well. More specifically, we should make
overall research and deployment to push forward reform and development and
maintain a stable environment. We must make plans before taking actions. Those
who have a solid foundation can make a difference.”
China’s period of strategic opportunity is built upon its own sustainable devel-
opment and strategic innovation. As Xi Jinping emphasized, China’s greatest
opportunity comes from its sustained development and growth. From the second
decade of the twenty-first century, China begins to embrace its second period of
strategic opportunity and lead global development as a great power on the broad
international stage. While the international cooperation under the Belt and Road
Initiative (BRI) is moving ahead, China and the world have entered a critical period of
positive interaction, in which China is creating new strategic opportunities for the
world. Meanwhile, the world economy is undergoing profound adjustment and global
governance is seeing major changes. There are new opportunities in an evolving
international landscape. The booming technological revolution, the global expansion
of multinationals, and the aspirations of the developing world provide important
strategic opportunities for China’s further development and all-round opening. At a
time when emerging countries are rising, the world is experiencing power transition,
and the plight of the West remains unchanged and is even getting worse, China is well
positioned to maintain its period of strategic opportunity. Looking forward, China
xiv Preface: Shaping China’s Period of Strategic Opportunity Amid …

also has great advantages for further economic development because there are
deep-seated contradictions in the USA, Europe and Japan, such as limited develop-
ment space, weakened growth momentum, large-scale virtual economy, etc. Facing
the anti-globalization trend, China’s stance toward economic globalization and its
efforts to create strategic opportunities have been widely recognized by the world,
which also helps China to maintain its period of strategic opportunity. In this process,
China has grown into a major contributor to the world economy from a dependent, and
an important leader in the transformation of the international system from an
accommodator. It is playing a key role in shaping its period of strategic opportunity.
China consolidates cooperation with large developing countries and coordination
with major neighboring countries, as well as expanding partnership along the Belt and
Road. As an active shaper of new international relations, China is striving to enhance
its international cooperation and strategic coordination with major countries, and
continues to expand its international influence. Therefore, Xi Jinping emphasized that
the connotation of China’s opportunities is expanding, and China has the confidence
and capability to maintain its economic growth at a medium-high rate and to create
more opportunities for the world. China’s development plan is exactly made
according to such an important period of strategic opportunity.
However, when today’s world is seeing a once-in-a-century transformation,
China is also faced with all kinds of predictable and unpredictable risks and
challenges, leading to profound changes in the connotation of and conditions for its
period of strategic opportunity. The world has many risks and challenges to address,
such as lackluster growth, sluggish demand, repeated turbulence in financial mar-
kets, and continued depression in international trade and investment. Deficits in
peace, development and governance are growing, while anti-globalization, unilat-
eralism and protectionism are intensifying. Trump’s hostile strategy has put China
in a strategic dilemma. China’s national security is under increasing threat. The
international economic climate, which is uneasy to predict, is also adding pressure
to China. When economic globalization is transforming, it is apparently more
difficult for China to maintain its period of strategic opportunity. China is set to face
a more complicated international environment. There is such likelihood that
someone may create a barrier or stir up trouble in interrupting China’s development.
At home, China is facing many challenges relating to economic, political, social
and cultural development, ecological civilization and national security, which are
closely related to the changes in the international situation. As a result, China must
face unprecedented contradictions, risks and wrestle. “If we are absent-minded for a
second, we may fall into the traps carefully set by others.”
To sum up, China must grow stronger to actively shape its period of strategic
opportunity as this period is no longer as stable and spontaneous as before. In view
of this, we must correctly understand the profound changes in the connotation of
this period, tackle various risks and challenges in a more effective manner, and
proactively create opportunities or turn challenges into opportunities. The tradi-
tional way of thinking is to seize, make good use of, and maintain the period of
strategic opportunity. But now an inevitable strategic trend for China is how to
extend and proactively shape this period, with the latter as a dominant direction.
Preface: Shaping China’s Period of Strategic Opportunity Amid … xv

Embracing Change and Shaping China’s Period of Strategic


Opportunity

In the face of enormous changes unseen in a century and the evolving period of
strategic opportunity, China should follow the historical trends and respond to the
changes positively so that it can keep pace with the times. We must improve our
abilities to master and apply the laws of market economy, nature and social
development, to make scientific and democratic decisions, and to think globally and
strategically. In January 2013, Xi Jinping put forward the strategic concept that “we
should promote the positive and mutually beneficial interactions with the world by
using global opportunities and offering opportunities to the world.”
In the speech at the conference commemorating the 200th anniversary of the birth
of Karl Marx in May 2018, he pointed out that “we must look at today’s develop-
ment trends and major issues with the world history in mind. We must adhere to the
path of peaceful development, an independent foreign policy of peace and a
mutually beneficial strategy of opening-up. We must expand cooperation with other
countries and actively participate in global governance for win-win cooperation and
common development in more fields and at higher levels. We must neither depend
on nor plunder others. Instead, we must work with other countries to build a com-
munity with a shared future for mankind and make the world a better place.” At the
Central Conference on Foreign Affairs in June 2018, he stressed the strategic
thinking that “we must seek a holistic approach to both the domestic and interna-
tional situations. Stay confident strategically and maintain a strategic focus. Make
innovations in our diplomatic theories and practices. Develop strategic plans with a
global vision. Defend the core and major interests of our country. Seek win-win
cooperation based on a right approach to justice and interests. Embrace bottom-line
thinking and risk awareness.” In April 2019 when meeting with UN
Secretary-General António Guterres, Xi Jinping noted that “the world is now
undergoing profound changes unseen in a century. We must see things as they really
are and grasp the historical laws. Economic globalization is an irreversible trend, and
win-win cooperation is the right way ahead.” In summary, in the face of profound
changes, Xi Jinping led China to expand strategic vision, deepen strategic operations
and make strategic innovations based on a strategic willpower. By actively seizing
and shaping the period of strategic opportunity, China is building a strategic
framework for peaceful development centered on integration, transformation and
creation. China is dedicated to playing a more active and constructive role on the
international stage after it enriches its peaceful development and plans how to rise.
With strategic thinking on a holistic approach to both the domestic and inter-
national situations, Xi Jinping has proposed a raft of new concepts and initiatives,
including a global community of shared future, a new model of international
relations, and the principle of upholding the greater good and pursuing shared
interests. He calls for enhanced strategic layout and further implementation of the
BRI. China will play a key role in the fields of global economic governance,
international financial order, infrastructure construction and comprehensive
xvi Preface: Shaping China’s Period of Strategic Opportunity Amid …

cooperation in East Asia with the aim of shaping a new period of strategic
opportunity. Along with these strategic measures, China has not only served as a
major powerhouse and stabilizer for global development, but also grown into a key
defender and active promoter of world peace and human progress. In this process,
China values to the dialectical unity of keeping a low profile and making a dif-
ference. It is necessary to have a clear understanding of the long-term and com-
plicated disadvantages at home and abroad, brace for various difficult situations,
focus on strategic operations, avoid strategic miscalculations, and prevent from
making strategic mistakes. China should implement its plans in accordance with the
new connotation of the period of strategic opportunity. China is seeking steady
development amid changes and shaping the new period of strategic opportunity,
which echoes one of its finest traditional strategies—“be kind to the world, avoid
self-interests, work together based on mutual trust.”
To shape China’s period of strategic opportunity amid profound changes in
a century, it is crucial to remember the following key points.
First, the cornerstone is to focus on development and promote opening-up
in an all-round way. In other words, China should adhere to the path of peaceful
development, strive to enhance its overall national strength, and consolidate the
material and spiritual basis for its all-round rise. Meanwhile, it must grab the
opportunity to promote reform and opening-up via a package of measures. China’s
all-round development is fundamentally based on economic sustainability, and the
key to shaping the period of strategic opportunity is the substantive change in the
economic development pattern. In this sense, it is essential to make steady progress,
maintain strategic willpower, drive structural reform, transformation and upgrading,
implement the innovation-driven development strategy and accelerate the devel-
opment of a modern economic system. The focus of China’s economic growth has
shifted from speed to quality. It is now in a critical stage of transforming devel-
opment pattern, optimizing economic structure and shifting gears. Modernizing the
economic system is both a pressing need and a strategic goal because it can help
China achieve leap-forward development in a stable way. We must put quality and
efficiency first, focus on the supply-side structural reform, drive economic trans-
formation in terms of quality, efficiency and force, improve total factor productivity,
shape an industrial system in which real economy, technological innovation,
modern finance and human resources can develop in a coordinated way, and build
an economic system characterized by effective market mechanisms, dynamic
micro-entities and sound macro-regulation.
As Xi Jinping stressed, we must closely follow the new connotation of important
strategic opportunities, accelerate the optimization and upgrading of economic
structure, enhance scientific and technological innovation capabilities, deepen
reform and opening-up, expedite green development, participate in the transfor-
mation of the global economic governance system, and turn pressure into a driving
force for high-quality economic development. We must insist on innovation-driven
development while optimizing the driving force, adhere to coordinated develop-
ment while bridging the gap, seek green development while maintaining a harmony
between human and nature, pursue open development along with interactions
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the skin, which became quite hot, so that he suffered greatly, and
arrived in a very exhausted state.
The fine herbage procured us a whole day’s rest, as the camel-
drivers were in no haste to bring up their camels. Not knowing this,
but yet convinced that we should not start at an early hour, as the
well was at some distance, and following the information received
from the Zintáni, who was himself too lame to accompany me, I had
taken my gun and pistols at an early hour in the morning, and gone
in the direction of the valley to look after a monument. After nearly
two hours’ march I distinguished something like a high pillar, and,
proceeding straight towards it, found it to be one of the richest
specimens of this kind of monument bequeathed to us by antiquity,
and an indisputable proof that these regions, now so poor, must
have then supported a population sufficiently advanced in taste and
feeling to admire works of a refined character.
The monument rises, upon a base of three steps and in three
stories, nearly to a height of forty-eight feet. The base contains a
sepulchral chamber 4 ft. 10⅓ in. long, and 4 ft. ⅛ in. broad, with
three niches, one on the north, and two on the east side. This side
was the principal face of the monument, forming its most
ornamented part. The first story measures at its base on the east
and west sides 5 ft 5⅜ in., and on the north and south sides 4 ft.
10⅛ in.: it consists of six layers of stones, on the lowest of which is
represented a pair of wild animals, probably panthers, with their fore
legs or paws resting upon a sepulchral urn, as if they were watching
it; on the next layer above is seen the handsome bust of a young
female; two layers intervene without sculpture; and the fifth is
ornamented on all the four sides with hunting-scenes. The frieze on
every side is formed by four rosettes; but that on the north side has
some additional decoration, the second rosette on that side, from
the east, exhibiting a group of centaurs, and the fourth a cock. Upon
this part of the frieze is a garland of clusters of grapes; then follows
the moulding.
In the second story the third layer
forms the sill and lower part of a false
door very richly ornamented, and on
the fifth layer a pair of genii hold a
coronal over the door of the
sepulchre, a representation which
seems to intimate Christian ideas.
Above it a niche contains the busts of
a man and his wife; but on the north
side an elderly woman occupies a
niche with her bust, probably in her
character as proprietress of the single
sepulchral niche of the tomb below.
Above is an ornament with two
bunches of grapes; and then follows
the frieze, of the common Ionic order.
The moulding is surmounted by a
pyramidal roof about twelve feet high,
which has lost its summit; otherwise
the whole monument, with the
exception of the sepulchral chamber,
which has been broken up in search
of treasures, is in the best state of
preservation, notwithstanding its very slender proportions,—a
circumstance very remarkable, after a lapse of at least more than
sixteen centuries. No wonder that the natives of these regions now
regard these tall sepulchral monuments, so strange at present in this
land of desolation, as pagan idols, and call them “sanem;” for I
myself, when alone in front of the monument in this wide, solitary
valley, and under the shadow of the deep, precipitous side of a
plateau adjoining the Khaddamíye on the east, felt impressed by it
with a certain degree of awe and veneration.
My sketch being finished, I was still attracted to a greater distance
up the valley by something which seemed at first to be another
monument; but it was only a mark fixed by the Arabs, and served
but to lengthen my march back, which was more slow, as the heat
had set in. But I was well satisfied with my morning’s work; and my
companions were greatly astonished when they saw the sketch. In
the afternoon I made with Overweg another excursion in the
opposite direction, when after an hour’s march we ascended a
height and obtained a most interesting view over this singular tract,
which seems to be the fragmentary border of a plateau torn and
severed by ravines and precipices, so that only wall-like cliffs, rising
like so many islands out of a sea of desolation, indicate its height. A
high craggy ridge towards the west, with precipitous pinnacled walls,
looked like a castle of the demons. Just in a ravine on the border of
this wild scene of natural revolutions, my companion had the good
luck to find some very interesting fossils, particularly that beautiful
specimen which after him has been called Exogyra Overwegi; but
our zeal had carried us too far, and it grew dark as we commenced
our return, so that we had some difficulty in groping our way back to
our encampment, where we arrived weary and fatigued, after having
caused our people a good deal of apprehension.
We were roused from our refreshing sleep as early as two o’clock
after midnight; but this was a mere sham of our camel-drivers, who
feigned making up for the loss of yesterday, and after all we did not
get off early. Our road carried us from wady to wady, which were
generally separated from each other by a defile, occasionally
presenting some difficulty of passage. We left a castle of Roman
workmanship, as it seemed, in the distance to the left, and further
on to the right a slight stone wall called Hakl el Urínsa, dating from
the petty wars between the Arab tribes. We had already passed a
few small ethel-bushes; but now we came to a most venerable-
looking old tree called Athelet Si Mohammed fi Useát, spreading out
its weather-beaten branches to a considerable distance: under this I
sat down quietly for a while, waiting for our people, who were still
behind. The caravan at length came up; and continuing our march,
we soon passed on our right hand the chapel of a great Merábet of
the Welád Bu-Séf, called Si Rashedán. The Welád Bu-Séf in general
enjoy great authority with the other tribes for their sanctity of life
and purity of manners; they allow no stranger to come near their
villages, but pitch a tent for him at a distance, and treat him well.
The Welád Bu-Séf are remarkable for the excellent breed of their
camels, which they treat almost as members of their families. It is
curious that this tribe, intent upon right and justice, has waged war
incessantly from ancient times with the Urfílla, the most warlike and
violent of the tribes of these regions. It is difficult to make out
whether they are related to the Welád Bu-Séf of the western part of
the desert, who are likewise distinguished by their peculiar manners,
but who it seems would scruple, on religious grounds, to call a man
ʿAbd eʾ nebi (Slave of the Prophet), which is the name of the
ancestor of the Eastern Bu-Séf.
Emerging from a defile, upon high ground, early in the afternoon,
we obtained a view over Wady Zémzem, one of the most celebrated
valleys of this part of North Africa. It runs in general from west to
east-north-east, and is furnished with a great many wells, the most
famous of which are el Abiadh, Sméla, Nákhala, Urídden, Halk el
Wady, and, a little further down, Téder. In half an hour we
encamped in the valley, full of herbage and with a goodly variety of
trees. A caravan coming from the natron-lakes, and carrying their
produce to Tripoli, was here encamped. I could not withstand the
temptation of ascending, in the afternoon, a projecting eminence on
the south side of the valley, which was broken and rent into a great
variety of precipices and ravines; but its summit, being on a level
with the plateau, did not afford me such a distant view as I had
expected. The cliff was formed of strata of marl and gypsum, and
contained many fossil shells.
As soon as we left the bottom of the valley, the path, which
became rugged and stony, led up the southern cliffs, went round the
east side of the conspicuous promontory, and then continued to
wind along between the slopes of the higher level of the plateau. A
hill, distinguished from among the surrounding heights by the
peculiar shape of its cone, has here received the significant name
Shúsh el ʿabíd—the Slaves’ Cap. A little further on, the roads
separate, that to the left leading along the principal branch of the
valley to the little town Gharíya, while the eastern goes to the well
Taboníye. One might suppose that in a desolate country like this,
and just at the entrance into a desert tract of great extent, the
caravans would gladly avail themselves of those abodes of life which
still exist: but this is not the case; they avoid them intentionally, as if
a curse were attached to them, and those places, of course, fall
every day more and more into decay. After a little consultation, the
path by Taboníye was thought preferable, and we took it. The rough
and stony character of the country ceased, and we gradually entered
a fine valley, called Wady Tolágga, richly clothed with a variety of
trees and bushes, such as the sidr, the ethel, the ghurdok, and
several others. After meeting here with a caravan, we caught the
gladdening and rare sight of an Arab encampment, belonging to the
Urínsa, and obtained some milk. Without crossing any separation or
defile, but always keeping along the same valley, we approached the
well Taboníye. But near it the vegetation is less rich; the soil is
intermixed with salt, and covered with a peculiar kind of low tree
called by the present inhabitants of the country, frʿo,—a term which
in pure Arabic would only mean “a branch.”
While our people were busily employed pitching the tents, I went
at once to examine a monument which, for the last hour of our
march, had stood as a landmark ahead of us. I reached it at the
distance of a mile and a quarter from our encampment, over very
stony and rugged ground. It was well worth the pains I had taken;
for, though it is less magnificent than the monument in West Tagíje,
its workmanship would excite the interest of travellers, even if it
were situated in a fertile and well-inhabited country, and not in a
desolate wilderness like this, where a splendid building is of course
an object of far greater curiosity. It is a sepulchre about twenty-five
feet high, and rising in three stories of less slender proportions than
the monument above described, and is probably of a later period.
The sketch on the preceding page will suffice to give an exact idea
of it.
Near this is another sepulchre,
occupying a more commanding
situation, and therefore probably of
older date, but it is almost entirely
destroyed; and a third one in an
equally ruinous state, but of larger
proportions than either, is seen further
south-east. These monuments serve
to show that the dominion of the
Romans in these regions was not of
momentary duration, but continued
for a length of time, as the different
styles of the remains clearly proves. It
may be presumed that no common
soldier could pretend to the honour of
such a tomb; and it is probable that
these sepulchres were destined to
contain the earthly remains of some
of the consecutive governors or
officers stationed at the neighbouring
place, which I shall soon describe.
Like a solitary beacon of civilization,
the monument rises over this sea-like
level of desolation, which, stretching out to an immense distance
south and west, appears not to have appalled the conquerors of the
ancient world, who even here have left behind them, in
“lithographed proof,” a reminiscence of a more elevated order of life
than exists at present in these regions. The flat valley below, with its
green strip of herbage, stretches far into the stony level; and
beyond, north-eastwards, the desolate waste extends towards
Gharíya.
I returned to the encampment, which meanwhile had sprung up
on the open space round the well, and was anxious to quench my
thirst with a draught of the precious liquid; but the water was rather
salt, and disagreed with me so long as I continued to use it,—that is,
for the next seven days. That we might make good use of our
leisure hours, all three of us went the next day to Gharíya, or rather
Gharíya el gharbíya—i.e., western, to distinguish it from the more
distant eastern place of the same name.
Cheerfully as we set forward, we were heartily glad when, after a
three hours’ march, we saw the northern tower of the place become
visible over the monotonous stony plain, the wide and unbounded
expanse of which seemed to indicate something above a single day’s
excursion. After having also descried the half-ruined dwellings of the
village, we were eagerly looking out for the palm-grove, when we
suddenly reached the brink of a deep ravine, in which, on our left,
the fresh green plantation started forth, while all around was naked
and bare. We crossed the ravine, leaving the grove on our left, and
ascended the opposite cliffs towards the ruined cluster of miserable
cottages, when, having traversed the desolate streets, we encamped
outside the Roman gate, the massive and regular architecture of
which formed a remarkable contrast to the frail and half-ruined
structures of the village. We were greatly astonished to find such a
work here.
It has but little resemblance to the Roman castle or station at
Bonjem, such as it is seen in Captain Lyon’s drawing; for while the
latter represents a single gateway flanked by two quadrangular
towers, the building at Gharíya consists of three archways, flanked
by towers with receding walls. The two smaller gateways have been
almost entirely filled with rubbish; the upper layer likewise is gone,
and only those stones which form the arch itself are preserved, the
centre stone above the principal arch, bearing the inscription “PRO.
AFR. ILL.” (provincia Africæ illustris), encircled by a coronal, while
that above the eastern side-gate is ornamented with a large
sculpture, the lower part of which it is difficult to make out distinctly,
except the trace of a chariot and a person in curious attire following
it, while the upper part represents two eagles in a sitting posture,
with half-extended wings, holding a coronal, and at each end a
female genius, in a flying posture, stretching out a larger and a
smaller coronal. Besides this, and a few Berber names, there is no
inscription now on the building; but an inscription found in another
place, which I shall soon mention, and which was probably originally
placed over the small archway on the right, seems to leave no doubt
that this fortification dates from the time of Marc. Aurel. Severus
Antoninus, and if not built in the years between 232 and 235 after
Christ, at least was then in existence.

As the ground-plan, which is here subjoined, evidently shows, this


is not by itself a complete building, and could only afford quarters to
a very limited number of soldiers acting as a guard: in fact it can
only be the well-fortified entrance into the Roman station; but of the
station itself I was unable to discover any traces, though a great
quantity of stones from some building lie scattered about in the
village. The only ancient building which I was able to discover,
besides the gate, was a cistern at the north-west corner of the wall,
near the slope into the wady, which is here very precipitous. It was
probably 60 ft. long, for at 30 ft. there is an arch dividing it; but one
half of it, except a space of about 8 ft., has been filled with rubbish:
its breadth is 5 ft. 3½ in. Perhaps the whole fortification was never
finished; the inner edge of the stones would seem to intimate that
not even the gateway received its entire ornament.

While I was busy making a drawing of the ruins, Overweg, who, in


order to measure the elevation of the place by boiling water, had
directed his steps to a rising ground at some distance north of the
village, which was crowned with a tower, sent to inform me that on
the tower was a large Roman inscription, which he was unable to
make out; and as soon as I had finished my sketch I went thither. It
is a round Arab tower, only two large ancient stones having been
made use of as jambs, while a large slab, covered with an
inscription, is used as an impost, owing to which circumstance the
inhabitants generally regard even the tower as a Christian or Roman
building. The inscription, which was evidently taken from the
fortified station, is 32⁷⁄₁₂ in. long, and 15¹⁰⁄₁₂ in. high, and
consists of nine lines. It has been read and interpreted by Mr. Hogg
in the following manner.

I(mperatori) Caes(ari) M. Aurelio Severo Alexandro P(atri)


P(atriæ) P(i)o Felici Aug(usto) Et pagus et senatus et
castr(um) [or castrum munitum] et municipium ... d. d.; poni
curavit Severianæ P. Nero situs vexillationis leg(ioni)s IV.
S(cythicæ); [or legionis XXI. Victricis Severianæ] dec(urio)
Maurorum e(t) solo (o)pere (e)andem vexillationem instituit.
“To the Emperor Cæsar M. Aurelius Severus, Father of his
Country, Pious, Happy, Augustus, the district, the senate, the
camp, and free town of ... dedicate (this).... P. Nero Decurion
of the Moors, caused the station of the Severian regiment
(horse) of the 21st Legion, Victorious, Severian, to be
established; and he instituted by his own act the same
regiment.”

As for the tower, or nadhúr, it was evidently erected in former


times in order to give timely notice when a band of freebooters—“el
jaesh” (the army), as they are called here—was hovering around the
solitary village; for this seems to have been the chief cause of its
destruction, the Urfílla being said to have been always watching and
lying in ambush round this lonely place, to attack and rob small
parties coming from or going to it; they are said even to have once
captured the whole place. The consequence is, that it has now
scarcely thirty male inhabitants to bear arms, and is avoided by the
caravans as pestilent, the water, they say, being very unwholesome.
The small remnant of the inhabitants have a very pale and ghastly
appearance, but I think this is owing rather to the bad quality of
their food than to that of the water. In former times it is said to have
been celebrated on account of a merábet of the name of Sidi Mʿadi.
As soon as I had sufficiently examined the ruins and the village, I
hastened to the bottom of the ravine. The contrast between the
ruined hovels of the village, perched on the naked rock, and the
green, fresh plantation, fed by a copious supply of water, is very
great. Thick, luxuriant, and shady clusters are here formed,
principally around the basin filled by the spring, which rushes forth
from beneath a rock, and gives life to the little oasis; its temperature
I found, at half-past one o’clock p.m., 70½° Fahr., while that of the
air was 70°. The number of the date-trees, though small, is
nevertheless larger than in Mizda, and may be nearer to 350 than to
300. The water of the ravine after a heavy fall of rain joins the Wadi
Zemzem, the principal valley of this whole district, which together
with Wady Sófejín and Wady Beï, carries all the streams collected
hereabouts to the sea.
According to our Zintáni, the path leading to Taboníye from the
western village first lies over the hammáda, then crosses a ravine
called Wady Khatab, leads again over the plateau, crosses another
wady, and at length, after about ten miles, as it seems, reaches the
ravine of Gharíya eʾ sherkíya, stretching from west to east, the
grove, of about the same extent as in the other oasis, being formed
at the north and west bases of the rocky height upon which the
place stands. At the side of the village there is, he said, a large
Roman castle, far larger than that in the western one, of about eight
or ten feet elevation at present, but without an arched gateway of
that kind, and without inscriptions. On the east side of the eminence
are only a few palms, and on the south side none. The village is
distinguished by a merábet called Bu-Sbaeha. Neither from the
Zintáni nor from anybody else did I hear that the inhabitants of
these two solitary ksúr are called by the peculiar name Warínga; I
learnt it afterwards only from Mr. Richardson’s statement, and I have
reason to think that the name was intended for Urínsa.
We returned by a more northern path, which at first led us
through a rather difficult rocky passage, but afterwards joined our
path of yesterday. Overweg and I had no time to lose in preparing
for our journey over the hammáda, or plateau, while Mr. Richardson
was obliged, by the conduct of the ill-provided and ill-disciplined
blacks who accompanied him, to follow us by night. We therefore
got up very early next morning, but lost a good deal of time by the
quarrels among our camel-drivers, who were trying, most unjustly,
to reserve all the heavy loads for the camels of the inexperienced
Tarki lad ʿAli Karámra, till they excited his indignation, and a furious
row ensued. This youth, though his behaviour was sometimes
awkward and absurd, excited my interest in several respects. He
belonged to a family of Tawárek, as they are called, settled in Wady
el Gharbi, and was sent by his father to Tripoli with three camels, to
try his chance of success, although members of that nation, with the
exception of the Tinylkum, rarely visit Tripoli. He was slender and
well-formed, of a glossy light-black complexion, and with a profile
truly Egyptian; his manners were reserved, and totally different from
those of his Fezzáni companions.
At length we were under way, and began gradually to ascend
along the strip of green which followed the shelving of the plateau
into the valley, leaving the Roman sepulchre at some distance to our
right. The flat Wady Labaerek, which is joined by Wady Shák, was
still adorned with gattúf and rétem. It was not till we had passed the
little hill called Lebaerek, and made another slight ascent, that we
reached the real level of the terrible Hammáda; the ascent, or
shelving ground, from Taboníye to this point being called el Mudhár
mtà el Hammáda, and the spot itself, where the real Hammáda
begins, Bú-safár, a name arising from the obligation which every
pilgrim coming from the north, who has not before traversed this
dreaded district, lies under, to add a stone to the heaps accumulated
by former travellers.
But, notwithstanding all the importance attached to the dreary
character of this region, I found it far less naked and bare than I had
imagined it to be. To the right of our path lay a small green hollow,
of cheerful appearance, a branch of which is said, probably with
some degree of exaggeration, to extend as far as Ghadámes; but
the whole extent of the Hammáda is occasionally enlivened with
small green patches of herbage, to the great relief of the camel. And
this, too, is the reason why the traveller does not advance at a rate
nearly so expeditious as he would expect. In the latter part of our
preceding journey we generally had made almost as much as two
and a half miles an hour; but we scarcely got over two on this level
open ground. Of course, the wider the space the wider the
dispersion of the straggling camels; and much time is lost by
unsteady direction. At the verdant hollow called Garra mtà eʾ Nejm
the eastern path, which is called Trík el mugítha (via auxiliaris), and
passes by the village of Gharíya, joined our path.
At Wady Màmúra I first observed the little green bird generally
called asfír, but sometimes mesísa, which lives entirely upon the
caravans as they pass along, by picking off the vermin from the feet
of the camels. In the afternoon we observed, to our great delight, in
the green patch called el Wueshkeh, a cluster of stunted palm-trees.
Hereabouts the camel-drivers killed a considerable number of the
venomous lizard called bu-keshásh; and the Tarki in particular was
resolute in not allowing any which he saw to escape alive. After a
moderate march of little more than ten hours and a half, we
encamped in a small hollow called, from a peculiar kind of green
bush growing in it, el Jederíya. A strong cold wind, accompanied by
rain, began to blow soon after we encamped. The tent, not being
sufficiently secured, was blown down in the night; and we had some
trouble in pitching it again.
Continuing our march, we passed, about ten o’clock in the
morning, a poor solitary talha-tree bearing the appellation of el
Duhéda. Further on we found truffles, which in the evening afforded
us a delicious truffle-soup. Truffles are very common in many parts
of the desert; and the greatest of Mohammedan travellers (Ebn
Batúta) did not forget them in relating his journey from Sejelmása to
Waláta, in the middle of the fourteenth century. The sky was very
dark and hazy; and the moon had an extraordinary “dára,” or halo.
We slept this night without a tent, and felt the cold very sensibly.
The march of the following day was a little enlivened by our
meeting with two small caravans: the first, of five camels; the
second, belonging to Ghadámsi people, and laden with ivory, of
fifteen. With the latter was also a woman, sitting quite comfortably
in her little cage. Shortly after half-past one o’clock in the afternoon,
we had reached the highest elevation of the Hammáda, indicated by
a heap of stones called, very significantly, Rejm el erhá, 1,568 feet
above the level of the sea. We encamped soon after, when a very
heavy gale began to blow from the north-north-west driving the
swallows, which had followed our caravan, into the tent and the
holes formed by the luggage; but the poor things found no
protection, for our tent, which was light and high-topped, was blown
down again during the night, while a heavy rain accompanied the
storm, and we as well as our little guests were left awhile without
shelter, in a very uncomfortable situation.
We started rather late the following morning, entering now upon
the very dreariest part of the Hammáda, called el Hómra. So far
there had been only one track over this stony plateau; but in the
afternoon a path, called Msér ben Wáfi, branched off towards the
left. This path, which leads to the eastern parts of Wady Sháti,
formed formerly the common road to Fezzán, the road by way of el
Hasi being considered as too insecure, on account of the robberies
of the Urfílla. Hence the latter is still called the new road, “Trík el
jedíd.” Richardson, who had had enough of the inconveniences of
travelling by night, easily got in advance of us this morning, after
our short march of yesterday, and had advanced a good way by
daytime. We were therefore anxious to come up with him; and on
our way we encountered a heavy shower of rain before we pitched
our tent. The whole caravan being once more united, the increased
variety of our own party relieved a good deal of the feeling of
monotony arising from the desolate character of the country through
which we travelled. After marching about seven miles, we arrived at
the greenest and largest hollow of the Hammáda, called Wady el
Alga, which we ought to have reached yesterday, in order to be able
to get this day as near the well as possible.
As it was, when we encamped in the afternoon, we had still a long
day’s march before us, and therefore the next day, from general
impulse, in order to make sure of our arrival at the well, we started
at an early hour, keeping the caravan together by repeated shouting.
After a march of about twelve miles, we reached the first passage
leading down from the Hammáda and called Tníe Twennín; but it
was too steep and precipitous for our rather heavily laden caravan,
and we had to continue till we reached the Tníe el ʿArdha, a little
after eleven o’clock, when we began to descend from the plateau
along a rough winding pass. The sandstone of which it is formed
presented to us a surface so completely blackened, not only in the
unbroken walls of the ravine, but also in the immense blocks which
had been detached from the cliffs, and were lying about in great
confusion, that at first sight anybody would have taken it for basalt;
but when the stones were broken, their real nature became
apparent. Over this broad layer of sandstone, which in some places
covered a bed of clay mixed with gypsum, there was a layer of marl,
and over this, forming the upper crust, limestone and flints.
After a winding course for an hour, the narrow ravine, shut in by
steep, gloomy-looking cliffs, began to widen, and our direction varied
less; but still the whole district retained a gloomy aspect, and the
bottom of the valley was strewn with masses of black sandstone,
while the country ahead of us lay concealed in a hazy atmosphere,
which did not admit of an extensive view. Eager to reach the well,
the caravan being scattered over a great extent of ground, we three
travellers, with one of the shoushes, pushed on in advance, the
south wind driving the sand, which lay in narrow strips along the
pebbly ground, into our faces. We cherished the hope of finding a
cool little grove, or at least some shade, where we might recline at
ease after our fatiguing march; but, to our great disappointment, the
sand became deeper, and nothing was to be seen but small stunted
palm-bushes. But even these ceased near the well, which was dug in
the midst of the sandy waste, and had once been protected by an
oval-shaped building, of which nothing but crumbling ruins
remained.
It was a cheerless encampment after so fatiguing a march; but
there was at least no more fear of scarcity of water, for the well had
an abundant supply. No name could be more appropriate to this
place than el Hasi (the well). There is no need of any discriminating
surname; it is “the Well”—the well where the traveller who has
successfully crossed the Hammáda may be sure to quench his own
thirst and that of his animals. But it is not a cheerful resting-place,
though it is the great watering-place on this desert road, as he has
to cross the fearful “burning plain” of the Hammáda before he
reaches the spot. There are several wells hereabouts, which might
easily supply with water the largest caravan in an hour’s time; for
the water is always bubbling up, and keeps the same level.
The well at the side of which we had encamped is rather narrow
and deep, and therefore inconvenient for a large party; but it is,
though slightly, protected by the ruins around against the wind,
which is often very troublesome, and was particularly so on the
evening of our arrival. Formerly there was here a sort of fortified
khan, such as is very rarely seen in these parts, built by the tribes of
the Notmán and Swaíd, in order to protect their caravans against the
pillaging parties of the Urfílla, originally a Berber tribe. This building
consisted of simple chambers, twenty, as it seems, in number, lying
round an oval court which has entrances from north and south. It is
thirty paces long by sixteen wide, the centre being occupied by the
well, which, as it is dug in the sandy soil, bears the general name
Hasi. It has a depth of five fathoms; and its temperature was found
to be 71⅗° Fahr. The quality of the water, in comparison with that of
Taboníye, was very good. The elevation of this place was found by
Overweg to be 696 feet; so that we had descended from the highest
point of the Hammáda 742 feet.
As it was, we felt heartily glad when our steady and heavy
Tripolitan tent being at length pitched, we were able to stretch
ourselves without being covered with sand. All the people were
greatly fatigued, and required repose more than anything else. Out
of regard to the men as well as to the camels, we were obliged to
stay here the following day, though the place was comfortless in the
extreme, and did not offer the smallest bit of shade. Scarcely any of
our places of encampment on the whole journey seemed to me so
bad and cheerless as this. If I had had an animal to mount, I would
have gone on to a cluster of three or four date-trees, which are said
to be at the distance of about three miles west from the well, and
belong to the people of Zintán, to enjoy a little shade; but our
camels were too much distressed.
CHAPTER VI.
WADY SHATI.—OLD JERMA.—ARRIVAL IN
MÚRZUK.

There are three roads from el Hasi: the westernmost called Trík eʾ
duésa, after a small cluster of palm-trees; the second, called Trík eʾ
safar, stony and more desolate than the former, but half a day
shorter; and the third, or eastern, leading directly to Bírgen. When
we at length left our uncomfortable encampment at el Hasi, our
camel-drivers chose the middle road, which proved to be dismal and
dreary. But the first part of it was not quite so bad, the appearance
of granite among the rocks causing a little variety, while tamerán
and shíʿah clothed the bottoms of the valleys; and we had a single
specimen of a beautiful and luxuriant batúm-tree. When, however,
we began to enter the region of the sand-hills, intermixed with rocky
ridges and cliffs, the character of the country became desolate in the
extreme.
We travellers, being in advance, chose our resting-place for the
first night near a high rocky mass called el Medál, against the wish
of the camel-drivers, who would rather have encamped in the
Shʿabet eʾ talha, further on. The summit of the rocky eminence
afforded a very interesting prospect over this singular district; and
our younger shoush discovered, lower down, some scrawled figures.
He came running up to inform me of his discovery; but it was of no
interest, a cow and a sheep being the only figures plainly
recognizable. The Fezzáni people come hither in spring, when the
rain-water collects in the cavities of the rocks, and stay some
months, in order to allow the camels to graze on the young herbage,
which then shoots up here in profusion. Ben Sbaeda during such a
stay here had lost a son, near whose tomb the camel-drivers said a
prayer, or zikr, early the next morning.
Continuing our march, we soon came to the Shʿabet eʾ talha, the
bottom of which is clothed with the brushwood called arfísh, and
with the rétem, or broom. Further on, when we came upon the
higher rocky ground, the country grew more sterile, though we were
so fortunate as to catch two gazelles. Black masses of sandstone
jutted out on all sides, and gave a wild air to the desolate region
through which we were passing. The sterile character of the scene
underwent no change till next morning, when, on advancing about a
mile and a half, we came to the Wady Siddre, which was enlivened
by a few talha-trees. A narrow defile led us from this place to the
Wady Boghár, whence we entered another defile. Mid-day was past,
when we obtained a distinct view of the date-grove in Wady Sháti,
and the high sand-hills which border the valley on the south.
Towards the north it was rather open, and we hastened on to escape
from the hot desert through which we were marching; but a good
while elapsed before we reached the border of the valley, which on
this side abounded in herbage. After a mile and a half we reached
the first wild palm-trees, thriving in separate and casually formed
groups. Then followed a belt of bare black ground, covered with a
whitish crust of salt. The town, on the top of a broad terraced rock,
seemed as far off as ever. But I urged on my Bu-Séfi along the
winding path over the hard ground; Richardson and Overweg
followed close behind, while the camel-drivers had fallen back to
exchange their dirty costume for one more decent. At length we
reached the north-western foot of the picturesque hill, and chose
our camping-ground beyond the shallow bed of a torrent between
the date-trees and the corn-fields, near the largest fountain,—a very
agreeable resting-place, after the dreary desert which we had
traversed.
We had felt tired so long as the place was yet ahead of us; but we
had no sooner reached it than all fatigue was gone, and Overweg
and I, under the guidance of a mʿallem, went forth to view the
interesting features of the locality. It is certainly a very rare spectacle
in this quarter of the world, to see a town on the top of a steep
terraced hill in the midst of a valley, and occupying an advantageous
position which might be supposed to have given the place great
importance from very ancient times. Éderi seems to have been a
considerable place till fourteen years ago, when the independent
spirit of its inhabitants was broken by the despotism of ʿAbd el Jelíl
ben Séf eʾ Nasr, the famous chief of the Welád Slimán. The old town
on the top of the hill having been destroyed, and there being no
longer a necessity for a fortified residence, under the civilized though
exhausting government of the Turks, the new village was built at the
northern foot of the hill, on which side lies the chapel of the Merábet
Bu-Derbála, and another of less fame, a little east of the former,
called Sidi ʿAbd eʾ Salám.
The new village has two gates. Crossing it, we ascended the steep
narrow streets of the old town, which seems to have been densely
inhabited, and from the highest part, which is one hundred and
ninety feet above the bottom of the valley, obtained a very
interesting view over a great part of the wady, with its varied
features,—here, black sandstone, which in several places forms hills
of considerable extent; there, green fields of wheat and barley; then,
again, a large grove of date-trees scattered in long narrow strips
behind the high sand-hills bordering the valley on the south. The
black ground, covered with a whitish crust, lay bare and naked in
many parts, while in others it was entirely overgrown with herbage.
Towards the south the slope of the rock on which, the town stands is
rather steep and precipitous. On this side lies the caverns which
have been already noticed by Oudney, and which are interesting only
on account of the oval-shaped form in which they have been
excavated, as they are neither remarkable for dimensions nor for
regularity; their general shape is this. A larger group of caverns has
been made in a detached rocky eminence, upon which at present
the cemetery is situated; but it is only seventy-two feet in length,
and its ground-plan is far from being regular.
From this place I went through the adjoining grove, which, with a
little more care, might easily become a very beautiful plantation; for
there are a great many wells of very
little depth, and the water is led
through the channels with slight
trouble. Our encampment in the
beautiful moonlight, with not a breath
of wind to disturb the tranquillity of
the scene, was pleasant in the
extreme, and we all felt much
delighted and greatly restored.
Early on Sunday morning, after having finished my sketch of the
village on the hill, with our encampment in the foreground, I took a
walk all round the scattered groups of the plantation, which must
have suffered a great deal from ʿAbd el Jelíl, even though the
number of six thousand trees, which he is said to have cut down, be
an exaggeration. Towards the east side the salt crust is still thicker
than on the west, and is very unpleasant for walking. I found here
that, in addition to wheat and barley, much amára was cultivated in
the garden-fields, besides a few figs; but I saw no grapes. Several
families were living here outside in light huts or sheds made of palm-
branches, and seemed to enjoy some degree of happiness. At the
south-east end of the plantation rose a hill also formed of marl, and
very similar to that on which the town is situated. The names of the
villages along the valley, proceeding from west to east, are the
following: after Éderi, Témesán; then Wuenzerík, Berga (a couple of
villages distinguished as B. el foka and B. el utíyah), Gúta, Turut, El
Ghurda, Meherága, Agár, Gógam, Kosaer Sellám, Támezawa,
Anerúya, Zeluáz, Abrák, Gíreh, Debdeb, and Ashkiddeh. The valley
has two kaíds, one of whom, ʿAbd el Rahmán, resides at present in
Temesán, while the residence of the other ʿAgha Hassan eʾ Rawi, is
in Támezawa. Meherága seems to be the most populous of the
villages. Abrák has the advantage of a school.
We left our picturesque encampment in order to commence the
passage over the sand-hills which separate the shallow “rent” of
Wady Shiyáti from the deeper valley the Wady el Gharbi, the great
valley par excellence. It is rather singular that even the higher
ground, which is elevated about fifty feet above the bottom of the
valley, is entirely covered with a crust of salt. Having traversed this,
we began the ascent of the sand-hills, which in several favoured
spots presents small clusters of palm-trees, which too have their
proprietors. Mukni, the father of Yusuf, Mr. Richardson’s interpreter,
is said to have killed a great many Welád Slimán hereabouts. The
most considerable of the depressions or hollows in the sand, which
are decked with palm-trees, is the Wady Shiúkh, which afforded in
truth a very curious spectacle,—a narrow range of palm-trees half-
buried between high sand-hills, some of them standing on the tops
of hillocks, others in deep hollows, with the head alone visible. At
length after a good deal of fatigue, we encamped in Wady Góber,
another shallow cavity between sand-hills with brackish water and a
few palm-trees. Here our camel-drivers themselves possessed a few
trees, and, of course, were more interested in the inspection of their
own property than in starting at an early hour the next day.
When we resumed our march we found our work more difficult
than before, the sand-hills assuming a steepness most trying for the
camels, particularly at the brink of the slopes. We were several times
obliged to flatten away the edges with our hands, in order to
facilitate the camel’s ascent. I went generally a little in front,
conducted by Mohammed ben Sbaeda, one of our camel-drivers,
who, from the moment we had entered Fezzán, had exchanged the
quarrelsome character by which he had made himself disagreeable
to us, for very obliging and pleasing manners, and was anxious to
give me every information. He told me that this belt of sand
extended in south-west and north-east direction from Dwésa as far
as Fukka, a place, according to him, five days’ march on this side of
Sókna. He added, that, however high and steep we might think
these sand-hills, they were nothing in comparison with those in the
direction of the natron-lakes; but, in making this remark, I think he
wanted to excuse himself and his companions for taking us this long
way round by the west. He knew that it was our desire to visit the
natron-lakes, and that our direct way to Murzuk led by those lakes,
while their object was to take us to their native village Ugréfe.
Mohammed stated that each district in Fezzán has its own peculiar
dialect; and he contended that, while the inhabitants of Wady Sháti
speak a good sort of Arabic, similar to that spoken in Mizda, the
people of the great wady (Wady el Gharbi) make use of a corrupt
dialect.
Meanwhile the caravan remained very far behind, and we thought
it prudent to wait for them in Wady Tawíl, particularly as the path
divided here. It was so hot that my camel, when I let it loose to
browse a little would not touch anything. When the other camel-
drivers at length came up, there was a dispute as to the path to be
followed; but the truth was, that while there could be no doubt
about the direct road to Múrzuk, some of the camel-drivers wished
to take us to Ubári. But at length the other party, interested only in
carrying us westward as far as Ugréfe, which was a great deal out of
our route, got the upper hand, and we left the road to Ubári, which
passes only two wadys, or hollows, called Tekúr and Uglah, both
with bad water, to the west, and followed the road to Ugréfe.
About four o’clock in the afternoon we encamped in the Wady
Mukméda, near the sand-hills bordering its southern side, under the
shade of a wild palm-bush. Close to it was very good water only two
feet below the surface; but as the hole had only just been made, it
contained much sulphuretted hydrogen. The following day we
crossed several smaller valleys with a few palm-trees (but a larger
grove adorned the Wady Jemál), all belonging to one of our camel-
drivers of the name of Bu Bakr. He also possessed here a magazine,
built of bricks, and probably several centuries old, but entirely
covered with sand, where he had deposited forty camel-loads of
dates. They were of the kind called tefsirt, of very large size and
exquisite taste, and were eagerly devoured by our people. After
having refreshed ourselves for a moment, we went on, having just
before us the very steepest ascent that occurs on the whole road. I
was obliged to dismount from my beautiful Bu-Séfi in order to get
him over it. This ridge being once behind us, we were told that all
the “wár” was over; there were, however, still a few “difficult passes”
before us. In the Wady Gellah, which we next crossed, we found the
footsteps of a flock of sheep and of a single camel, which latter
animal finds plenty of food in this sandy district, and, at the shallow
well in Wady Uglah, is able to quench its thirst without the
assistance of man. Thence we descended into Wady Tigidéfa, where
we encamped near a couple of palm-trees, the only ones in the
wady; a copious well of very good water was near them,
overshadowed by a thick cluster of palm-bushes. It was altogether a
very satisfactory camping-ground, except that it swarmed with
camel-bugs, as such places in the desert generally do.
With a general impulse of energy, we started this morning at a
very early hour,—twenty minutes past two o’clock in the morning—in
order to get out of the sands, and to arrive in “the Wady.” After
seven hours’ constant march, we at length got a fine view of the
steep cliffs which enclose the Wady on the south side, and which
contrasted marvellously with the white sand-hills in the foreground;
for, stretching out in a horizontal dark line which faded away at each
end, they exhibited an illusive picture of a lake spread out before us
in the remote distance. The cool east wind, which had blown in the
morning, and promised a fine day, changed, as is very common in
these regions, towards noon into a hot south wind, and made us
very uncomfortable and susceptible of the fatigue of a long march,
particularly as the distance proved much greater than we had
expected. Indeed it was not till nearly two o’clock in the afternoon,
that Mr. Richardson and I, who were much in advance of the
caravan, reached the border of the Wady, and shortly afterwards the
well Moghrás, at the foot of two tall palm-trees, where we found a
woman with two neatly dressed children. They belonged to the
Azkár-Tuarek, who, leaving their miserable abodes, migrate to these
more fertile districts, where they build themselves light cottages of
palm-branches, and indulge in a patriarchal life, breeding camels and
rearing sheep. Near almost every village in the Wady, outside the
palm-grove, in the bare naked bottom of the valley, these poor
people form a sort of suburb of frail huts; but nevertheless they
keep up family ties with their brethren near Chát, and respect in
some degree the authority of the chief Nakhnúkhen. That this state
of things might become very unfavourable to Fezzán in an outbreak
of hostilities between the Turks and the Tuarek, is obvious; I shall
have occasion to say more on this subject further on. A belt of saline
incrustation, of more than half a mile in breadth, runs through the
middle of the valley, forming a line of demarcation between the
separate palm-groups and the continuous grove.
On reaching this grove we soon caught sight of the famous village
Ugréfe, the residence of our camel-drivers, which was to them the
grand point of attraction, and in truth the only cause of our taking
this westerly route. It consisted of about thirty light and low
dwellings made of clay and palm-branches, and lay near an open
space where we were desired to encamp: but longing for shade, we
went a little further on, and encamped near two splendid ethel-trees
(Tamarix orientalis), the largest I ever saw before I reached Égeri.
When the camels came up and the tents were pitched, the
encampment proved most agreeable.
Early next morning I was again in motion, roving over the
plantation, and was very much pleased with its general character.
The corn, which was a fine crop, was just ripe and about to be
harvested; and close to our camping-ground two negro slaves were
employed in cutting it, while three or four negresses carried it away
to the stores. The negroes were powerful young fellows; the women
were rather ugly, excepting one, who had a very handsome figure,
and by coquettish demeanour tried to make herself more attractive.
All of them accompanied their work with singing and wanton
movements, and gave distinct manifestations of the customs of this
district, which is notorious for the familiarity of its female inhabitants
with the large caravans of pilgrims who annually pass through the
Wady on their way to or from Mekka. The fields are watered from
large holes or wells, which are sunk through layers of variegated
marl.
Being anxious to visit Old Jerma, and to convince myself of its
identity with the Garama of the Romans, I hired a miserable little
donkey, and, accompanied by the stupid young son of Sbaeda, set
out on an exploring expedition into the eastern part of the valley.
Keeping in general along the southern border of the plantation, and
having on my right the precipitous rocky cliff, of from 300 to 400
feet elevation, I went on slowly till I reached the south-west corner
of Jerma kadím, fortified with a quadrangular tower built of clay, and
exhibiting a very curious arrangement in its interior. The whole
circumference of the town, which was deserted long ago, is about
5,000 paces. Here, near the town, there are no Roman ruins
whatever, but the remains of several large and strong towers built of
clay are to be seen a little further on; and being unable to make out
the sepulchre described by Dr. Oudney, I was obliged to go to
Tawásh, the village inhabited by the Merabetín. It is divided into
three distinct parts, a Tarki village, consisting of huts of palm-
branches, an outer suburb of scattered dwellings built of clay, and a
small quadrangular place of very regular shape, surrounded by
earthen walls, and furnished with two gates, one on the east, and
the other on the west side, and regular streets crossing at right
angles. Having here obtained a guide from Háj Mohammed Sʿaídi, a
wealthy man and the owner of almost all our camels, I started for
the Roman monument, situated in a wide opening of the southern
recess. I found it in tolerably good preservation, and without delay
made a sketch of it, as it seemed to me to be an object of special
interest as the southernmost relic of the Roman dominion. It is a
remarkable fact, that several years before the beginning of our era
the Romans should have penetrated as far as this place; and that
their dominion here was not of a merely transitory nature, this
monument seems clearly to show. It is only one story high, and
seems never to have been loftier. This is evidently characteristic of
the age in which it was built; and I am persuaded that it is not later
than the time of Augustus. Those high steeple-tombs which I have
described above, seem not to have come into fashion before the
middle of the second century after Christ. The base measures 7 ft.
9½ in. on the west and east sides, and at least 7 ft. 4 in. on the
other two sides, including a spacious sepulchral chamber or burial-
room; but while the base forms almost a quadrangle, the sides of
the principal structure are of very different dimensions, measuring
not more than 5 ft. 8½ in. on the north and south, and 7 ft. on the
west and east sides. It is adorned with pilasters of the Corinthian
order. The whole monument is covered with Tefínagh or Berber
writing, which was not only intelligible to me, but also to our young
camel-driver ʿAli Carámra, whose family lives in this part of the
wady, in a homely little dwelling of palm-leaves. However, as the
writing was very careless, and my time was fully taken up with
sketching the more important subjects, I did not copy the
inscriptions, which indeed are only names; but of course even
names might contribute something towards elucidating the history of
the country.
By a direct path I returned from this place to our encampment,
and felt rather fatigued, having been in motion during all the heat of
the day. The south wind still increased in the evening; and we could
distinctly see that it was raining towards the longed-for region
whither we were going, while we had nothing from it but clouds of
sand. Overweg, meanwhile, had ascended in the morning the
highest cliff of the sandstone rocks forming the southern border of
the valley, and had found it to be 1,605 feet high or 413 feet above
the ground at our encampment.

Having heard, the day before, in the village of Merabetín, that Háj
Mohammed, the owner of our camels, ordered the boy who was with
me to tell Sbaeda, his father, that they should not start before this
evening, I was not surprised at our camel-drivers not bringing the
camels in the morning. It was almost four o’clock in the afternoon
when Overweg and I at length pushed on, entering the extensive
grove of New Jerma,—a miserable place, which being entirely shut in
by the palm-grove, is almost deserted. The grove, however,
exhibited a very interesting aspect, all the trees being furnished with
a thick cluster of palm-bush at their roots, while the old dry leaves
were left hanging down underneath the young fresh crown, and
even lower down the stem, not being cut off so short as is
customary near the coast. But picturesque as the state of the trees
was, it did not argue much in favour of the industry of the
inhabitants; for it is well known to Eastern travellers that the palm-
tree is most picturesque in its wildest state. Beyond the town the
grove becomes thinner, and the ethel-tree predominates over the
palm-tree; but there is much palm-bush.
We entered another grove, which stretches far northward into the
valley, its produce being, according to our camel-drivers, entirely
reserved for the poor. Having passed Tawásh, with its little grove, we
entered the fine plantation of Brék, enlivened by the bleating of
sheep and goats. Here, in the small fields where corn is cultivated,
the ground is thickly encrusted with salt and soda. We at length
encamped near the grove of Tewíwa, close to the village of the same
name, and to the north side of the Merábet Sidi eʾ Salám.
The next morning, while the camels were loading, I visited the
interior of the village. The walls have given way in several places,
and the whole made the impression of a half-deserted place; but the
little kasbah, which is never wanting in any of these towns, was in
tolerable condition. One of the inhabitants, on being asked why the
village was so much decayed, told me that a torrent had destroyed a
great portion of it nine years ago, in consequence of which the
greater part of its population had dispersed abroad, only about
twenty families now remaining. But this is the condition of nearly all
the places in Fezzán; and it can be partially accounted for only by
supposing that many of the male inhabitants go off to Negroland, to
avoid being made soldiers. A very extensive grove belongs to
Tewíwa; but the plain between the village and the rocks is rather
open, only a few patches of corn-field being scattered thereabouts.
Three vast and detached buttresses, which jut out from the cliffs
into the plain, give a very picturesque appearance to the groves and
villages which we passed on our route. We were just proceeding in
the best manner, when a halt was ordered, from very insufficient
reasons, a little south from the village Tekertíba, where we were to
pass the heat. Meanwhile I ascended a ridge of rocks which, a little
further down, crossed the valley from the southern border. The ridge
was a narrow, steep, wall-like cliff, which afforded a very interesting
view of the end, or rather beginning, of the fertile Wady, which was
close at hand.
From the highest point of the ridge I descended northwards,
crossing a small defile, which is formed between the two rocky
buttresses to the north and south, the latter being the more
considerable. Along it runs a path, connecting the two valleys. Here I
obtained a view of the fresh green valley on the one side, and the
destructive sand-hills on the other, and directed my steps to the
plantation, where young people were busily engaged in drawing
water from the large pond-like wells. The beams, by means of which
the water is drawn up, require to be strongly constructed, the whole
of the khattár having the height of from sixty to eighty feet. These
draw-wells are always placed in pairs; and a couple of miserable
asses, partners in suffering, do all the work. The young male
labourers all wore straw hats, and had an energetic appearance.
The northern border of the plantation is now menaced by the
approach of the sand-hills, which have already overwhelmed the last
range of palm-trees. There is a curious tradition in Tekertíba, that
from the highest peak of the cliffs bordering the valley on the south
side, a rivulet or brook, issuing from a spring, runs down into the
valley underground. There were, it is related, originally several
canals or stream-works leading down to this subterranean aqueduct;
but they have been all filled up. The village itself, on the south
border of the plantation, is tolerably large, but is inhabited by only
forty families at the utmost, though it is the most populous place in
the valley next to Ubári.
By the exertion of much energy, I at length succeeded in the
afternoon in getting our little caravan again under way; and we left
the Great Wady through the defile, which appears to have been once
defended by walls, and, having crossed some irregular depressed
plains, encamped at seven o’clock in the evening in a wady with a
moderate supply of herbage. Starting on the following morning, at
an early hour, we soon emerged into a more open level, beautifully
adorned with fine talha-trees, and having with difficulty dragged on
our camel-drivers, who shortly afterwards wanted to encamp in
Wady Resán, we entered a dreary wilderness, from which we did not
emerge till we arrived at the plantation of Aghár, where we
encamped.
All the people were eager to reach to-day the first great station of
our journey; but owing to the straying of some of the camels, we
were unable to start quite as early as we wished. The country in
general was very sterile, presenting only a few small date-groves,
which we passed at greater or less distance, and at length, when we
reached the plantation of Múrzuk itself, we were far from finding in it
that picturesque and refreshing character which we had admired in
the palm-groves of the Wady. These had formed a dense beautiful
shade and fine groups; while the plantation of Múrzuk was scattered
about in thin growth, so that it was scarcely possible to determine
exactly where it began or where it ended. Thus we reached the wall
of the town, built of a sort of clay glittering with saline incrustations;
and going round the whole western and northern sides, which have
no gate wide enough for a caravan, we halted on the eastern side of
the town, not far from the camp of the pilgrims who were returning
from Egypt to Marocco and Tawát, till Mr. Gagliuffi came out of the
town, and brought us in. Mr. Richardson had arrived about an hour
before us. I was lodged in a cool and airy room on the north-east
corner of Mr. Gagliuffi’s house, which had within the court a very
pleasant half-covered hall. Mr. Gagliuffi treated us with all possible
hospitality, and did all in his power to render our stay in the town
agreeable.

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