Introduction To Electrical Engineering Besck104b 2022 Vtu Notes

Introduction to Electrical Engineering 22ESC142/242
INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICAL ENGNEERING (22ESC142/242)

MODULE-1
Syllabus: Introduction: Conventional and non-conventional energy resources;

General structure of electrical power systems using single line diagram
approach. Power Generation: Hydel, Nuclear, Solar & wind power generation
(Block Diagram approach).
DC Circuits: Ohm‟s Law and its limitations. KCL & KVL, series, parallel,
series-parallel circuits. Simple Numerical.
INTRODUCTION
CONVENTIONAL & NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY RESOURCE
Conventional Energy Resource
Conventional energy sources are naturally present and have been in use for
many years these are also known as non-renewable energy sources, which
are present in a limited quantity and take over hundreds of years to form.
Ex: Coal, petroleum, firewood, fossil fuels , straw etc.
Non-Conventional Energy Resource
The Non-Conventional energy sources are the sources of energy which are
used as the alternative of conventional energy sources. These are also known
as renewable energy sources. Which are available abundance in nature and
being regularly generated in short time.
Ex: Solar, wind, tidal, biomass energy etc.
Difference between Conventional and Non-Conventional Energy Resource
Conventional Energy Non-Conventional Energy

 The sources of energy that  The energy sources whose
have been used all around evolution has been done the
the world for a long time are recent years are known as non-
called conventional energy conventional energy sources.
sources.
 Non-conventional sources are
 Conventional sources of available in abundance in
energy available are limited nature.
quantity in nature.
 Ex: coal, petroleum, natural  Ex: sun, wind, tides, water,
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gas, firewood, etc. biofuels, etc.

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Dept of EEE, Sai Vidya Institute of Technology, Rajanukunte, Bangalore

 These sources are mainly  These sources are used at small

used at large scale in scale in domestic and specific
commercial and industrial commercial and industrial
applications such in thermal applications such as solar power
power plants, fuel in for houses, offices, etc.
vehicles, etc.  These
 Theseare Non are renewable and pollution
renewable and are not free
pollution free.
GENERAL STRUCTURE OF ELECTRICAL POWER SYSTEMS
The electrical power supply system consists of 3 divisions:

1. Generation
2. Transmission
3. Distribution
The power is generated in generating station. The transmission system is to
deliver power from generating station to centers and to large industrial
consumers. The distribution system is to deliver from centers to various
consumers.
The single line diagram is as shown below
Single line diagram
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 The block diagram and single line diagram is as shown in fig.

 The electrical power is generated by alternators in generating stations.
 Usually the generated voltage is 11KV in certain cases 33KV also.
 In order to reduce the copper loss and for economy reasons the voltage is
stepped up from 11KV to 220KV using step up transformers.
 The Primary transmission lines transmit the power from generating station to
various substations.
 At this substation the voltage is step down from 220KV to 33KV by using
step down transformer.
 Then the secondary transmission lines transmit the power to various
substations and to large Industries.
 In primary distribution station the voltage is step down to 33KV to 11KV
using step down Transformer.
 These substations transmit the power to various areas and to the medium
scale industries.
 In each area using step down transformer the voltage is step down to 11KV
to 415V
 The most of domestic, commercial and small scale industries are supplied
power at low voltage i,e 415V to 3-Phase load and 230V to single phase
loads.
POWER GENERATION
Hydro power generation
Hydro power plants convert the potential energy of falling water into electricity.
The block diagram of a hydro power station is as shown below.
General Layout of Hydro power plant

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Block diagram of Hydro power plant
In Hydroelectric power stations the water can be store in a man-made lake,

or reservoir. When water is released through the gates of reservoir, it spins a
turbine which is placed below and water turbine captures the energy of the
falling water. This turbine is coupled with the armature of an alternator which
converts mechanical energy into electrical energy. The controller controls the
flow of water so that the turbine rotates at constant speed.
Hydroelectric power stations are becoming very popular because the reserves of
fuels (i.e., coal and oil) are depleting day by day. They have the added
importance for flood control, storage of water for irrigation and water for
drinking purposes.
Nuclear power generation
Nuclear Power plants is a thermal power plant where heat generated by

nuclear fission is used to drive the turbine. The block diagram is as shown
below.
General Layout of Nuclear power plant

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Block diagram of Nuclear power plant
Nuclear fission inside the Nuclear reactor generates heat. The coolant in the
circuit gets heated by observing the heat and enters into a steam generator. In
this feed water is heated and converted to steam. The steam from the steam
generator enters into the turbine and rotates the turbine. This turbine is coupled
with the armature of an alternator which converts mechanical energy into
electrical energy. After that the steam will moved to the condenser and
converted to water which is pumped back to steam generator. The cycle is
repeated continuously for generation of power.
Wind power generation
In wind power generation the wind energy is used to generate electricity. The
wind energy is converted into mechanical energy by an aero turbine. The block
diagram is as shown below.
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The mechanical power is transferred through gears to the generator to increase

its speed. Since rotor speeds are low, a gear system is necessary to match the
synchronous speed of the generator. Due to fluctuations in wind speed, it not
possible to obtain a power supply of a fixed frequency from windmills. To
overcome this problem, the output of generator is rectified and converted into
AC with the help of inverter.
Solar power generation
In a Solar power plant the electricity is generated using photo voltaic system
consists of PV array. The block diagram is as shown below
Solar power is harnessed using Solar Photovoltaic (PV) technology that

converts sunlight into electricity by using semiconductors.
When the sun hits the semiconductor within the PV cell, electrons are freed and
bus bars collect the running electrons which results in electric current.
When the Solar panels are placed in the sunlight in a calculated manner, they
start producing current and voltage in the form of Direct current (DC) but in
most of the countries the appliances and equipment runs on Alternative current
(AC) so the Solar panels are connected to an Inverter which then converts DC
into AC for home use.
Ohm‟s Law
German physicist Georg Ohm derived relationship between voltage, current and
resistance in an electrical circuit called ohm‟s law.
It states that “The potential difference applied across the circuit, is directly
proportional current flowing through the circuit provided the temperature
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remains Constant ".

VαI
V=RI
R - Constant of proportionality called Resistance of a conductor in ohm‟s (Ω).
V – Potential difference across the circuit or voltage in volts (V).
I - Current in Amps (A).
Limitations of Ohm‟s law
 It is not applicable to non-metallic conductors like silicon carbide.

 It is not applicable to non-linear devices like diodes.
 It is not applicable to 'arc lamps', because arc produced exhibits non-
linear characteristics.
Kirchhoff‟s Law
Kirchhoff's circuit laws are deals with the two parameters in the electric circuit -
current and potential difference. They were first described in 1845 by German
physicist Gustav Kirchhoff. He generalized the work of Georg Ohm.
i) Kirchhoff‟s Current Law (KCL)

Statement: It states that “The Algebraic sum of the currents meeting at a
junction in an electric circuit is equal to zero.”
ΣI=0
Example: Consider a junction in an electrical network as shown in the fig.The
currents I1 and I3 are taken as positive as they are entering the junction. While
I2 and I4 are negative as leaving the junction.
I2
I4
I1
I3
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Applying KCL to the above circuit
I1 – I2 + I3- I 4 = 0
I,e I1 + I3 = I2 +I 4
“The total current flowing towards a junction is equal to the total current
leaving the junction.”
Note: Sign convention: The currents entering the junction taken as positive and
the currents leaving the junction are taken as negative.
ii) Kirchhoff‟s Voltage law [KVL]

Statement: “In any closed path, the algebraic sum of the Emf‟s and the
voltage drops across the circuit elements is equal to zero. “
Σ Emf + Σ IR drops = 0
Example: Consider an electrical network as shown in fig
I R1 R2
+ - + -
V2
V1
Applying KVL to the loop

- IR1 - IR2 + V2 + V1 = 0
V1+ V2 = IR1 + IR2
Note: Sign convention: while tracing the path across

i) If its moving from „+‟ to „-„then it is voltage drop therefore take as negative.
ii) If its moving from „-‟ to „+„then it is voltage rise therefore take as Positive.
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Electrical Power
The rate at which electrical work is done in a circuit is called Electrical Power.
Electrical power is denoted by P and measured in Watt (W).
P=V I
P = (IR) I = I2 R [V = IR]
P=V( )= [I=V/R]
P=VI = I2 R = watts
Energy
Energy is defined as the amount of electrical work is done in a circuit in a
specified time.
It is denoted as „E‟ and measured in Joules (J).
E=VI t = I2 R t = joules
Analysis of Series and Parallel Circuits

I. Series Circuit
In a series circuit the finishing end of one resistor is connected to starting end of
another resistor.
Consider three resistances connected series.
In series circuit the current flowing through all the resistances is same.
Let „I‟ be the current flowing through all the resistors.
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Let V1, V2, and V3 be the voltages drops across the resistances R1 ,R2 and
R3 respectively
The supply voltage „V‟ is the sum of the voltage drops across the resistances.
I,e V = V1 + V2 + V3
According to Ohm‟s law
V1 = IR1 V2 = IR2 V3 = IR3
Applying Ohm‟s law to the overall circuit V= I RT

RT - is the Total or equivalent resistance of the circuit
V = V1 + V2 + V3
I RT = IR1 + IR2 +IR3
I RT = I [R1 + R2 +R3]
RT = R1 + R2 +R3
Thus the Total or Equivalent Resistance in a series Circuit is equal to the Sum
of the resistances connected in series.
Inference
 In Series circuit the same current is flowing through all resistances.
 The supply voltage „V‟ is the sum of the individual voltage drops across
the each resistance.
 If „N‟ resistances connected in series then
RT= R1+ R2+R3+---------------+RN
and V= V1 + V2+-------------+VN
II. Parallel Circuit

In a Parallel circuit the starting end of all the resistor are connected to one point
and finishing end of all the resistors are connected to another point.
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Consider three resistances connected in parallel.
In parallel circuit the voltage applied across each resistance is equal to the
supply voltage.
Let „I‟ be the current drawn from the supply.
Let I1, I2, and I3 be the Current through the resistances R1 ,R2 and R3
respectively.
I,e I= I1 + I2 + I3
I1 = I2 = I3 =
Applying Ohm‟s law to the overall circuit I=
Req - is the Total or equivalent resistance of the circuit
I= I1 + I2 + I3
= + +
1 2 3
= V[ + + ]
1 2 3
= + +
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1 2

Thus the reciprocal of Total or Equivalent Resistance in a parallel Circuit is

equal to the Sum of the reciprocal of individual resistances connected in
parallel.
Inference
 In Parallel circuit the voltage across each resistance is equal to supply
voltage.
 The total current „I‟ is the sum of the currents drawn by the each
resistance.
 If „N‟ resistances connected in parallel then
= + + -----------+
1 2 𝑵
and I= I1 + I2+-------------+IN
Note: When 2 Resistances are connected in parallel then the Total resistance is
= +
𝑹1+𝑹2
𝑹 =
𝑹1𝑹2
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III. Current Division in Parallel circuit of Resistors

Consider a parallel circuit of two resistors R1 and R2 connected across a supply
Voltage of „V‟ Volts.
Let I1 and I2 be the Current through the resistances R1 and R2 respectively.
I,e I= I1 + I2 ----------------------------1

I1 = and I2 =
R2
We know that in parallel circuit the voltage across each resistance is equal to
supply voltage.
I,e V= V1= V2
Where V1 and V2 is the voltage across R1 and R2
wkt V1=I1 R1 and V2 =I2 R2
Therefore I1 R1 =I2 R2
2 R2
I1 =
Substitute I1 in equation 1 we get
I= I1 + I2
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2 R2
I= + I2
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R2
I = I2 [ + 1]
R
R2 +R1
I = I2 [ R
]
R
Therefore I2 =
R
R
Similarly I1 =
R
List of Formulas
1. By ohm‟s Law V=I R , I= , and R=
2. In series Circuit RT= R1+ R2+R3+---------------RN
3. In Parallel circuit = + +
If two resistances are in parallel =

4. The current division in parallel circuit
Current in a branch =
I,e I1 = and I2 =
5. Kirchhoff's Current Law (KCL) ΣI=0

Total Sum of Incoming Currents = Total sum of outgoing Currents
6. Kirchhoff‟s Voltage law (KVL) Σ Emf + Σ IR drops = 0
7. Electrical Power P=VI = I2 R = watts

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8. Energy E=VI t = I2 R t = joules

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Problems on DC circuits
1. A circuit consists of two parallel resistors having resistances of 20 Ω and

30 Ω respectively, connected in series with a 15 Ω resistor. If the current
through 15 Ω resistor is 3A, find (i) the current in 20 Ω and 30 Ω
resistors, (ii) the voltage across the whole circuit, (iii) voltage drop
across 15Ω resistor and (iv) the total power and power consumed in all
resistors.
R1=20Ω
15Ω
Solution:
R2=30Ω
3A
Vv
I20Ω =? I30 Ω =?
V=? V15Ω =? P=?
p15Ω =? p20Ω =? P30 Ω =?
Current through the 15Ω resistor I15Ω =I =3A the total current of the
circuit
i) The current through 20Ω is I20Ω =
I20Ω =
I20Ω = 1.8A
The current through 30Ω is I30Ω =
I30Ω =
I30Ω = 1.2A
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ii) Supply Voltage V=?

Wkt V= I RT
RT = ( 20|| 30) +15
= 1 = ]
= 12+15 =27 Ω
Therefore
V= I RT= 3 X 27
V= 81 V
iii) Voltage across 15Ω is V15Ω = current flowing through the resistance X
value of resistance
= 3X15
V15Ω = 45 V
iv) Power consumed by the circuit P=?

Power consumed by the 15Ω resistor P15Ω= I215Ω x R
= (32)x 15 = 135 watts
= (1.8 2)x 20= 64.8watts
= (1.22)x 30 = 43.2watts
Total Power consumed by the circuit
P= 135+64.8+43.2 or P= VI= 81x3
P= 243 Watts
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2. An 8-ohm resistor is in series with a parallel combination of two

resistors 12 ohm and 6 ohms. If the voltage drop across 8ohm is 30V.
find (i) the current in 12 Ω and 6 Ω resistors, (ii) the total power and
power consumed by each resistor iii) Voltage drop across 6Ω resistor iv)
supply voltage .
Solution: R1= 12Ω
8Ω
R2= 6Ω
30V
I
-
V volts
I12Ω =? I6Ω =? P=?

Total or current through 8Ω I = V8Ω /R = 30 / 8
I= 3.75 A
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i) I12Ω = = I12Ω = 1.25A
3
I6Ω = = I6Ω = 2.5A
ii) Power consumed by the circuit P=?
= (3.752)x 8 = 112.5 watts
= (1.25 2)x 12= 18.75watts

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= 2.52x 6 = 37.5watts
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Total Power consumed by the circuit
P= 112.5+18.75+37.5
P= 168.75 Watts
iii) Voltage Drop across 6Ω resistor = I6Ω X R
= 2.5 X6
V6Ω = 15 V = V12Ω
iv) Supply or Total Voltage
V= Voltage drop across 8Ω + Voltage drop across parallel combination
V = 30 +15
V =45 V
3. For the circuit shown below find the current through all the resistances
and the power consumed by the circuit
4Ω 2Ω
8Ω
8Ω
6Ω
30V
8V
Solution: I4Ω =? I6Ω =? I2Ω =? I8Ω =? P=?
Wkt I =
RT= (4 || 6) + ( 2 || 8)= + = 2.4 + 1.6 = 4Ω
RT =4 Ω
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I= = =2A Total current I =2A

Current in a branch =
I4Ω = =1.2 A
I6Ω = =0.8 A
I2Ω = =1.6 A
I8Ω = =0.4 A
ii) The power Consumed by the circuit P= VI
= 8 x2 = 16watts
P = 16 watts
5. The two 12V batteries with internal resistance of 0.2Ω and 0.25Ω
respectively are joined parallel and resistance of 1Ω is placed across the
terminals. Find the current supplied by the battery and power consumed
by 1Ω resistor.
0.25Ω 0.2Ω
12V 12V
1Ω
Solution:
Applying KVL to LOOP 1 I I
-
- 0.2Ω
-0.25I1 +0.2I2 -12 + 12 =0 0.25Ω + 1Ω
+ +
-0.25I1 +0.2I2 = 0 ---------------- 1 I
I2
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Applying KVL to LOOP -

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-
-1(I1 +I2 ) +12 – 0.2 I2 =0 12V
12
V

-I1 - I2 – 0.2 I2 = -1
- I1 – 1.2 I2 = -12-------------------2
S v g Eq d
-0.25I1 +0.2I2 = 0
-I1 – 1.2 I2 = -12
We get I1 = 4.8A and I2 =6A

Therefore current supplied from each battery is 4.8A and 6A respectively
Current through 1Ω resistor is I1Ω = I1 + I2 = 4.8 +6 = 10.8A
Power consumed by 1Ω resistor is P1Ω = I21Ω X R= 10.82 x1 = 116.64watts
7. Find current in the battery ,the current in branch and pd (potential

difference) across AB in the network shown.
Solution: 20
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Applying KVL to LOOP 1
-2I2-3I2 -4I1+10=0
-4I1-5I2 = -10-------1
Applying KVL to LOOP 2
-6(I1-I2) -8(I1-I2)+3I2 +2I2=0
-6I1+6I2 -8I1+8I2+3I2 +2I2=0
-14I1+19I2 = 0----------2
Solving Equation 1 and 2

-4I1-5I2 = -10
-14I1+19I2 = 0
Solving Equation 1 and 2

I1 = 1.3A
I2 =0.95A
To find the pd across AB
+2I2-6(I1-I2) =VAB
VAB = 2(0.95) -6(1.3-0.95)
VAB = -0.2V
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14. Find the values of currents in all the branches of the network shown in
figure
Solution:
Let I be the current flowing from A to B
Applying KVL to LOOP ABCDEFA
-0.2I -0.1(I-60) -0.3I -0.1(I-120)

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-0.1(I-50) -0.2(I-80) =0
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-0.2I - 0.1I + 6 - 0.3I - 0.1I

+12- 0.1I +5 - 0.2I +16=0
-1I = -39A
I = 39A
Current in Branch AB is I = 39A
Current in Branch BC is I-60 = 39-60 =-21A
Current in Branch CD is I = 39A
Current in Branch DE is I-120 = 39-120 =-81A
Current in Branch EF is I-50 = 39- 50 =-11A
Current in Branch FA is I-80 = 39- 80 =-41A
15.Obtain the potential difference Vxy in the circuit shown
Solution:
Applying KVL to LOOP1
-3I1 -2I1+2 =0
-5I1=-2
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I1= -2\-5 =0.4A

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Applying KVL to LOOP2
-3I2 -5I2+4 =0
-8I2=-4
I2= -4\-8 =0.5A
To find the pd across XY
3I1+4-3I2 =Vxy
Vxy = 3(0.4) +4-3(0.5)
Vxy = 3.7V
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Introduction to Electrical Engineering 22ESC143
MODULE - 2
I . AC Fundamentals:
Syllabus : Generation of sinusoidal voltage, frequency of generated voltage, definition and
numerical values of average value, root mean square value, form factor and peak factor of
sinusoidally varying voltage and current, phasor representation of alternating quantities.
Introduction:
➢ An Alternating Current is one in which the magnitude and direction of an electrical
quantity changes with respect to time.
Terminologies:
1. Amplitude
➢ It is the maximum value attained by an alternating quantity. Also called as maximum
or peak value.
2. Time Period (T)

➢ It is the Time Taken in seconds to complete one cycle of an alternating quantity.
3. Instantaneous Value
➢ It is the value of the quantity at any instant.
4. Frequency (f)
➢ It is the number of cycles that occur in one second. The unit for frequency is Hz or
cycles/sec.
➢ The relationship between frequency and time period can be derived as follows.
➢ Time taken to complete f cycles = 1 second
➢ Time taken to complete 1 cycle = 1/f second
T = 1/f
5. Angular Frequency (ω)

➢ Angular frequency is defined as the number of radians covered in one second(ie the
angle covered by the rotating coil).
➢ The unit of angular frequency is rad/sec.
Average Value
➢ The arithmetic average of all the values of an alternating quantity over one cycle is
called its average value
Average value = Area under one cycle = 2 Im / π
Base
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RMS or Effective Value
➢ The effective or RMS value of an alternating quantity is that steady current (dc) which
when flowing through a given resistance for a given time produces the same amount of
heat produced by the alternating current flowing through the same resistance for the
same time.
Irms = Im / √2
Form Factor
The ratio of RMS value to the average value of an alternating quantity is known as Form
Factor
FF = RMS Value
Average Value
Peak Factor or Crest Factor
The ratio of maximum value to the RMS value of an alternating quantity is known as the
peak factor
PF = MaximumValue
RMSValue
Phasor Representation
➢ An alternating quantity can be represented using
(i) Waveform
(ii) Equations
(iii) Phasor
➢ A sinusoidal alternating quantity can be represented by a rotating line called a
Phasor.
➢ A phasor is a line of definite length rotating in anticlockwise direction at a constant
angular velocity.
Phase
➢ Phase is defined as the fractional part of time period or cycle through which the
quantity has advanced from the selected zero position of reference.
Phase Difference
➢ When two alternating quantities of the same frequency have different zero points, they
are said to have a phase difference. The angle between the zero points is the angle of
phase difference.
In Phase
➢ Two waveforms are said to be in phase, when the phase difference between them is
zero. That is the zero points of both the waveforms are same.
Dept of EEE, SVIT

➢ The waveform, phasor and equation representation of two sinusoidal quantities which
are in phase is as shown. The figure shows that the voltage and current are in phase.
AC circuit with a pure resistance
Consider an AC circuit with a pure resistance R as shown in the figure. The alternating voltage v is
given by
v = Vm sin ωt ---------- (1)
The current flowing in the circuit is i. The voltage across the resistor is given as V R which is
the same as v.
Using ohms law, we can write the following relations
v Vm sin ωt
i= R = R
i = I m sin ωt --------------- (2)
V
Where I m
m = R
From equation (1) and (2) we conclude that in a pure resistive circuit, the voltage and current are
in phase. Hence the voltage and current waveforms and phasor can be drawn as below.
Dept of EEE, SVIT

Instantaneous power
The instantaneous power in the above circuit can be derived as follows
p = vi
p = (Vm sin ωt )(I m sin ωt )
p = Vm I m sin 2 ωt
Vm I m
p= (1 − cos 2ωt )
2
V I V I
p= m m
− m m cos 2ωt
2 2
The instantaneous power consists of two terms. The first term is called as the constant power term
and the second term is called as the fluctuating power term.
Average power
From the instantaneous power we can find the average power over one cycle as follows
2π
V
1 I m −
V Im
P= ∫ m m
cos 2ωt dωt
2
π 0 2 2
2π
V
V I 1 I
P= m m − ∫ m m cos 2ωt dωt
2
2 π 0 2
V I I
P= m m
= Vm m
2 2 2
Dept of EEE, SVIT

P = V .I
As seen above the average power is the product of the rms voltage and the rms current.
AC circuit with a pure inductance
Consider an AC circuit with a pure inductance L as shown in the figure. The alternating voltage v
is given by
v = Vm sin ω
t ---------- (1)
The current flowing in the circuit is i. The voltage across the inductor is given as V L which is
the same as v.
We can find the current through the inductor as follows
From equation (1) and (2) we observe that in a pure inductive circuit, the current lags behind the
voltage by 90⁰. Hence the voltage and current waveforms and phasors can be drawn as below.
Inductive reactance
The inductive reactance XL is given as
X L = ωL = 2πfL
Vm
Im =
XL
Dept of EEE, SVIT

It is equivalent to resistance in a resistive circuit. The unit is ohms ( )
Instantaneous power
The instantaneous power in the above circuit can be derived as follows
P = vi
= (Vm sin ωt) (I m sin (ωt − π / 2))
= −Vm I m sin ωt cos ωt
Vm I m
=− sin 2ωt
2
Average power
2
π VI
1 m m
sin 2 ω td
P=2 ∫ − ωt
π 0 2
P=0
The average power in a pure inductive circuit is zero. Or in other words, the power consumed
by a pure inductance is zero.
The voltage, current and power waveforms of a purely inductive circuit is as shown in the figure.
AC circuit with a pure capacitance
q = Cv
q = CVm sin ωt
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𝑑𝑞
i = 𝑑𝑡
i = CVmω cos ωt
i = ωCVm sin(ωt + π / 2)
i = I m sin(ωt + π / 2) -------------------(2)
Where I m = ωCVm
Numericals:
1. The equation for an AC voltage is given by V = 0.04Sin (2000t +60)̊. Determine
the frequency, angular frequency, instantaneous voltage when t =160μs.
V = 0.04Sin (2000t +60°) Comparing with general equation
V = Vm Sin (wt +ø)

w = 2∏f ;
f = 2000/2∏ = 318.30Hz.
T = 1/f = 3.14ms
For V = 0.04Sin (2000t +60°) put t = 160μs
V = 0.04Sin (2000(160*10-6) +60°) = 0.034V
2. Calculate the rms value and average value of an alternating quantity represented by
I = 141.42 Sin (314t-30°)
I = Im Sin (θ+φ)
Im = 141.42 A
Irms = Im /√2 = 141.42 /√2 = 99.99A
I av = 2 Im / ∏ = (2*141.42) / ∏ = 90.03A
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3. A pure Inductor of Inductance 20mH is connected across an ac supply of 230V,

50Hz. Find the current drawn by an Inductor.
Solution: L=20 x 10-3 H, V=230V and f=50Hz I=?
w.k.t XL = 2πf L = 2*Π*50*20 x 10-3
XL = 6.284 Ω
𝑽 𝟐𝟑𝟎
Therefore I =X =𝟔.𝟐𝟖𝟒 = 36.60 A
L
4. The current drawn by pure capacitor 20μF is 1.382 A. connected across an ac

supply of 220V. Find the supply frequency.
Solution: C=20 x 10-6 F, V=220V and I= 1.382A f=?

𝑉 220
w.k.t Xc = I = 1.382
Xc =159.18Ω
1
Therefore Xc = 2𝜋𝑓𝐶
1 1
f = 2𝜋CXc = 2∗𝝅*159.18*20 x 10-6 =49.99 =50Hz
5. A 1mH inductor is connected across 200V 50Hz AC supply. Determine inductive

reactance, current taken by the inductor.
Sol :
Given: L= 1mH, v = 200∟0V, f = 50Hz.
To find: XL =? I =?
Sol:
XL = 2∏fL= 2x ∏x 50 x 1x 10-3 = 0.31 Ω,
I = V / XL= 200∟0/ 0.31 = 645.16∟-90 A
6. A capacitance of 100µF is connected across a 300V, 50Hz supply. Calculate the

capacitive reactance, current.
Sol: Given: C = 100µF, V = 300∟0V, f = 50Hz
To find: XC=? I =?
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XC= 1 / 2∏fC = 1/ (2 *∏*50*100*10-6) = 31.83 Ω
I = V / XC = 300∟0 / 31.83 = 9.42∟90 A
R-L Series circuit
Consider an AC circuit with a resistance R and an inductance L connected in series as shown in

the figure. The alternating voltage v is given by
v = Vm sin ωt
The current flowing in the circuit is i. The voltage across the resistor is VR and that across
the inductor is VL.
VR=IR is in phase with I

VL=IXL leads current by 90 degrees
With the above information, the phasor diagram can be drawn as shown.
The current I is taken as the reference phasor. The voltage VR is in phase with I and the voltage
VL leads the current by 90⁰. The resultant voltage V can be drawn as shown in the figure. From
the phasor diagram we observe that the voltage leads the current by an angle Φ or in other
words the current lags behind the voltage by an angle Φ.
From the phasor diagram, the expressions for the resultant voltage V and the angle Φ can be
derived as follows.
V= VR2 + VL2
VR = IR
VL = IX L
V= (IR)2 + (IX L )2
V=I R 2 + X L2
V = IZ
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Where impedance 2 2
Z= R +XL
The impedance in an AC circuit is similar to a resistance in a DC circuit. The unit for impedance
is ohms
Instantaneous power
The instantaneous power in an RL series circuit can be derived as follows
p = vi
p = (Vm sin ωt) (I m sin (ωt − Φ)
Vm I m Vm I m
p= cos Φ − cos(2ωt − Φ)
2 2
The instantaneous power consists of two terms. The first term is called as the constant power term
and the second term is called as the fluctuating power term.
Average power
2
1 π V Im V Im
P= ∫ m
cos Φ − m
cos(2ωt − Φ) dωt
2
π 0 2 2
P = Vm I m cos Φ
2
P = V m I m cos Φ
2 2
P = VI cos Φ
The voltage, current and power waveforms of a RL series circuit is as shown in the figure.
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As seen from the power waveform, the instantaneous power is alternately positive and negative.
When the power is positive, the power flows from the source to the load and when the power in
negative, the power flows from the load to the source. The positive power is not equal to the
negative power and hence the average power in the circuit is not equal to zero.
From the phasor diagram,
P = VI cos Φ
R
P = (IZ )  I 
Z
2
P=I R
Hence the power in an RL series circuit is consumed only in the resistance.

The inductance does not consume any power.
Power Factor
The power factor in an AC circuit is defined as the cosine of the angle between voltage and
current i e cosΦ
P = VI cos Φ
The power in an AC circuit is equal to the product of voltage, current and power factor
R-C Series circuit
Consider an AC circuit with a resistance R and a capacitance C connected in series as shown

in the figure. The alternating voltage v is given by
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v = Vm sin ωt
The current flowing in the circuit is i. The voltage across the resistor is VR and that
across the capacitor is VC.

VC=IXC lags behind the current by 90 degrees
With the above information, the phasor diagram can be drawn as shown.
The current I is taken as the reference phasor. The voltage VR is in phase with I and the voltage
VC lags behind the current by 90⁰. The resultant voltage V can be drawn as shown in the
figure. From the phasor diagram we observe that the voltage lags behind the current by an
angle Φ or in other words the current leads the voltage by an angle Φ.
R-L-C Series circuit
Consider an AC circuit with a resistance R, an inductance L and a capacitance C connected in

series as shown in the figure. The alternating voltage v is given by
v = Vm sin ωt
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The current flowing in the circuit is i. The voltage across the resistor is VR, the voltage
across the inductor is VL and that across the capacitor is VC.
VL=IXL leads the current by 90 degrees
VC=IXC lags behind the current by 90 degrees
With the above information, the phasor diagram can be drawn as shown. The current I is taken
as the reference phasor. The voltage VR is in phase with I, the voltage VL leads the current by
90⁰ and the voltage VC lags behind the current by 90⁰. There are two cases that can occur
VL>VC and VL<VC depending on the values of XL and XC. And hence there are two possible
phasor diagrams. The phasor VL-VC or VC-VL is drawn and then the resultant voltage V is
drawn.
Three Phase AC circuits

Syllabus: Advantages of 3-phase power, Generation of 3-phase power, Three-phase balanced
circuits, voltage and current relations in star and delta connections. Measurements of three
phase power using two wattmeter methods.
Advantages of three-phase systems:
1. Three phase transmission lines require much less conductor material. The return conductor
is replaced by single neutral conductor of small size.
2. Three phase machine gives higher output than a single phase machine.
3. Three phase motor develops uniform torque whereas single phase motor develops
pulsating torque.
4. Three phase can generate rotating magnetic field & hence three phase induction motors
are self starting.
5. Three phase system can be used to supply domestic & industrial power.
6. Voltage regulation is better in three phase system compared to single phase supply.
7. Three phase system is more efficient & less expensive compared to single phase system.
Generation of three phase power :
Three phase power is generated using alternator. Alternator contains stator (stationary part) and
rotor (rotating part). The stator is cylindrical in shape and has slots in its inner periphery as
shown in the figure below. The conductors are placed in the slots. They are connected either in
star or delta. Rotor is a magnet with two poles ‘N & S’.
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Generation of three phase emf:
Stator conductors aa' , bb' and cc' are mutually displaced by 1200. As the rotor rotates , the
stator conductor cuts the flux and hence emf is induced in all 3 conductors.
eA = Em sinwt
eB = Em sin(wt-120)
eC = Em sin(wt-240)
Phase sequence :
Phase sequence is the order in which the 3 phase voltages reach their maximum. It is either
'abc' or 'acb' .
'abc' sequence -- waveform 'a' reaches the peak first , followed by 'b' and 'c' .
'acb' sequence -- waveform 'a' reaches the peak first , followed by 'c' and 'b' .
In the figure , phase1 reaches the peak first , followed by 'phase 2' and 'phase 3' .
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Importance of phase sequence :
- 3 phase supply of a particular sequence is given to 3 phase load (static load). If the phase
sequence is changed then the direction of current flow will also change.
- If the 3 phase supply is given to 3 phase induction motor , and if phase sequence is changed
then the direction of current flow will reverse and also the direction of rotation changes.
Balanced supply and balanced load :
Balanced supply :
If the magnitude of 3 phases are same and are displaced by 1200 it is said to be balanced
supply.
VA = VB = VC VA ≠ VB ≠ V C
All 3 vectors are All 3 vectors are displaced

displaced by 1200 by different angles
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Balanced load: If the impedances in all the three phases are equal in magnitude, then the load
is said to be balanced.
Relation between line & phase values of balanced star connections:
Let IR, IY, IB → Line Currents
VRY, VYB, VBR → Line Voltages
VR, VY, VB → Phase Voltages
Phase voltage is the voltage between line & neutral
Line voltage is the voltage between any two lines
VL = √𝟑Vp IL = IPH
Relation between line & phase values of balanced delta connections:
Let IR, IY, IB → Line currents
IRY, IYB, IBR → Phase Currents
IL = √𝟑 Iph VL = Vph
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Numericals on Single & Three Phase AC Circuits

1. A circuit having a resistance of 12Ω inductance of 0.15H in series is connected across
a 100V, 50Hz supply. Calculate the inductive reactance, impedance, current.
Given: R = 12Ω, L = 0.15H, v = 100∟0V, f = 50Hz,

To calculate: XL = ?,Z = ?, I =?,
XL = 2∏fL= 2x ∏x 50 x 0.15= 47.1 Ω
Z = R + j XL = 12+ j 47.1 =48.6∟75.70 Ω
V=IZ
I = V / Z = 100∟0 / 48.6∟75.70 Ω
= 2.05∟-75.70A
2. A circuit having a resistance of 12Ω inductance of 0.15H and a

capacitance of 100µF in series is connected across a 100V,
50Hz supply. Calculate the impedance, current, power factor.
3. A series circuit with resistance of 10ohms, inductance of 0.2 H and

capacitance 40micro F is supplied with a 100 V supply at 50 Hz. Find
current, power and power factor
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Z = R – j (Xc- XL) = 10-j 16.74 = 19.49∟-59.14

• I = V / Z = 100∟0 / 19.49∟-59.14 = 5.13∟59.14A
• Power factor = Cos (59.14) = 0.512
• P= VI cosФ =100*5.13*0.512 = 262.65W
4. A resistance of 100 ohms is connected in series with an inductance of 1mH in

each phase of a 400V star connected 50Hz three phase supply. Calculate inductive
reactance (ii) impedance per phase (iii) Total current (iv) power factor (v) active power
(vi) reactive power (vii) apparent power.
Given: R = 100, L = 1mH, VL= 400V, f= 50Hz
To Find: XL =? Zph =? Vph = ? , IL = Iph =? , Cos Φ =? , P = ?, Q=?,S =?
XL = 2*𝜋*f*L = 2* Π* 50*1*10-3 = 0.314
Zph = R + j XL = 100+j0.314 = 100 ∟0.179
V ph = VL / √3 = 400 / √3 = 230.94 V
IL = I ph = V ph / Z ph = 230.94 ∟0/ 100 ∟0.179 = 2.3 ∟-0.179 A
Cos Φ = Cos ( -0.179) = 0.99,
P = √3 VL IL Cos Φ = √3* 400 * 2.3 *0.99 = 1577.55W
Q = √3 VL IL Sin Φ = √3 * 400*2.3* sin (-0.179) = - 4.97VAR,
S = √3 VL IL = √3 *400*2.3= 1593.48VA.
5. A resistance of 50 ohms is connected in series with a capacitance of 150micro farad

in each phase of a 450V delta connected 50Hz three phase supply. Calculate
capacitive reactance (ii) impedance per phase (iii) line current and phase current (iv)
power factor (v) active power (vi) reactive power (vii) apparent power.
XC= 1 / 2∏fC = 1/ (2 *∏*50*150*10-6) = 21.22 Ω
Z ph= R – j Xc =50-j21.22 = 54.31∟-22.99
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I ph = V ph / Zph = 450∟0 / 54.31∟-22.99 = 8.28 ∟22.99 A
IL = √3Iph = √3 * 8.28 = 14.34 ∟22.99 A.
Cos Φ = cos (22.99) = 0.92
P = √3 VL IL Cos Φ = √3* 450 * 14.34 *0.92 = 10282.76W,
Q = √3 VL IL sin Φ = √3* 450 * 14.34 *0.39 = 4359VAR
S = √3 VL IL = √3 *450 * 14.34 = 11176.92VA
Dept of EEE, SVIT

MODULE 3
Syllabus: DC Machines:
DC Generator: Principle of operation, constructional details, induced EMF expression, types
of generators. Relation between induced emf and terminal voltage. Simple numerical.
DC Motor: Principle of operation, back emf and its significance. Torque equation, types of
motors, characteristics and speed control (armature & field) of DC motors (series & shunt
only). Applications of DC motors. Simple numerical.
Introduction:
 An electrical machine, deals with energy transfer either from mechanical to electrical
or electrical to mechanical is called DC Machine.
 The DC machines are classified into
 i) DC Generator
 ii) DC Motor
 DC Generator: The machine which converts mechanical energy into Electrical
energy
 DC motor: The machine which converts Electrical energy into Mechanical energy
Working principle of D.C.Machine as a generator

Working principle of D.C.Machine as a generator:
 It is based on the principle of dynamically induced e.m.f .

 Whenever a conductor cuts magnetic flux, dynamically induced e.m.f. is produced in
the conductor according to the Faradays laws of Electromagnetic Induction. This
e.m.f. causes a current to flow in the circuit, if the conductor circuit is closed.
 The emf is given by
e=B*l*v*Sinθ volts/coil side where,
Where B=the flux density in Tesla,
l=the active length of the coil side in meters
v=the velocity with which the coil is moved in meters/sec and
θ is the angle between the direction of the flux and relative velocity.
 The direction of the induced voltage can be obtained by applying Fleming's right
hand rule.
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Construction of DC Machine
Salient parts of a D.C.Machine are:

(i)Yoke
ii) Field system (poles)
(iii) Armature
(iv) Commutator
(v)Brushes
Yoke:
It is made of cast iron or silicon steel
 It serves the purpose of outermost cover of the D.C. machine. So that the insulating
materials get protected from harmful atmospheric elements like moisture, dust and
various gases like SO2, acidic fumes etc.
 It provides mechanical support to the poles,
Poles:
It is made cast iron or cast steel laminations which are stamped together.
Each pole is divided into two parts a) pole core and b) pole shoe
 Pole core basically carries a field winding which is necessary to produce the flux.
 Pole shoe enlarges the area of armature core to come across the flux, which is
necessary to produce larger induced emf. To achieve this, pole shoe has given a
particular shape
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Field winding [F1-F2]:

It is made of conducting material like copper or Aluminum. The field winding is wound on
the pole core with a definite direction.
 It carries current due to which the pole core behaves as an electromagnet and
produces necessary flux. As it’s exciting the pole as electromagnet hence it is also
called Exciting winding.
Armature:
 It is further divided into two parts namely,
 Armature core and
 Armature winding
• Armature core is cylindrical in shape made up of iron and mounted on the shaft. It is
provided with of slots on its outer periphery to place the conductor and the air ducts
to permit the air flow through armature which serves cooling purpose.
• In order to collect the Emf generated in each conductor they are connected in certain
pattern called armature winding.
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Commutator:
 The basic nature of Emf induced in the armature conductors is alternating. This
needs rectifications in case of D.C. generator which is possible by device called
commutator.
Brushes and brush gear:
 Brushes collect current from commutator and make it available to the stationary
external circuit.
 Ball bearings are usually used as they are more reliable.
 For heavy duty machines, roller bearings are preferred.
Emf Equation of DC Generator:
Let,
Φ = Flux produced by each pole in weber (Wb) and
P = number of poles in the DC generator.
N = speed of the armature conductor in rpm.
Consider a one revolution of the conductor
Total flux produced by all the poles
Time taken to complete one revolution
Now, according to Faraday’s law of induction, the induced EMF of the conductor is equal to
rate of change of flux.
Therefore,
Induced EMF of one conductor is
Let us suppose there are Z total numbers of conductor in a generator, and arranged in such a
manner that all parallel paths are always in series.
Here, Z = total numbers of conductor A = number of parallel paths
Then, Z/A = number of conductors connected in series
Therefore,
Induced EMF of DC generator
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Eg = EMF of one conductor × number of conductor connected in series.

Induced Emf of DC generator is
𝑷𝑵𝒁
e=
𝟔𝟎𝑨
Problems on Emf equation

Formula
Φ- flux produced by each pole in wb

Z- total no of conductors in armature
N- speed armature in rpm
P- No of poles
A- No of parallel paths , for wave winding A=2
for lap winding A=P
1. A 4 pole, 1500 rpm DC generator has a lap wound armature having 24 slots with 10
conductors per slot. If the flux per pole is 0.04 Wb, calculate EMF generated in the
armature. What would be the generated EMF if the winding is wave connected?
Solution:
Given: P = 4, N = 1500rpm, Lap i. e. A = P = 4,
Z = Slots X Conductors per Slot = 24 X 10 = 240
If winding is wave connected, A = 2
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2. A 4 pole generator with wave wound armature has 51 slots each having 24
conductors. The flux per pole is 0.01 weber. At what speed must the armature rotate
to give an induced EMF of 220 V? What will be the voltage developed if the winding
is lap connected and the armature rotates at the same speed?
Solution:
Given: P = 4, wave connected hence A = 2, 51 slots, 24 conductors per slot,
Where Z = 51 X 24 = 1224
i.e N = 539.2156 r.p.m … speed for 220V
For lap wound, A = P = 4 and N = 539.2156 r.p.m
3. A 8 pole DC generator has 500 armature conductors and useful flux per pole of
0.065 wb. What will be EMF generated if the winding is lap connected and runs at
1000 rpm? What must be the speed at which it is to be driven to produce the same
EMF if the winding is Wave connected?
Solution:
Given: P = 8 Z= 500 conductors
When it is lap connected A=P =8 and Eg =?
ii) N=? When Eg = 541.667V and winding is wave connected I,e A=2
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N = 250 rpm
Types of DC Generators
 Thw field winding is also called as exciting winding. Supplying current to the field
winding is excitation.
 Depending upon the method of excitation used in the generators are classified into
i) Separately excited DC generator
ii) Self-excited DC generator.
.
Separately Excited Generators:
In separately excited dc machines, the field winding is supplied from a separate power
source as shown in below fig.
Eg- generated Emf in generator

Ia – Armature current
R - armature resistance
a
I - Load current
L
Vt- Terminal voltage
F1 and F2 – Terminals of field winding
Self-Excited Field Generators:

 The self-excited DC generator produces a magnetic field by itself without DC sources
from an external. The electromotive force that produced by generator at armature
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winding is supply to a field winding instead of DC source from outside of the

generator. Therefore, field winding is necessary connected to the armature winding.
 When generator started, due to residual flux, it develops a small amount of EMF
which drives a small current in the field winding. This tends to increase the flux in the
poles in turn increases the EMF.This cumulative process continues until generator
produces a rated voltage.
They further classified into:
a) DC Shunt generator
b) DC Series generator
c) DC Compound generator.
a) Shunt generator:
 In shunt generator, the field winding is connected in parallel with the armature
winding and combination across the load. As shown in the fig.
Ish- current through shunt field winding Rsh- Resistance of shunt field winding
From the fig
Armature current Ia = IL + Ish and Ish =
Induced EMF Eg = Vt+ IaRa
Terminal voltage Vt = Eg - IaRa
b) Series generator:
 In series generator, the field winding is connected in series with the armature winding
and to the load. As shown in the fig.
Ia
Ise- current through series field winding Rse- Resistance of series field winding
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From the fig

Armature current Ia = Ise = IL
Induced EMF Eg = Vt+ IaRa + IseRse
Eg = Vt+ Ia(Ra + Rse) [Ia = Ise]
Terminal voltage Vt = Eg - Ia(Ra + Rse)
Compound Generator:
 The compound generator has provided with magnetic field in combine with excitation
of shunt and series field winding. The part of field winding is connected in parallel
with armature called shunt field winding and part in series with armature winding
called series field winding.
 There are two types of Compound generators such as
(i) Long shunt Compound Generator
(ii) Short Shunt Compound Generator
Short Shunt Compound Generator:

The shunt field winding is connected in parallel only with the armature. As shown in the fig.
Long Shunt Compound generator: The shunt field winding is connected in parallel
with the series combination of armature and series field winding.
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Problems:
1. The emf generated in the armature of a shunt generator is 625 volts, delivering its
full load current of 400 A to the external circuit. The field current is 6 amps and
the armature resistance is 0.06Ω. What is the terminal voltage?
Solution:
Given: Eg=625 V, IL= 400 A, Ish = 6A, and Vt=?
Wkt Ia = IL + Ish = 400+6 = 406 A
Terminal Voltage Vt = Eg – IaRa (neglecting brush voltage drop)
= 625 - (406X0.06)
Vt = 600.64V
2. A 30 kW, 300V, DC shunt generator has armature and field resistances of 0.05
ohm and 100ohm respectively. Calculate the total power developed by armature
when delivers full output power.
Solution: PL = 30kW, Vt = 300 V, , Pa= ?
Wkt the power developed in the armature Pa = Eg x Ia

Therefore PL= Vt x
, =3A
Ia = IL + Ish = 100 + 3 = 103A
Eg = Vt + Ia Ra = 300 + 103 X 0.05 = 305.15V
Power developed by armature = EgIa = 305.15 X 103 = 31.4304kW
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DC Motors
Operation of a DC motor:
 When a DC machine is loaded as a motor, the armature conductors carry current.

These conductors lie in the magnetic field of the air gap. Thus, each conductor
experiences a force. The conductors lie near the surface of the rotor at a common
radius from its centre. Hence, a torque is produced around the circumference of the
rotor, and the rotor starts rotating.
Working Principle of a DC motor

The principle of operation of the D C motor is” when a current carrying conductor is placed
in a magnetic field, it experiences a mechanical force”.
Consider a single conductor place in a magnetic field as shown in the fig and the main flux
produced by the poles.
When conductor excited by a separate supply it carries a current in a particular direction.

Consider the conductor carries the current away from an observer as shown in the fig.
Any current carrying conductor produces its own magnetic field around it hence, this
conductor also produces its own flux around it. The direction of this flux can be determined
by right hand thumb rule. It is observed that the direction of flux is in clockwise direction.
Now there are two fluxes present,
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1. The flux produced by the poles called main flux.

2. The flux produced by the current carrying conductor.
These are shown in the fig
From this, it is clear that on one side (left side) of the conductor, both fluxes are in the same
direction, there is gathering of the flux lines as two fluxes help each other.
As against this, on the left of the conductor, the two fluxes are in the opposite direction and
hence try to cancel each other. Due to this, density of the flux line in this area gets weakened.
So on the right, there exists high flux density area while on the left of the conductor there
exists low flux density as shown in the fig.
This flux distribution around the conductor acts like a stretched rubber band under tension.
This exerts a mechanical force on the conductor which acts from high flux density area
towards low flux density area, i.e. From left to right for the case considered as shown in the
fig,
Back Emf and its Significance:

 When the Armature of D C motor starts rotating and armature conductor cuts the
magnetic flux, hence an EMF is induced in the Conductor called Back EMF.
 The induced emf acts in opposite direction to the applied voltage ‘V’(Lenz’s law) ,
hence it is called as back EMF. It is given by
=
The Voltage equation of DC motor is V = Eb + IaRa
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Therefore armature current Ia =
Significance:
 The basic Principle of the Back EMF is that N

 When the load suddenly put on the motor, motor tries to slow down. So speed of the
motor reduces due to which the back EMF decreases. So the net Voltage )
increases and motor draws more armature current.
 When the load on the motor decreases, the speed of the motor increases due to which
the back EMF increases. So the net Voltage ) decreases and motor draws
less armature current
 Therefore due to the presence of back emf. The d.c. motor acts as a self-regulating
machine. It regulates the flow of armature current i.e., it automatically changes the
armature current to meet the load requirement
Torque equation of a DC Motor:

The turning and twisting force about an axis is called torque.
Consider a wheel of radius ‘R’ meters acted upon the circumferential force ‘F’ netwons as
shown in fig
The wheel is rotating with speed of ‘N’ rpm then its angular speed is,
ω= rad/sec --------1
so work done in one revolution is
W= force X distance travelled in one revolution = F X 2πR joules
Power P= = = F*R *
P = T* ω
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Where T =Torque in Nm and ω= angular speed in rad/sec
Let ‘Ta’is torque developed in the armature of the motor. It is also called as armature
torque.
The gross mechanical power developed in the armature is ‘EbIa’
Power in armature = armature torque *ω
EbIa = Ta *
But, =
Therefore * Ia = T a *
So, the torque equation is given as
Ta =
Types of DC Motors:
Motors are classified into 3 types: a) DC Shunt motor.
b) DC Series motor.
c) DC Compound motor.
a) DC Shunt motor:
 In shunt motor the field winding is connected in parallel with armature.
 The current through the shunt field winding is not the same as the armature current.
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In above circuit
IL= Ia + Ish and Ish =
V= Eb + IaRa
b) DC Series motor:
 In series wound motor the field winding is connected in series with the armature.
 Therefore, series field winding carries the armature current.
R
a
In above circuit
IL= Ia = Ise
V= Eb + IaRa+ IseRse
V= Eb + Ia(Ra+ Rse)
c) DC Compound motor:
 Compound wound motor has two field windings; one connected in parallel with the
armature and the other in series with it.
 There are two types of compound motor connections :
1) Short-shunt connection Compound Motor
When the shunt field winding is connected in parallel with the armature winding it
is called short-shunt connection.
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Long shunt connection Compound Motor when the shunt winding is so

connected that in parallel with the series combination of armature and series field it is called
long-shunt
R
a
List of the formulas
1) =
2) Armature torque Ta =
Shaft torque Tsh = P / ω
3) The mechanical power developed by the armature is Pm= EbIa

4) DC Shunt motor
V= Eb + IaRa
5) DC series Motor IL= Ia = Ise
V= Eb + Ia(Ra+ Rse)
PROBLEMS
1. A 4 pole DC motor takes 50A armature current. The armature has lap connected
winding with 480 conductors. The flux per pole is 20mwb. Calculate the gross
torque developed in the armature.
Solution: Given P=4 lap onnected A = P = 4
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Ia = 40A Z = 480 φ = 20 x 10-3 wb Ta =?
Wkt Armature torque Ta =
Ta =
Ta = 76.39 N-m
2. A 200V, 4 pole, lap wound, d.c shunt motor has 800 conductors on its armature.
The resistance of armature winding is 0.5 ohm & that of shunt field winding is 200
ohm. The motor takes a current of 21A, the flux/pole is 30mWb. Find the speed &
gross torque developed in the motor
Solution: Given V = 200 V P=4 lap connected A = P = 4

DC shunt motor Z = 800 Ra= 0.5Ω and Rsh= 200Ω
-3
IL = 21A φ = 30 x 10 wb
N =? Ta =?
Wkt = N=
For DC Shunt motor
V= Eb + IaRa I,e Eb =V - IaRa
IL= Ia + Ish
Ish =
Ia= IL- Ish = 21 -1 =20A

Therefore Eb =V - IaRa = 200 – 20x0.5
Eb =190V
N= =
N= 475 rpm
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Armature torque Ta =
Ta =
Ta = 76.38 N-m
3. A 4 pole, 220V , lap connected ,DC shunt motor has 36 slots, each slot has 16
conductors. It draws a current of 40A from the supply. The field and armature
resistances are 110Ω and 0.1Ω respectively. The motor develop an output power of
6KW .the flux per pole is 40mwb calculate
i) The speed
ii) Torque developed in the armature
iii) Shaft torque
Solution: Given V = 220 V P=4 lap connected A=P=4
DC shunt motor Z = 36 x16 =576
IL = 40A Ra= 0.1Ω and Rsh= 110Ω
P=6 W φ = 40 x 10-3 wb
N =? Ta =? Tsh =?
Wkt = N=
For DC Shunt motor
IL= Ia + Ish
Ish =
Ia= IL- Ish = 40 -2 =38A

Eb =216.2 V
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N= =
N= 563.02 rpm
Ta =
Ta =139.207 N-m
Shaft torque Tsh =
= = 101.73 N-m
4. 220 V series motor is taking a current of 40A, resistance of armature 0.5 ohms,
resistance of series field is 0.25 ohms. Calculate
i) Back Emf
ii) Power wasted in armature, and power wasted in series field.
Solution: Given V = 220
DC Series motor IL = 40A Ra= 0.5Ω and Rse= 0.25Ω
Eb =? Pa =? Pse =?
Wkt DC series Motor IL= Ia = Ise =40A

V= Eb + Ia(Ra+ Rse)
Therefore
Eb = V - Ia(Ra+ Rse)
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Eb = 220 - 40(0.5+ 0.25)
Eb = 190 V
Power wasted in armature Pa = Ia2 Ra = 402 X 0.5 = 800 W

Power wasted in series field Pse = Ise2 Rse = 402 X 0.25 = 400 W
Characteristics of DC Motors:
The three important characteristic curves are
1. Torque Vs Armature current characteristic (Ta/Ia)

2. Speed Vs Armature current characteristic (N/Ia)
3. Speed Vs Torque characteristic (N/Ta)
DC Shunt Motor Characteristics:
In DC shunt motor the field winding is connected in parallel with the source voltage, so the
field current Ish and the flux are constant in a shunt motor .
Torque Vs Armature current characteristic (Ta/Ia):
We know that in a DC Motor Ta α Φ Ia by torque equation

The flux Φ is constant in shunt motor, therefore Ta α Ia
The torque increases linearly with the armature current
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Speed Vs Armature current characteristic (N/Ia):
 N Eb and Eb=V-IaRa. As the flux is constant.

 When load increases , the armature current increases hence the drop IaRa
increases therefore V-IaRa decreases hence speed decreases.
Speed Vs Torque characteristic (N/Ta ): The speed reduces when the load torque
increases.
DC Series Motor:
In DC series motor the field winding is connected in series with the source voltage, so the
field current Ise and the flux are not constant.
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We know that Ta ∝ ΦIa
Ta ∝ I2a
 The armature torque vs. armature current curve up to magnetic saturation is a

parabola, which is shown in the characteristic curve OA.
 On the other hand once the magnetic saturation is reached, the Ta is directly
proportional to the Ia.
 As a result the armature torque vs. armature current magnetic saturation characteristic
is a straight line, which is shown in the curve AB.
In Series Motor Speed -- N α (Eb/Φ)

N α 1/ Ia φ
N α 1/ Ia2
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Speed Vs Torque characteristic (N/Ta): The speed reduces when the load torque
increases.
Speed control of dc motors : Field control method & Armature control

method
1. DC Shunt motor
i) Field control method
N ∝ 1/𝟇
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ii) Armature control method
N α V – IaRa
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Dept of EEE, SVIT

Basic Electrical Engineering 21ELE13/23
MODULE 3A
Syllabus: DC Machines: (a) Principle of operation, constructional details, induced emf
expression, types of generators, and the relation between induced emf and terminal
voltage. (b) Principle of operation, back emf and torque equations, types of motors,
characteristics (shunt and series only), and applications.
Single Phase Transformer: Necessity of transformer, the principle of operation,

Types, and construction of single-phase transformers, emf equation, losses,
variation of losses with respect to load, efficiency, and condition for maximum
efficiency.
Introduction:
 An electrical machine, deals with energy transfer either from mechanical to electrical
or electrical to mechanical is called DC Machine.
 The DC machines are classified into
 i) DC Generator
 ii) DC Motor
 DC Generator: The machine which converts mechanical energy into Electrical
energy
 DC motor: The machine which converts Electrical energy into Mechanical energy
Working principle of D.C.Machine as a generator

Working principle of D.C.Machine as a generator:
 It is based on the principle of dynamically induced e.m.f .

 Whenever a conductor cuts magnetic flux, dynamically induced e.m.f. is produced in
the conductor according to the Faradays laws of Electromagnetic Induction. This
e.m.f. causes a current to flow in the circuit, if the conductor circuit is closed.
 The emf is given by
e=B*l*v*Sinθ volts/coil side where,
Where B=the flux density in Tesla,
l=the active length of the coil side in meters
v=the velocity with which the coil is moved in meters/sec and
θ is the angle between the direction of the flux and relative velocity.
 The direction of the induced voltage can be obtained by applying Fleming's right
hand rule.
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Construction of DC Machine
Salient parts of a D.C.Machine are:

(i)Yoke
ii) Field system (poles)
(iii) Armature
(iv) Commutator
(v)Brushes
Yoke:
It is made of cast iron or silicon steel
 It serves the purpose of outermost cover of the D.C. machine. So that the insulating
materials get protected from harmful atmospheric elements like moisture, dust and
various gases like SO2, acidic fumes etc.
 It provides mechanical support to the poles, It forms a part of the magnetic circuit and
it provides a path of low reluctance for magnetic flux.
Poles:
It is made cast iron or cast steel laminations which are stamped together.
Each pole is divided into two parts a) pole core and b) pole shoe
 Pole core basically carries a field winding which is necessary to produce the flux.
 It directs the flux produced through air gap to armature core and to the next pole.
 Pole shoe enlarges the area of armature core to come across the flux, which is
necessary to produce larger induced emf. To achieve this, pole shoe has given a
particular shape
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Field winding [F1-F2]:

It is made of conducting material like copper or Aluminum. The field winding is wound on
the pole core with a definite direction.
 It carries current due to which the pole core behaves as an electromagnet and
produces necessary flux. As it’s exciting the pole as electromagnet hence it is also
called Exciting winding.
Armature:
 It is further divided into two parts namely,
 Armature core and
 Armature winding
• Armature core is cylindrical in shape made up of iron and mounted on the shaft. It is
provided with of slots on its outer periphery to place the conductor and the air ducts
to permit the air flow through armature which serves cooling purpose.
• In order to collect the Emf generated in each conductor they are connected in certain
pattern called armature winding.
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Commutator:
 The basic nature of Emf induced in the armature conductors is alternating. This
needs rectifications in case of D.C. generator which is possible by device called
commutator.
 It is cylindrical in shape made of hard drawn copper segments. These segments are
insulated from each other by a layer of mica.
Brushes and brush gear:
 Brushes collect current from commutator and make it available to the stationary
external circuit.
 Ball bearings are usually used as they are more reliable.
 For heavy duty machines, roller bearings are preferred.
Types of D.C. Armature Windings
Lap Winding Wave Winding
In this winding all the pole groups of

In this winding all the coils carrying current in
the coils generating emf in the same
the same direction are connected in series and
direction at any instant of time
coils carrying current in opposite direction are
are connected in parallel by the brushes.
connected in other series circuit.
2. Lap winding is also known as parallel 2. Wave winding is also known as series
windings. winding.
3. The number of parallel path is equal 3. The number of parallel paths is always equal
to the number of poles i.e., A = P. to 2 i.e., A = 2.
4. The number of brush required by this

4. The number of brushes required by this
winding is always equal to the number
winding is always equal to 2.
of poles.
5. Lap windings are used for low 6. Wave windings are used for high voltage and
voltage and high current machines. low current machines.
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Emf Equation of DC Generator:
Let,
Φ = Flux produced by each pole in weber (Wb) and
P = number of poles in the DC generator.
N = speed of the armature conductor in rpm.
Consider a one revolution of the conductor
Total flux produced by all the poles
Time taken to complete one revolution
Now, according to Faraday’s law of induction, the induced EMF of the conductor is equal to
rate of change of flux.
Therefore,
Induced EMF of one conductor is
Let us suppose there are Z total numbers of conductor in a generator, and arranged in such a
manner that all parallel paths are always in series.
Here, Z = total numbers of conductor A = number of parallel paths
Then, Z/A = number of conductors connected in series
Therefore,
Induced EMF of DC generator
Eg = EMF of one conductor × number of conductor connected in series.
Induced Emf of DC generator is
𝑷𝑵𝒁
e=
𝟔𝟎𝑨
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Problems on Emf equation

Formula
Φ- flux produced by each pole in wb

Z- total no of conductors in armature
N- speed armature in rpm
P- No of poles
A- No of parallel paths , for wave winding A=2
for lap winding A=P
1. A 4 pole, 1500 rpm DC generator has a lap wound armature having 24 slots with 10
conductors per slot. If the flux per pole is 0.04 Wb, calculate EMF generated in the
armature. What would be the generated EMF if the winding is wave connected?
Solution:
Given: P = 4, N = 1500rpm, Lap i. e. A = P = 4,
Z = Slots X Conductors per Slot = 24 X 10 = 240
If winding is wave connected, A = 2
2. A 4 pole generator with wave wound armature has 51 slots each having 24
conductors. The flux per pole is 0.01 weber. At what speed must the armature rotate
to give an induced EMF of 220 V? What will be the voltage developed if the winding
is lap connected and the armature rotates at the same speed?
Solution:
Given: P = 4, wave connected hence A = 2, 51 slots, 24 conductors per slot,
Where Z = 51 X 24 = 1224
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i.e N = 539.2156 r.p.m … speed for 220V
For lap wound, A = P = 4 and N = 539.2156 r.p.m
3. A 8 pole DC generator has 500 armature conductors and useful flux per pole of
0.065 wb. What will be EMF generated if the winding is lap connected and runs at
1000 rpm? What must be the speed at which it is to be driven to produce the same
EMF if the winding is Wave connected?
Solution:
Given: P = 8 Z= 500 conductors
When it is lap connected A=P =8 and Eg =?
ii) N=? When Eg = 541.667V and winding is wave connected I,e A=2
N = 250 rpm
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Types of DC Generators
 Thw field winding is also called as exciting winding. Supplying current to the field
winding is excitation.
 Depending upon the method of excitation used in the generators are classified into
i) Separately excited DC generator
ii) Self-excited DC generator.
.
Separately Excited Generators:
In separately excited dc machines, the field winding is supplied from a separate power
source as shown in below fig.
Eg- generated Emf in generator

Ia – Armature current
R - armature resistance
a
I - Load current
L
Vt- Terminal voltage
F1 and F2 – Terminals of field winding
Self-Excited Field Generators:

 The self-excited DC generator produces a magnetic field by itself without DC sources
from an external. The electromotive force that produced by generator at armature
winding is supply to a field winding instead of DC source from outside of the
generator. Therefore, field winding is necessary connected to the armature winding.
 When generator started, due to residual flux, it develops a small amount of EMF
which drives a small current in the field winding. This tends to increase the flux in the
poles in turn increases the EMF.This cumulative process continues until generator
produces a rated voltage.
They further classified into:
a) DC Shunt generator
b) DC Series generator
c) DC Compound generator.
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a) Shunt generator:
 In shunt generator, the field winding is connected in parallel with the armature
winding and combination across the load. As shown in the fig.
Ish- current through shunt field winding Rsh- Resistance of shunt field winding
From the fig
Armature current Ia = IL + Ish and Ish =
Induced EMF Eg = Vt+ IaRa + Vbrush
Terminal voltage Vt = Eg - IaRa - Vbrush
b) Series generator:
 In series generator, the field winding is connected in series with the armature winding
and to the load. As shown in the fig.
Ia
Ise- current through series field winding Rse- Resistance of series field winding
From the fig
Armature current Ia = Ise = IL
Induced EMF Eg = Vt+ IaRa + IseRse + Vbrush
Eg = Vt+ Ia(Ra + Rse) + Vbrush [Ia = Ise]
Terminal voltage Vt = Eg - Ia(Ra + Rse) - Vbrush
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Compound Generator:
 The compound generator has provided with magnetic field in combine with excitation
of shunt and series field winding. The part of field winding is connected in parallel
with armature called shunt field winding and part in series with armature winding
called series field winding.
 There are two types of Compound generators such as
(i) Long shunt Compound Generator
(ii) Short Shunt Compound Generator
Short Shunt Compound Generator:

The shunt field winding is connected in parallel only with the armature. As shown in the fig.
From the fig

Armature current Ia = Ise + Ish and Ise = IL
Terminal voltage Vt = Eg - IaRa -Ise Rse - Vbrush
Long Shunt Compound generator: The shunt field winding is connected in parallel
with the series combination of armature and series field winding.
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From the fig
Armature current Ia = IL + Ish , Ia = Ise and Ish =

Eg = Vt+ Ia(Ra + Rse) + Vbrush [Ia = Ise]
Terminal voltage Vt = Eg - Ia(Ra + Rse) - Vbrush
Problems:
1. The emf generated in the armature of a shunt generator is 625 volts, delivering its
full load current of 400 A to the external circuit. The field current is 6 amps and
the armature resistance is 0.06Ω. What is the terminal voltage?
Solution:
Given: Eg=625 V, IL= 400 A, Ish = 6A, and Vt=?
Wkt Ia = IL + Ish = 400+6 = 406 A
Terminal Voltage Vt = Eg – IaRa (neglecting brush voltage drop)
= 625 - (406X0.06)
Vt = 600.64V
2. A 30 kW, 300V, DC shunt generator has armature and field resistances of 0.05
ohm and 100ohm respectively. Calculate the total power developed by armature
when delivers full output power.
Solution: PL = 30kW, Vt = 300 V, , Pa= ?
Wkt the power developed in the armature Pa = Eg x Ia

Therefore PL= Vt x
, =3A
Ia = IL + Ish = 100 + 3 = 103A
Eg = Vt + Ia Ra = 300 + 103 X 0.05 = 305.15V
Power developed by armature = EgIa = 305.15 X 103 = 31.4304kW
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3. A d.c. series generator has armature resistance of 0.5 and a series field
resistance of 0.03 . It drives a load of 50 A. If it has 6 turns/coil and total 540 coils
on the armature and is driven at 1500r.p.m., calculate the terminal voltage at the
load. Assume 4 poles, lap type winding, flux per pole as 2mWb and total brush
drop as 2 V.
Solution:
, IL= 50A Total coils are 540 with 6 turns/coil.

i.e. Total turns = 540X6 = 3240
Total Conductors Z = 2 X Turns
Z= 2 X 3240 = 6480
Vt= ?
For P=4 lap type, A = P =4 and = 2 m Wb = 2 X 10-3 Wb
Eg=
Wkt terminal voltage Vt = Eg - Ia(Ra + Rse) - Vbrush

Where Ia = IL = 50A
Vt = 324- 50(0.5+0.03) -2
Vt = 295.5V
DC Motors
Operation of a DC motor:
 When a DC machine is loaded as a motor, the armature conductors carry current.

These conductors lie in the magnetic field of the air gap. Thus, each conductor
experiences a force. The conductors lie near the surface of the rotor at a common
radius from its centre. Hence, a torque is produced around the circumference of the
rotor, and the rotor starts rotating.
Working Principle of a DC motor

The principle of operation of the D C motor is” when a current carrying conductor is placed
in a magnetic field, it experiences a mechanical force”.
Consider a single conductor place in a magnetic field as shown in the fig and the main flux
produced by the poles.
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When conductor excited by a separate supply it carries a current in a particular direction.

Consider the conductor carries the current away from an observer as shown in the fig.
Any current carrying conductor produces its own magnetic field around it hence, this
conductor also produces its own flux around it. The direction of this flux can be determined
by right hand thumb rule. It is observed that the direction of flux is in clockwise direction.
Now there are two fluxes present,

1. The flux produced by the poles called main flux.
2. The flux produced by the current carrying conductor.
These are shown in the fig
From this, it is clear that on one side (left side) of the conductor, both fluxes are in the same
direction, there is gathering of the flux lines as two fluxes help each other.
As against this, on the right of the conductor, the two fluxes are in the opposite direction and
hence try to cancel each other. Due to this, density of the flux line in this area gets weakened.
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So on the left, there exists high flux density area while on the right of the conductor there
exists low flux density as shown in the fig.
This flux distribution around the conductor acts like a stretched rubber band under tension.
This exerts a mechanical force on the conductor which acts from high flux density area
towards low flux density area, i.e. From left to right for the case considered as shown in the
fig,
Due to this, overall armature experience a twisting force called torque and armature of the
motor starts rotating.
The magnitude of the force experienced by the conductor in a motor is given by,
F=B l I Newtons(N)
B=Flux density due to the flux produced by the field winding.
l=Active length of the conductor.
I=Magnitude of the current passing through the conductor.
The direction of such force i.e. the direction of rotation of motor can be determined by
Fleming’s right hand rule.
Back Emf and its Significance:

 When the Armature of D C motor starts rotating and armature conductor cuts the
magnetic flux, hence an EMF is induced in the Conductor called Back EMF.
 The induced emf acts in opposite direction to the applied voltage ‘V’(Lenz’s law) ,
hence it is called as back EMF. It is given by
=
The Voltage equation of DC motor is V = Eb + IaRa
Therefore armature current Ia =
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Significance:
 The basic Principle of the Back EMF is that N

 When the load suddenly put on the motor, motor tries to slow down. So speed of the
motor reduces due to which the back EMF decreases. So the net Voltage )
increases and motor draws more armature current.
 When the load on the motor decreases, the speed of the motor increases due to which
the back EMF increases. So the net Voltage ) decreases and motor draws
less armature current
 Therefore due to the presence of back emf. The d.c. motor acts as a self-regulating
machine. It regulates the flow of armature current i.e., it automatically changes the
armature current to meet the load requirement
Voltage equation of a Dc motor:
Multiplying the equation (1) by Ia we get
Where,
VIa is the electrical power input to the armature.
I2aRa is the copper loss in the armature.
EbIa is the Mechanical power developed by the armature
The mechanical power developed by the armature is Pm.
Pm= EbIa
Torque equation of a DC Motor:

The turning and twisting force about an axis is called torque.
Consider a wheel of radius ‘R’ meters acted upon the circumferential force ‘F’ netwons as
shown in fig
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The wheel is rotating with speed of ‘N’ rpm then its angular speed is,
ω= rad/sec --------1
so work done in one revolution is
W= force X distance travelled in one revolution = F X 2πR joules
Power P= = = F*R *
P = T* ω
Where T =Torque in Nm and ω= angular speed in rad/sec
Let ‘Ta’is torque developed in the armature of the motor. It is also called as armature
torque.
The gross mechanical power developed in the armature is ‘EbIa’
Power in armature = armature torque *ω
EbIa = Ta *
But, =
Therefore * Ia = T a *
So, the torque equation is given as
Ta =
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Types of DC Motors:
Motors are classified into 3 types: a) DC Shunt motor.
b) DC Series motor.
c) DC Compound motor.
a) DC Shunt motor:
 In shunt motor the field winding is connected in parallel with armature.
 The current through the shunt field winding is not the same as the armature current.
In above circuit
V= Eb + IaRa+ Vbrush
b) DC Series motor:
 In series wound motor the field winding is connected in series with the armature.
 Therefore, series field winding carries the armature current.
R
a
In above circuit
IL= Ia = Ise
V= Eb + IaRa+ IseRse +Vbrush
V= Eb + Ia(Ra+ Rse) +Vbrush
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c) DC Compound motor:
 Compound wound motor has two field windings; one connected in parallel with the
armature and the other in series with it.
 There are two types of compound motor connections :
1) Short-shunt connection Compound Motor
When the shunt field winding is connected in parallel with the armature winding it
is called short-shunt connection.
In above circuit
IL= Ise= Ia + Ish
Long shunt connection Compound Motor

When the shunt winding is so connected that in parallel with the series
combination of armature and series field it is called long-shunt connection
R
a
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In above circuit
IL= Ise + Ish and Ise= Ia
List of the formulas
1) =
2) Armature torque Ta =
Shaft torque Tsh = P / ω
3) The mechanical power developed by the armature is Pm= EbIa

4) DC Shunt motor
V= Eb + IaRa+ Vbrush
5) DC series Motor IL= Ia = Ise
PROBLEMS
1. A 4 pole DC motor takes 50A armature current. The armature has lap connected
winding with 480 conductors. The flux per pole is 20mwb. Calculate the gross
torque developed in the armature.
Solution: Given P=4 lap onnected A = P = 4
Ia = 40A Z = 480 φ = 20 x 10-3 wb Ta =?
Wkt Armature torque Ta =
Ta =
Ta = 76.39 N-m
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2. A 200V, 4 pole, lap wound, d.c shunt motor has 800 conductors on its armature.
The resistance of armature winding is 0.5 ohm & that of shunt field winding is 200
ohm. The motor takes a current of 21A, the flux/pole is 30mWb. Find the speed &
gross torque developed in the motor
Solution: Given V = 200 V P=4 lap connected A = P = 4

DC shunt motor Z = 800 Ra= 0.5Ω and Rsh= 200Ω
-3
IL = 21A φ = 30 x 10 wb
N =? Ta =?
Wkt = N=
For DC Shunt motor
IL= Ia + Ish
Ish =
Ia= IL- Ish = 21 -1 =20A

Eb =190V
N= =
N= 475 rpm
Ta =
Ta = 76.38 N-m
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3. A 4 pole, 220V , lap connected ,DC shunt motor has 36 slots, each slot has 16
conductors. It draws a current of 40A from the supply. The field and armature
resistances are 110Ω and 0.1Ω respectively. The motor develop an output power of
6KW .the flux per pole is 40mwb calculate
i) The speed
ii) Torque developed in the armature
iii) Shaft torque
Solution: Given V = 220 V P=4 lap connected A=P=4
DC shunt motor Z = 36 x16 =576
IL = 40A Ra= 0.1Ω and Rsh= 110Ω
P=6 W φ = 40 x 10-3 wb
N =? Ta =? Tsh =?
Wkt = N=
For DC Shunt motor
IL= Ia + Ish
Ish =
Ia= IL- Ish = 40 -2 =38A

Eb =216.2 V
N= =
N= 563.02 rpm
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Ta =
Ta =139.207 N-m
Shaft torque Tsh =
= = 101.73 N-m
4. 220 V series motor is taking a current of 40A, resistance of armature 0.5 ohms,
resistance of series field is 0.25 ohms. Calculate
i) Back Emf
ii) Power wasted in armature, and power wasted in series field.
Solution: Given V = 220
DC Series motor IL = 40A Ra= 0.5Ω and Rse= 0.25Ω
Eb =? Pa =? Pse =?
Wkt DC series Motor IL= Ia = Ise =40A

V= Eb + Ia(Ra+ Rse)
Therefore
Eb = V - Ia(Ra+ Rse)
Eb = 220 - 40(0.5+ 0.25)
Eb = 190 V
Power wasted in armature Pa = Ia2 Ra = 402 X 0.5 = 800 W

Power wasted in series field Pse = Ise2 Rse = 402 X 0.25 = 400 W
Dept of EEE, SVIT

Characteristics of DC Motors:
The three important characteristic curves are
1. Torque Vs Armature current characteristic (Ta/Ia)

2. Speed Vs Armature current characteristic (N/Ia)
3. Speed Vs Torque characteristic (N/Ta)
DC Shunt Motor Characteristics:
In DC shunt motor the field winding is connected in parallel with the source voltage, so the
field current Ish and the flux are constant in a shunt motor .
We know that in a DC Motor Ta α Φ Ia by torque equation

The flux Φ is constant in shunt motor, therefore Ta α Ia
The torque increases linearly with the armature current
 N Eb and Eb=V-IaRa. As the flux is constant.

 When load increases , the armature current increases hence the drop IaRa
increases therefore V-IaRa decreases hence speed decreases.
Dept of EEE, SVIT

Speed Vs Torque characteristic (N/Ta ): The speed reduces when the load torque increases.
DC Series Motor:
In DC series motor the field winding is connected in series with the source voltage, so the
field current Ise and the flux are not constant.
We know that Ta ∝ ΦIa
Ta ∝ I2a
Dept of EEE, SVIT

 The armature torque vs. armature current curve up to magnetic saturation is a

parabola, which is shown in the characteristic curve OA.
 On the other hand once the magnetic saturation is reached, the Ta is directly
proportional to the Ia.
 As a result the armature torque vs. armature current magnetic saturation characteristic
is a straight line, which is shown in the curve AB.
In Series Motor Speed -- N α (Eb/Φ)

N α 1/ Ia φ
N α 1/ Ia2
Speed Vs Torque characteristic (N/Ta): The speed reduces when the load torque increases.
Dept of EEE, SVIT

Necessity of a Starter:
The starter is not required to start a DC. Motor but it enables us to start the motor in desired,
safe way.
At the starting instant the speed of the motor is zero, (N = 0) and back emf Eb =0
The voltage equation of a de motor is, V = Eb +Ia Ra
At start V = Ia Ra Therefore Ia = V / Ra
So at start, motor is showing a tendency to draw an armature current which may affect the
performance of the motor and may burn out the winding
Module 3 (b): Single Phase Transformers

Introduction
 Transformer is a static device which transfer an electric power from one electrical
circuit to another electrical circuit, with or without change of the voltage and without
change of the frequency.
WORKING PRINCIPLE: - A transformer works on the principle of mutual induction

betweentwo magnetically coupled coils.
Dept of EEE, SVIT

Let N1-----> be the number of turns in coil 1 and

N2 ------> be the number of turns in coil 2
When the supply Voltage ‘V1’ is applied to the coil 1 the current ‘I1’ starts flowing in the
winding, which sets an alternating flux ‘φ’. Hence an emf ‘E1’ induced in the coil 1 due
the Electromagnetic Induction .
I,e E1= -N1
The part of flux ‘φ’ links the coil 2,which induces an Emf ‘E2’ in coil 2 due to Mutual
Induction. Hence current ‘I2’ starts flowing coil 2.
i.e E2 = -N2 .
Therefore we will get output voltage ‘V2’ across the coil 2.
CONSTRUCTION:
There are two basic parts of a transformer:

1) Magnetic core 2) winding
 The core of the transformer is either rectangular or square in size.
 The core is divided into i) Yoke ii)Limb
 Core is the Rectangular in shape which is made of thin sheets of silicon steel, which
are laminated in order to reduce eddy current losses.
 The laminated sheets are overlapped so that to avoid air gap and they stamped
together to form a core.
 The steel laminations are insulated from each other by using insulations like varnish
 The core provides low reluctance path for the flux provided by the winding
 The vertical portion on which the winding is wound is called Limb.
 The top and bottom horizontal portion is called Yoke.
 The core forms the magnetic circuit
 There are 2 windings i) Primary winding ii) Secondary winding which formsthe
Electric circuit, made up of conducting material like copper.
 The winding which is connected to the supply is called primary winding andhaving
'N1' number of turns.
 The winding which is connected to a load is secondary winding and having'N2'
number of turns.
Dept of EEE, SVIT

TYPES OF TRANSFORMER:
I) Based on Construction the transformer is divided into:

a) CORE TYPE b) SHELL TYPE.
Core type transformer:

 It is rectangular in shape.
 It consists of 2 limbs on which the windings are wound.
 Since the windings are placed on the outer limbs of the core they can be
easily removed for maintenance.
 The windings encircle the core.
 It has single magnetic circuit.
 It used for used for low voltage application.
Shell type transformer:
 It is rectangular in shape.
 It consists of 3 limbs and both the windings are wound on a central limb of the core.
 Since the windings are placed on the central limb of the core they cannot be easily
removed for maintenance.
 The core encircles the winding.
 It has double magnetic circuit.
 It used for used for high voltage application
Dept of EEE, SVIT

II) Based on of turns in primary and secondary winding the transformer is divided into:
a) STEP UP TRANSFORMER b) STEP DOWN TRANSFORMER c) ONE-ONE TRANSFORMER
Step up transformer
When N2 > N1 then (V2 > V1) the voltage is raised on the output side and is known as
Step up transformer
Step down transformer

When N2 < N1 then (V2 < V1) the voltage level is lowered on the output side and is
known as Step down transformer
(iii) 0ne-one transformer

When N2 = N1 then V2 =V1 the voltage is same on both side
Losses in a Transformer
The transformer has two types of losses
• Core or Iron losses [constant losses]
• Copper losses [cu losses]
Iron Losses (Pi)

Iron losses are caused by the alternating flux in the core of the transformer as this loss
occurs in the core it is also known as Core loss. Iron loss is further divided into hysteresis
and eddy current loss.
Once the core is manufactured the losses occurs in the core are constant. Hence the name
constant losses
1. Hysteresis Loss
Due to the alternating flux setup in the core of the transformer, it undergoes a cycle of
magnetization and demagnetization. Due to hysteresis effect there is a loss of energy in
this process which is called hysteresis loss
The hysteresis loss can be minimized by using silicon steel material for the construction
of core
Dept of EEE, SVIT

2. Eddy Current Loss

The EMF induced in the winding sets up an eddy current in the core, the losses due to the
eddy current is called eddy current losses.
The eddy current loss is minimized by making the core with thin laminations.
Copper losses (Pcu)

The copper losses are the power wasted in the form of I2 R loss due to the resistance of
primary and secondary winding.
The copper loss depends on the magnitude of current flowing though the windings
When the load is connected across the transformer the current I1 and I2 starts flowing in
the primary and secondary winding.
The losses can be minimized by designing the winding with low resistance conducting
material
Thus total losses in the transformer = iron losses + copper losses
= Pi +Pcu
EMF equation of a single phase transformer

Let
N1 - be the no. of turns of the primary winding
N2 – be the no. of turns secondary winding
f – Frequency in Hz
Φ – flux in weber
E1- be the RMS value of emf induced in the primary
E2 – be the RMS value of emf induced in the secondary
When the supply Voltage is applied to the primary winding which sets an alternating flux
‘φ’. Hence an EMF ‘E1’ and ‘E2’ are induced in the primary and secondary winding
respectively
e= -------------- (i)
Consider a one cycle of EMF
Let us consider 1/4th cycle of EMF
Dept of EEE, SVIT

The change in flux in 1/4th cycle is
dφ= Φm – 0 = Φm
The time taken to complete 1/4th of cycle is
dt = 1/4f
Substituting dφ and dt in equation I we get
Eavg = = = 4 f Φm
we know that Erms = 1.11 x Eavg
Therefore Erms = 1.11 X 4 f Φm
Erms = 4.44 f Φm induced per turn
If N1 be the number of turns in primary then E1 =4.44 f Φm N1 volts
If N2 be the number of turns in secondary then E2 =4.44 f Φm N2 volts
Transformer ratio
Voltage Ratio
W.k.t φm N1
φm N2
Taking a ratio = =
The transformer rating is done in VA( volt ampere)
(power)VA rating of a transformer= V1I1=V2I2
Therefore = = = K(transformer ratio)
Dept of EEE, SVIT

Efficiency
It is the ratio of the output power to the input power of a transformer
Power input = Power output + losses

= Power output + Pcu + Pi
= V2I2 cosφ + Pcu + Pi wkt Pcu = I2R2
Condition for Maximum efficiency

The efficiency of a transformer is given by
ƞ
Power input = Power output + losses
= Power output + Pcu + Pi
= V2I2 cosφ + Pcu + Pi wkt Pcu = I2R
Diff w.r.t I2 and equating to zero

𝑑𝜂 V 𝑐𝑜𝑠 + 𝐼22 + i V 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −V 𝑐𝑜𝑠 V 𝑐𝑜𝑠 + 𝐼22
2 = 0
𝑑𝐼2 V 𝑐𝑜𝑠 + 𝐼22 + i
𝑐𝑜𝑠 + 𝐼 R + i 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 + 𝐼 R

𝑐𝑜𝑠 + 𝐼 R + i 𝑐𝑜𝑠 + 𝐼 R
𝑐𝑜𝑠 + 𝐼 R + i 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝐼 R
i 𝐼 R =0
Therefore 𝐏𝐢 𝑰𝟐𝟐 𝐑𝟐
Dept of EEE, SVIT

List of formulas for problems


 Flux density Bm= φm/a wb/m2
2 2
 Transformer ratio k=
2
Power
 ( ) =
 =
 I1= and I2=
 Efficiency 𝑉𝐴 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑠
%𝜂
𝑉𝐴 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑠 + 𝑃𝑖 + 𝐼 R
If n is fraction of load [n=1 for full load and n=0.5 for 50% (half)load etc ]
𝒏 𝑽𝑨 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒄𝒐𝒔
%𝜼 𝟐 𝟐 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝒏 𝑽𝑨 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒄𝒐𝒔 + 𝑷𝒊 + 𝒏 𝑰 𝐑
Pi =Pcu = I2 R
Dept of EEE, SVIT

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MODULE-5
Syllabus: Domestic Wiring: Requirements, Types of wiring: casing, capping. Two way and
three way control of load.
Electricity Bill: Power rating of household appliances including air conditioners, PCs,
laptops, printers, etc. Definition of “unit” used for consumption of electrical energy, two-part
electricity tariff, calculation of electricity bill for domestic consumers.
Equipment Safety measures: Working principle of Fuse and Miniature circuit breaker
(MCB), merits and demerits.
Personal safety measures: Electric Shock, Earthing and its types, Safety Precautions to
avoid shock.
Types of Wiring Systems

1. Cleat Wiring :
The wires are supported on the porcelain cleats, which are placed at regular intervals.
Advantages
 Temporary connections
 Less cost
 Inspection and changes can be done easily
 Complete material recovered after disconnecting
Disadvantages
 Not suitable for permanent wiring
 Appearance is not good
 Wires are dangerous as they are exposed to atmospheric conditions
 Are liable to mechanical injury
2. Casing and Capping wiring System

The casing is a rectangular strip of wood which has 2 grooves into which wires
are laid. Capping is screwed into casing by means of screws.
Advantages
 Conductors are protected from atmospheric conditions
 Appearance is neat and clean
 Installation is simple
Disadvantages
 High risk of fire
 Skilled labours required for installation
 Costly
1
Page

3. Conduit Wiring :
i) Surface Conduit
Conduits are mounted or supported on the walls with the help of pipe hooks or
saddles. This is mainly used in workshops or in damp insulations like textile or
flour mills
ii) Concealed Conduit wiring
The conduits are burned under the wall at the time of plastering.
Used in the buildings where appearance is the important factor
Advantages
 Beauty of the premises is maintained
 Durable
 Long life
 Protects the wires from shocks, moistures and fire hazards
 Less maintenance
Disadvantages
Repair is difficult
Costly
Requires skilled labour
improper earthing leads to electric shock
Equipment Safety measures

Protective Devices
Protection for electrical installation must be provided in the event of faults such as short
circuit, overload and earth faults. The protective device must be fast acting and isolate the
faulty part of the circuit immediately. It also helps in isolating only required part of the circuit
without affecting the remaining circuit during maintenance. The following devices are
usually used to provide the necessary protection:
 Fuses
 Relays
 Miniature circuit breakers (MCB)
 Earth leakage circuit breakers (ELCB)
2
Page

Fuse
An Electric Fuse is a protective device which interrupts the flow of excessive current in an
Electric circuit. This works on the principle of heating effect of the Electric Current
A Fuse consists of conducting wire, which has high resistivity and low melting point. The
thickness of the Fuse wire is determined based on the amount of current flow in the circuit. If
a fault causes a flow of excess Current then a Conductor break the Circuit by melting or
separating it, the thin Conductor used is known as an Electric Fuse. The wire inside the Fuse
melts if there is an occurrence of high Current due to a short Circuit or an overloaded Circuit.
As a result of which the Current stops flowing since the wire has broken. In order to stop the
flow of Electricity. Once a Fuse melts, it can be changed or replaced with a new Fuse. A Fuse
is normally made up of elements like zinc, copper, aluminum and silver.
Miniature circuit breaker (MCB) :
An MCB - miniature circuit breaker is an electromagnetic device that embodies complete

enclosure in a molded insulating material.
The main function of an MCB is to open the circuit automatically when the current
passing through MCB exceeds the value for which it is set. It can be manually switched ON
and OFF as similar to normal switch if necessary. An MCB is a simple, easily operable
device and is maintenance-free too. It can be easily replaced.
The trip unit is the key part of the MCB on which the unit operates. The bi-metal present in
the MCB circuit protects against overload current and the electromagnet in the circuit
protects against short-circuit current.
Working
When the overflow of current takes place through MCB , the bimetallic strip gets
heated and it deflects by bending. The deflection of the bi-metallic strip or trip bar releases a
latch. The latch causes the MCB to turn off by stopping the flow of the current in the circuit.
This process helps to safeguard the appliances or devices from the hazards happening due to
overload or overcurrent. To restart the flow of current, MCB must be turned ON manually.
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In the case of short circuit conditions, the current rises suddenly in an unpredictable
way, leading to the electromechanical displacement of the plunger associated with a solenoid.
The plunger hits the trip lever, it causes the automatic release of the latch mechanism by
opening the circuit breaker contacts.
Comparison between Electric Fuse and MCB

ELECTRIC FUSE MINIATURE CIRCUIT BREAKER – MCB
Whenever excessive current flows through An electromagnetic mechanism present inside
the fuse, the conducting material inside it the MCB helps it to instantaneously interrupt
melts down thereby interrupting the current the current flow during faults.
flow.
Fuses other than rewireable fuses cannot be Miniature circuit breakers can be reused after
reused. the clearance of faults.
Fuses acts faster than MCB. Typical Tripping time for MCB is 20ms.
tripping time 2ms.
Can protect against short circuit and Can protect against short circuit and overloads.
overloads.
Cheaper than MCB. MCB costlier than fuses.
Fuse cannot be used as as an ON/OFF The Circuit breaker is used as an ON/OFF
switch. switches.
Personal safety measures:
Electric shock and precautions

An electric shock is the sudden discharge of electricity through a part of the body when a
person comes in contact with electrical equipment.
The factors affecting the severity of shock are
1. Magnitude of the current through the body
2. Path of the current through the body
3. Time for which current is passed through the body
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4. Frequency of the current

5. Physical and physiological condition of the person.

Precautions against Electric shock

 Avoid water at all times when working with electricity. Never touch or try repairing any
electrical equipment or circuits with wet hands. It increases the conductivity of the
electric current.
 Never use equipment with damaged insulation. The insulation of conductors must be
proper and in good condition.
 Earth connection should be maintained in proper condition
 Use of the fuses and cables of proper rating.
 Use the rubber soled shoes while working.
 Megger tests should be done to check the insulation.
 Never touch two different terminals at the same time.
 Never remove the plug by pulling wire.
 The sockets should be placed at a proper height
 Switch off supply and remove the fuses before starting the work with any installation.
 Always use insulated screw drivers, and line testers.
Earthing :
Connection of the body of electric equipment to the general mass of the earth by wire
of negligible resistance is called Earthing. It brings the body of the equipment to the zero
potential during electric shock.
Necessity of Earthing
1. To protect the human beings from danger of shock in case they come in contact with
the charged frame due to defective insulation.
2. It guarantees the safety of electrical appliances and devices from the excessive
amount of electric current.
3. It protects the appliances from high voltage surges and lightning discharge.
4. It provides an alternative path for leakage of current hence protects the equipment.
5. It keeps the voltage constant in the healthy phase
6. It protects the Electric system and buildings from lightning.
7. It avoids the risk of fire in the electrical installation system.
8. To maintain the line voltage constant under unbalanced load condition.
Types of Earthing
They are two types of earthing
1. Plate earthing
2. Pipe earthing
 Plate Earthing :
In this method a copper plate or GI plate of 60cmX60cmX3.18cm is placed vertically down
inside the ground at a depth of 3m. The plate is surrounded by the alternate layers of salt and
coal with a minimum thickness of about 15cm. The earth wires drawn through the GI pipe are
bolted through the earth plate. The GI pipe is fitted with the funnel on a top in order to have
an effective earthing by pouring the salt water periodically. The schematic arrangement is as
shown below.
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The earthing efficiency increases with the increase of the plate area and depth of the
pit. The depth of the pit depends upon the resistivity of the soil.
The only disadvantage of this method is that discontinuity of earth wires from the earthing
plate which is placed below the ground as it cannot be observed physically this may cause
miss leading and result into heavy losses under fault condition
 Pipe Earthing :
In this method a Galvanized iron pipe of 38 mm diameter and length of 2 meters with
12 mm holes is placed vertically into the ground at a depth of 5m.This pipe acts as an earth
electrode. The depth depends upon the condition of the soil
The pit area around the pipe is filled with the alternate layers of salt and coal for improving
the condition of the soil and earthing efficiency. The earth wires are connected to the top
section of the pipe above the ground level with nut and bolts. The funnel is provided to pour
the salt water. The schematic arrangement is as shown below.
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The contact surface of GI pipe with the soil is more as compare to the plate. Hence it can
handle large leakage current for the same electrode size. The earth wires connected to the GI
pipe above the ground level can be physically inspected time to time.
The only disadvantage of pipe earthing is that, the pipe length has to be increased sufficiently
in case of soil of high specific resistivity. This increases excavation work and hence increased
in cost.
Power rating of household appliances

The Rating of an electrical appliance indicates the voltage at which the appliance is designed
to work and the current consumption at that voltage. The Power rating of the appliance is
related the power it consumes. Every electrical appliance has a power rating which indicates
the amount of electricity required to do work. . This is usually given in watts (W) or
kilowatts (kW).
The Energy consumption of a device is calculated by multiplying the wattage of a device and
operational hours
Energy consumption = Wattage X operational hours.
UNIT: The unit of electrical energy consumed is kWh. One kilowatt-hour is the electrical
energy consumed by an electrical appliance of power 1 kW when it is used for one hour.
Therefore 1kwh =1 unit.
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Calculation of Power consumption of electrical home appliances.

Let us consider different home appliances to calculate approximate total energy consumption
of house per month.
Sl Appliances Watts NO Total no Total no No of Energy consumed
NO of watts kilowatt operational in kwh(units) per
(KW) hours per day= energy
day consumed / 1000
1 Tube light 60 W 10 600 0.6 5 3
2 Fan 75 W 4 300 0.3 8 2.4
3 Refrigerator 200W 1 200 0.2 24 4.8
4 AC 1000W 1 1000 1 5 5
5 Laptop 50W 1 50 0.05 2 0.1
6 Television 50W 1 50 0.05 3 0.15
7 Grinders 1000W 1 1000 1 ½ 0.5
8 Printers 50W 1 50 0.05 ½ 0.025
9 Washing 2000W 1 2000 2 1 2
machine
10 Micro wave 1000W 1 1000 1 1 1
Total 18.9=19units
Therefore per day 19 units of energy is consumed

For 1 month = 19 x 30 = 570 units per month
Tariff
The electrical energy generated in generating station is delivered to a large number of
consumers at reasonable rates.
Definition of tariff: The rate at which the electrical energy is supplied to a consumer is
known as tariff.
The tariff should include:
1. Recovery of cost of generating electrical energy in power stations
2. Recovery of cost of capital investment in transmission and distribution.
3. Recovery of operation and maintenance of supply of electrical energy.
4. A suitable profit on capital investment.
There different types tariff. The consumers who have appreciable maximum demand for them
two part tariff method is employed.
Two Part Tariff

When the rate of electricity energy is charged on the maximum demand of the consumer and
the units consumed is called two part tariff.
In this tariff scheme, the total costs charged to the consumers consist of two components:
fixed charges and variable charges . It can be expressed as:
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Total Cost = [A (kW) + B (kWh)] Rs

Page

Where, Fixed charges - A = charge per kW of max demand
Variable charges - B = charge per kWh of energy consumed.

The fixed charges will depend upon maximum demand of the consumer and the variable
charge will depend upon the energy (units) consumed. The fixed charges are due to
generation, transmission and maintenance.
Advantages
If a consumer does not consume any energy in a particular month, the supplier will get the
return equal to the fixed charges.
Disadvantages
If a consumer does not use any electricity, he has to pay the fixed charges regularly.
The maximum demand of the consumer is not determined. Hence, there is error of assessment
of max demand.
Electricity Bill
Calculation of electricity bill for low tension domestic consumer is as follows.
The electricity bill consists of two components: fixed charges and variable charges (running
charges). It can be expressed as:
Total Electricity Bill = [A (kW) + B (kWh)] + Tax
Where, Fixed charges - A = charge per kW of max demand
A= Total kW X charge per kW
Example: if the sanctioned load is 3KW then A= [1x85 + 2x95] = 275rs

(Note: For 1kw it is 85 rs and above 1kw it 95 rs per kw)
Where Variable charges - B = charge per kwh of energy consumed.

B = No of units consumed x rate per unit
Example: If the no of units consumed is 120 units then
B = [50 x4.1 + 50 x 5.55+ 20 x 7.1] = 624 rs
(Note: For 0- 50 units – 4.1 rs per unit, 50- 100 units – 5.55 rs , 100- 200 units – 7.1rs)
Therefore Total Electricity bill for given example is
= 275 +624+ Tax.
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Introduction to Electrical Engineering 22ESC142/242

INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICAL ENGNEERING (22ESC142/242)

Syllabus: Introduction: Conventional and non-conventional energy resources;

Conventional Energy Resource

Non-Conventional Energy Resource

Difference between Conventional and Non-Conventional Energy Resource

Conventional Energy Non-Conventional Energy

gas, firewood, etc. biofuels, etc.

Dept of EEE, Sai Vidya Institute of Technology, Rajanukunte, Bangalore

 These sources are mainly  These sources are used at small

GENERAL STRUCTURE OF ELECTRICAL POWER SYSTEMS

The electrical power supply system consists of 3 divisions:

Dept of EEE, Sai Vidya Institute of Technology, Rajanukunte, Bangalore

 The block diagram and single line diagram is as shown in fig.

Hydro power generation

General Layout of Hydro power plant

Dept of EEE, Sai Vidya Institute of Technology, Rajanukunte, Bangalore

Block diagram of Hydro power plant

In Hydroelectric power stations the water can be store in a man-made lake,

Nuclear power generation

Nuclear Power plants is a thermal power plant where heat generated by

General Layout of Nuclear power plant

Dept of EEE, Sai Vidya Institute of Technology, Rajanukunte, Bangalore

Block diagram of Nuclear power plant

Wind power generation

Dept of EEE, Sai Vidya Institute of Technology, Rajanukunte, Bangalore

The mechanical power is transferred through gears to the generator to increase

Solar power generation

Solar power is harnessed using Solar Photovoltaic (PV) technology that

remains Constant ".

Dept of EEE, Sai Vidya Institute of Technology, Rajanukunte, Bangalore

V – Potential difference across the circuit or voltage in volts (V).

I - Current in Amps (A).

Limitations of Ohm‟s law

 It is not applicable to non-metallic conductors like silicon carbide.

i) Kirchhoff‟s Current Law (KCL)

Dept of EEE, Sai Vidya Institute of Technology, Rajanukunte, Bangalore

Applying KCL to the above circuit

ii) Kirchhoff‟s Voltage law [KVL]

Applying KVL to the loop

V1+ V2 = IR1 + IR2

Note: Sign convention: while tracing the path across

Dept of EEE, Sai Vidya Institute of Technology, Rajanukunte, Bangalore

It is denoted as „E‟ and measured in Joules (J).

Analysis of Series and Parallel Circuits

Dept of EEE, Sai Vidya Institute of Technology, Rajanukunte, Bangalore

V1 = IR1 V2 = IR2 V3 = IR3

Applying Ohm‟s law to the overall circuit V= I RT

 If „N‟ resistances connected in series then

RT= R1+ R2+R3+---------------+RN

II. Parallel Circuit

Dept of EEE, Sai Vidya Institute of Technology, Rajanukunte, Bangalore

Consider three resistances connected in parallel.

Applying Ohm‟s law to the overall circuit I=

Req - is the Total or equivalent resistance of the circuit

Dept of EEE, Sai Vidya Institute of Technology, Rajanukunte, Bangalore

Thus the reciprocal of Total or Equivalent Resistance in a parallel Circuit is

 If „N‟ resistances connected in parallel then

Dept of EEE, Sai Vidya Institute of Technology, Rajanukunte, Bangalore