Sr Damage Temperature Affected Resistant Affected Units Related

Sec. Definition Defect Critical Factors Morphology Mitigation Inspection Comments

# Mechanism °F (°C) Materials Materials /Equipment Mechanism

Cracking of dissimilar metal Cracking can result from Carbon Steel and low alloy
Dissimilar Metal Type of filler metal, heating and Cracking can occur due to different
welds occurs in the ferritic creep damage, from fatigue steel, material combinations Cracks form at the toe of the 100% PT after buttering. 100% UT on Thermal fatigue, corrosion
cooling rate, metal temp., time at Clad pping. Hydroprocessing exchanger Joints of Nickel base filler metals coefficients of thermal expansion
12 4.2.12 Weld (DMW) side of a weld between an cracking, from High temperatures that have widely differing N/A weld in the heat-affected zone of butter layer after PWHT, 100% RT, fatigue, creep, and sulfide
temp., weld geometry and inlet and outlet piping etc. and CS between ferritic and austenitic which
Cracking austenitic and a ferritic material sulfide stress cracking or thermal expansion the ferritic material 100% UT, PMI stress cracking
thermal cycling differ by about 25 to 30% or more.
operating at high temp. hydrogen disbonding coefficients

High and non-uniform thermal

Prevent interruptions in the flow of
stresses develop over a
Magnitude of tern perature high temp, lines. Install thermal Highly localized and difficult to locate, Thermal shock usually occurs when a
relatively short time in a piece A form of thermal fatigue FCC, cokers, catalytic reforming and Surface initiating cracks may also
13 4.2.13 Thermal Shock
of equipment due to
High temperatures All metals and alloys N/A differential and the coefficient of
appear as "craze" cracks
sleeves to prevent liquid PT and MT can be used to confirm Thermal fatigue colder liquid contacts a warmer metal
cracking high severity hydroprocessing units
thermal expansion of the material impingement. Review hot/cold cracking surface
differential expansion or
injection points
contraction

Erosion is the mechanical removal of surface material as a

result of relative movement between, or impact from solids, Velocity and concentration of Susceptible locations: Bends, elbows,
liquids, vapor. impacting medium, the size and Localized loss in thickness in the tees and reducers; downstream of
Improvements in design involve Visual examination , UT checks or RT Cavitation, liquid
14 4.2.14
Erosion/Erosion - Erosion-corrosion is a the damage that occurs when
N/A
All metals, alloys and
N/A
hardness of impacting particles, All types of equipment exposed to form of pits, grooves, gullies,
changes in shape, geometry and for metal loss, IR scans are used to impingement erosion,
letdown valves and block valves;
Corrosion corrosion contributes to erosion by removing protective films refractories the hardness and corrosion moving fluids waves, rounded holes and pumps; blowers, propellers; impellers;
materials selection detect refractory loss fretting
or scales, or by exposing the metal surface to further resistance of material, and the valleys agitators; agitated vessels; heat
corrosion under the combined action of erosion and angle of impact exchanger tubing; etc.
corrosion

Copper and brass, cast iron, Inadequate NPSH. Temp, Pump casings, pump impellers (low Avoid conditions that allow the
Formation and instantaneous Sharp-edged pitting but may also
Cavitation is a form of carbon steel, low alloy steels, approching to Boiling Point, pressure side) and in piping absolute pressure to fall below the Liquid impingement or Damage occurs only in localized low-
15 4.2.1S Cavitation collapse of innumerable tiny N/A N/A have a gouged appearance in Acoustic monitoring. VT, UT. RT
erosion 300 Series SS. 400 Series SS presence of solid or abrasive downstream of orifices or control vapor pressure of the liquid or by erosion pressure zones
vapor bubbles rotational components
and nickel base alloys particles valves changing the material properties

CS &Ti: These materials

Exposed to Stresses can arise from
exhibit an endurance Thermal Cycling: Coke drums, auxiliary 'Clam shell type fingerprint that Good design, generous radius along Ratio of endurance
cyclical stresses for an either mechanical loading or PT, MT and SWUT.
limit below which fatigue Geometry, stress level, number of boiler, water washing systems, has concentric rings edges and corners, good fitup, limit over UTS is typically between 0.4
16 4.2.16 Mechanical Fatigue extended period, often thermal cycling and are N/A All engineering alloys VT of small diameter pipin. Vibration induced fatigue
cracking will not occur, cycles, and material properties Mechanical Loading:Pressure Swing called "Beach marks" emanating reomove defects like burs or lips, and 0.5,
resulting in sudden, unexpected typically wel 1 below the yield Vibration monitoring
regardless of the number Absorbers, steam reducing stations from the crack initiation site grinding marks etc Number of cycles 106 -107
failure strength of the material
of cycles

Socket welds and small bore piping at

Cracks are produced as the A lack of or excessive support or
or near pumps, Small bore bypass lines. Crack initiating at a point of high Design and the use of supports. Visible signs of vibration, pipe
Vibration-Induced result of dynamic loading due Amplitude, Frequency of Mechanical fatigue. stiffening allows vibration and possible
17 4.2.17 Form of mechanical fatigue N/A All engineering materials N/A Small branch connections, Safety relief stress or discontinuity such as a Install gussets or stiffeners on Small movement or water Audible sounds of
Fatigue to vibration, water hammer, or vibration, and fatigue resistance Refractory degradation cracking Heat exchanger tubes may be
valves, failure of the refractory and/or thread or weld joint Bore Piping (SBP) vibration,PT. MT
unstable fluid flow susceptible to vortex shedding
the anchoring system

Thermal insulating and erosion resistant refractories are

FCC reactor regenerator vessels, piping, Signs of excessive cracking, Oxidation,
susceptible to various forms of mechanical Insulating ceramic fibers, Proper selection of refractory,
Refractory Refractory selection, design and cyclones, slide valves and internals; in spalling or lift-off from the Visual inspection during shutdowns, IR Sulfidation, Refractory type and density must be
18 4.2.18 damage (cracking, spalling and erosion) as well as corrosion N/A castables, refractory brick N/A anchors and fillers and their proper
Degradation installation fluid cokers; cold shell catalytic substrate, washed away or to monitor for hot spots Rue gas dew point selected to resist abrasion and erosion
due to oxidation, sulfidation and other high temperature and plastic refractories design and installation
reforming reactors; waste heat boilers thinned corrosion
mechanisms.

Composition of Material, grain

Heavy wall vessels in areas of high Intergranular and can be surface
Cracking of a metal due to stress relaxation during Post Weld Low alloy steels, 300 Series SS size, residual stresses from UT & MT forCS, Stress relief cracking and More likely to occur in
Above restraint including nozzle welds and breaking or embedded depending Minimize restraint during welding
19 4.2.19 Reheat Cracking Heat Treatment (PWHT) or in service at elevated and nickel base alloys such as N/A fabrication, section thickness , UT & PT for SS, stress relaxation thicker sections and higher strength
750"F (399 -C) heavy wall piping, HSLA steels are very on the state of stress and and PWHT
temperatures Alloy 800H notches and stress concentrators, Embedded cracks: UT cracking materials
susceptible to reheat cracking geometry
metal strengths etc.

Valves, regulators, and other

Pressure, Oxygen content, line Keep systems clean.
Gaseous Oxygen- The spontaneous ignition or combustion of metallic and CS, Titanium alloys. impingement areas are potentially External heat damage (glowing Tell-tale signs of a minor fire such as Avoid velocities that are nominally
SS, Copper alloys (with velocity, component thickness, Maintain velocity within
20 4.2.20 Enhanced Ignition nonmetallic components can result in fires and explosions in N/A Plastics, rubbers, and vulnerable. Non-metals such as those pipe or heat tint) is a strong external heat damage, or signs of N/A above 100 feet/second (30 m/sec) in
>55% Cu & >50% Ni) temperature, design and piping recommended limits, use only
and Combustion certain oxygen-enriched gaseous environments hydrocarbon lubricants used for seats and seals, are easier to indication of an internal fire malfunctioning valves gaseous oxygen
configuration, cleanliness "oxygen compatible* lubricants
ignite than metals

4.3 Uniform or Localized Loss of Thickness

Any unit where there is a conductive Generalized loss in thickness or
Three conditions must be met; Good design
Occurs at the junction of dissimilar metals when they are fluid and alloys are coupled. Heat may have the appearance of a The farther the alloys are apart in the
All metals with the exception Less difference in Electrolyte, Two different Coatings can be helpful, but the Visual inspection and UT thickness
21 4.3.1 Galvanic Corrosion joined together in a suitable electrolyte, such as a moist or N/A exchangers. Buried pipelines, electrical crevice, groove or pitting Soil corrosion table, the higher the driving force for
of most noble metals Galvanic series materials, An electrical more noble material should be gauging
aqueous environment, or soils containing moisture transmission support towers and ship corrosion, depending on the corrosion
connection coated
hulls driving force, conductrvitv

Occurs from moisture associated with atmospheric Corrosion rates Physical location (industrial,
Carbon steel. Low alloy steels Equipment with low temp, to allow
Atmospheric conditions. Marine environments and moist polluted increase with temp, marine, rural); moisture, General or localized los in Surface preparation and proper Dry rural environments cause very little
22 4.3.2 and Copper Alloyed N/A moisture, poor condition of paint, VTandUT Corrosion under insulation
Corrosion industrial environments with airborne contaminants are most up to about 250 *F designs; temperature; presence of thickness, Iron oxide (red rust) coating application corrosion
aluminum bimetallic connections
severe (121-C) salts. Sulfur, dirt

VT, UT: thickness, Profile RT: Small

10 (-12) to 350 (175) Appropriate paints/coatings and
Corrosion of piping, pressure vessels and structural Carbon steel, low alloy steels, Design of insulation system, Vapor barriers, weatherproofing or Bore piping. Neutron backscatter: wet Corrosion becomes more severe at
Corrosion Under forCS&LAS Localized pitting or thickness loss. maintaining the Atmospheric corrosion,
23 4.3.3 components resulting from water trapped under 300 Series SS, and duplex N/A insulation type, temperature and mastic, at insulation termination points insulation. Deep penetrating eddy- oxidation and chloride SCC metal temp, between the boiling point
Insulation (CUI) 140 (60) to 400 (205) Carbuncle type pitting insulation/sealing/vapor barriers to
insulation or fireproofing stainless steels environment such as flanges. Deadlegs, supports current, IR thermography 212’F (100-C) and 350‘F (121’C)
for 55 (Aus., Dup.) prevent moisture ingress
Guided wave UT
Sr Damage Temperature Affected Resistant Affected Units Related
Sec. Definition Defect Critical Factors Morphology Mitigation Inspection Comments
# Mechanism °F (°C) Materials Materials /Equipment Mechanism

Fresh water : >60 "C Carbon steel, all grades of Temperature, type of water
Water-cooled heat exchangers and General corrosion, Periodic calculation of U-factors,
Cooling Water Caused by dissolved salts, gases, Brakish & Salt water: stainless steel, copper, (fresh, brackish, salt water) and Proper design, operation and MIC, CSCC,
24 4.3.4 organic compounds or microbiological activity N/A cooling towers in all applications across pitting corrosion, MIC, stress Ultrasonic flow meters, Velocities below about 3 fps (1 m/s)
Corrosion >46 "C scaling aluminum, titanium and the type of cooling system, chemical treatment Galvanic corrosion
all industries corrosion cracking and fouling EC or IRIS inspection of tubes are likely to result in fouling
potential exists nickel base alloys oxygen content, and velocities

external treatment system, deaerating O2 corrosion(closed heaters and

Dissolved gas (oxygen and or equipment, feedwater lines, pumps, economizers) tends to be a Dissolved gases, oxygen and carbon
Boiler Water Carbon steel, some low alloy O2 scavenging treatments: sodium CO2 corrosion,
General corrosion and pitting in the boiler system and carbon dioxide), pH. temp., stage heaters and economizers as well pitting. Water analysis : pH, conductivity, dioxide, which lead to oxygen pitting
25 4.3.5 Condensate N/A steel, some 300 Series SS and N/A sulfite or hydrazine Corrosion fatigue,
condensate return piping quality of the feedwater, and the as the steam generation system on C02 corrosion (condensate chlorine or residual biocide, TDS corrosion and carbonic acid corrosion
Corrosion copper based alloys CO2: Fe3O4 or amine inhibitor Erosion/erosion-corrosion
specific feedwater treating system both the water and fire sidesand the return) tends to be a "smooth respectively
condensate return system grooving"

Corrosion occurs in
When CO. dissolves in water to form carbonic acid (H2COj).
the liquid phase, often Cr 2 12%, Boiler feedwater and condensate Localized thinning and/or pitting. Corrosion inhibitors, pH above 6, General or local loss: VT, UT and RT, Boiler water condensate Increasing partial pressures of C02
The acid may lower the pH and sufficient quantities may Carbon steel and low alloy Partial pressure of CO2, pH and
26 4.3.6 CO2 Corrosion at locations where C02 300 Series SS, 400 Series systems. Overhead systems of Deep pitting and grooving in Operating coditions to be Weld seams: Angle probe UT or RT, corrosion and Carbonate result in lower pH condensate and
promote general corrosion and/or pitting corrosion of carbon steels temperature
condenses from the SS and duplex SS regenerators in CO2 removal plants areas of turbulence maintained Water analyses (pH.Fe, etc.) cracking higher rates of corrosion.
steel
vapor phase

SO2, SOi, HCI gases and the water vapor in the flue gas will All fired process heaters and boilers H2SO4 corrosion: Maintain Temp, above dewpoint HCL corrosion.
Dewpoint
Flue-Gas Dew-Point Carbon steel, low alloy steels Concentration of sulfur and Broad, shallow pits, Wall-thickness by UT, H2SO4 28O*F (138'C)
27 4.3.7 condense to form sulfurous acid, sulfuric acid and Low temperatures N/A that burn fuels containing sulfur, Heat- of H2SO4 Chloride stress corrosion
Corrosion and 300 Series SS chlorides, operating temperature SSC will have surface SCC of 300 Series SS using VT & PT HCI 130"F (54’C)
hydrochloric acid which can lead to severe corrosion Recovery Steam Generators (HRSG's) cracking
breaking cracks like crazed

MIC is most often found in heat

Carbon and low alloy steels, Localized pitting under deposits Biocides such as chlorine, bromine, Measuring biocide residual, microbe
Microbiologically caused by living organisms such as bacteria, algae or fungi. It Stagnant water or low-flow, exchangers, bottom water of storage All organisms require a source of
0-235'F 300 Senes SS and 400 Senes or tubercles. Cup-shaped pits ozone, UV light. counts and visual appearance, loss of
28 4.3.8 Induced Corrosion is often associated with the presence of tubercles or slimy N/A oxygen, light or dark, high salinity, tanks, piping with stagnant or low flow, Cooling water corrosion carbon, nitrogen and phosphorous for
(-17 to 113 T) SS, aluminum, copper and within pits in carbon steel or Minimize low flow or stagnant duty of a heat exchanger. Foul smelling
(MIC) organic substances pH range of 0 to 12, temperature and piping in contact with some soils. growth
some nickel base alloys subsurface cavities in stainless ste zones water
Fire water systems

Temp., moisture and oxygen

Underground piping and equipment as The structure to soil potential, inline The most effective protection is a
availability, soil resistivity, soil
Deterioration of metals exposed to soils is referred to as soil Carbon steel, cast iron and well as buried tanks and the bottoms of External thinning with localized Use of special backfill, coatings and inspection devices, guided UT tools, combination of a corrosion resistant
29 4.3.9 Soil Corrosion N/A N/A type, cathodic protection, stray Galvanic corrosion
corrosion ductile iron above ground storage tanks. Ground losses due to pitting cathodic protection indirectly by pressure testing, or coating and a cathodic protection
current drainage, coating type,
supported metal structures visually by evaluation system
age

UT Thickness gauging.
Boilers and steam generating
Localized corrosion due to the concentration of caustic or localized metal loss as grooves or Proper design, Reducing the amount UT scans and radiography,
Above Carbon steel, low alloy steels 400 and some Nickel equipment including heat exchangers, Also referred to as caustic Very high corrosion rates above 200'F
30 4.3.10 Caustic Corrosion alkaline salts that usually occurs under Caustic (NaOH or KOH) locally thinned areas under of free caustic, Adequate water Injection points inpection,
evaporative or high heat transfer conditions
150 *F (66 *C ) and 300 Series SS base Alloys preheat exchangers, furnace tubes and gouging or ductile gouging pro
insulating deposits flooding visual inspection with the use a
transfer lines
boroscope

Dezincification,
One or more constituents of an Color change or a deep etched
Composition of the alloy and Underground cast iron piping. Addition of certain alloying Color change. Metallography, Acoustic Destannification,
alloy are preferentially attacked Mechanical properties of the Copper alloys (brass, bronze, (corroded) appearance. Uniform Dealloying in brasses is visually evident
exposure conditions Heat exchanger tubing (brass, Al brass). elements to resist dealloying. techniques (loss of "metallic ring") and Denickelrfication,
31 4.3.11 Dealloying leaving a lower density dealloyed material are N/A tin) as well as Alloy 400 and N/A through the cross-section (layer¬ by a reddish, copper color instead of
including temperature, degree of Boiler feedwater piping systems and Altering the exposure ultrasonic attenuation, Fitness-For- Deal uminification.
(dealloyed) often porous significantly degraded cast iron type) or it can be localized (plug- the yellow brass color
aeration. pH and exposure time afterboiler components conditions Service (FFS) Graphitic corrosion.
structure type)
Selective leaching
Widespread or localized,
Cast irons are comprised of graphite
Dealloying in which the iron soft water, salt water, mine waters, may not be noticeable VT, Internal GC: coatings and/or cement
White iron is not subject Temperature, moisture, degree of Acoustic techniques (loss of "metallic particles embedded in an iron matrix.
matrix is corroded, leaving Loss of strength, ductility Below Gray cast iron, nodular and dilute acids and in underground Damaged areas will be soft and linings Selective leaching.
32 4.3.12 Graphitic Corrosion to this damage because aeration, low pH and exposure ring") and ultrasonic attenuation. Graphitic corrosion may affect
corrosion products and porous and density 200 -F (93 '0 malleable cast irons piping, as well as in boiler feedwater easily gouged with a knife or External GC: external coatings or Dealloying
there is no free graphite time Hardness test adjacent components by causing
graphite equipment, Fire water system hand tools cathodic protection
galvanic corrosion

4.4 High Temperature Corrosion (>400’F (204°C)]

Fired heaters and boilers, combustion
CS and Alloys: General thinning Operating conditions monitoring,
carbon steel and low alloy equipment, piping and Upgrading to a more resistant alloy.
300 Series SS and nickel alloys: tubeskin thermocouples and/or
Oxygen reacts with carbon steel and other alloys at high Significant at 1000 'F steels, 300 Series SS. 400 Chromium content of Metal temperature and alloy equipment that operates in high Chromium is the primary alloying Rates of metal loss increase with
33 4.4.1 Oxidation Generally have a very thin dark infrared thermography. External N/A
temperature converting the metal to oxide scale (538 *C) Series SS and nickel base the material composition temperature environments when metal element that affects resistance to increasing temperature
scale ultrasonic thickness
alloys temperatures exceed about oxidation
measurements
1000- F (538'C)
Operating conditions monitoring for
Corrosion of carbon steel and other alloys resulting from their Crude, FCC, coker, vacuum, visbreaker Uniform thinning but can also
Carbon steel and low alloy sulfur level, tubeskin thermocouples Sulfide scale on the surface of the
reaction with sulfur compounds in high Begins at metal Composition, temperature and and hydroprocessing occur as localized corrosion or Upgrading to a higher chromium
34 4.4.2 Sulfidation temperature environments. The presence of hydrogen temperatures above
steels, 300 Series SS and 400 Chromium content of
concentration of corrosive units Heaters fired with oil, gas, coke, high velocity erosion-corrosion alloy, solid or clad 300 or 400 Series
and/or infrared thermography. Sulfidic corrosion
component offers varying degrees of
Series SS, Nickel base alloys. the material External ultrasonic thickness protection depending on the alloy and
accelerates corrosion. This mechanisms is also 500 *F (260 ’C) sulfur compounds. Boilers and high temperature damage, A sulfide scale will cover SS
Copper base alloys measurements, Proactive and the severity of the process stream
known as sulfidic corrosion equipment the surface of components
retroactive PMI
Loss of high temp, creep
Carbon is absorbed into a Carbon steel and low alloy Select alloys strong surface oxide or Sulfur inhibits carburization and is
ductility, loss of ambient Carburizing environment. High Substantial increases in hardness Hardness testing a nd field
material at elevated temp, steels. 300 & 400 Series SS, Fired heater tubes. Coke deposits. sulfide film formers,Reduce the A severe form of often added in the process stream in
temp, mechanical Above 1100 "F Chromium content of temp.. Susceptible material. High and loss in ductility. Volumetric metallography.
35 4.4.3 Carburization while in contact with a cast stainless steels, nickel Ethylene pyrolysis and steam reformer carbon activity through lower temp, carburization known as small amounts in steam/gas cracking in
properties, loss of (593 *C) the material gas phase carbon activity and low increase, Increase in level of Cracking: RT, UT and some magnetic
carbonaceous material or base alloys (e.g., Alloys 600 furnaces and higher oxygen /sulfur partial metal dusting olefin and thermal hydrodealkylation
weldability, and corrosion oxygen potential ferromagnetism techniques
carburizing environment and 800) and HK/HP alloys. pressures units
resistance

Damage occurs on the surface

By controlling the chemistry of the Field Metallography and Replication Shallow decarburization can slightly
The removal of carbon and Chromium and exposed to the gas environment.
Lose of room temp, tensile Carbon steels and low alloy Time, temperature and low Hydroprocessing or catalytic reforming gas phase and alloy selection. Alloy (FMR), Decarburization results in a High Temperature decrease the strength of the material,
36 4.4.4 Decarburization carbides leaving only an iron N/A Molybdenum contents The decarburized layer will be
strength and creep strength steels carbon activity units, well as fired heater tubes. steels with Cr and Mo are more softening that can be confirmed by Hydrogen Attack (HTHA) but has no detrimental effect on the
matrix of the material free of carbide phases. Carbon
resistant hardness testing overall performance of the component
steel will be pure iron
Sr Damage Temperature Affected Resistant Affected Units Related
Sec. Definition Defect Critical Factors Morphology Mitigation Inspection Comments
# Mechanism °F (°C) Materials Materials /Equipment Mechanism

Corroded surface smooth and UT and RT for loss of thickness.

Naturally occurring acids may contribute Carbon steel piping and process damage may be difficult to Long range UT techniques for long run
Type and quantity of organic Minimized through HCI corrosion. Organic compounds in the crude
significantly to aqueous corrosion depending on the type and equipment in crude tower, vacuum distinguish. pipe. Automatic ultrasonic scanning
Aqueous Organic acids, metal temperature, fluid the injection of a chemical Ammonium chloride furnace form low molecular weight
59 5.1.1.12 quantity of acids, and the presence of other contaminants. N/A All grades of Carbon steel N/A tower and coker fractionator In pipe or other equipment where methods or profile RT for locally
Acid Corrosion These acids may also result from additives used in upstream
velocity, system pH, and presence neutralizing additive. Upgrading to corrosion organic acids which condense in
overhead systems including heat there is significant flow, the thinned areas. Strategically placed
of other acids corrosion-resistant alloys distillation tower overhead systems.
operations or desalting exchangers, towers and drums surfaces are sometimes smoothly corrosion probes and/or corrosion
grooved. coupons

5.12 Environment-Assisted Cracking

Normally occurring during shutdowns, startups or during "Sensitization" refers to the composition / time /temp,
All units where sensitized alloys are localized and may not be evident
Polythionic Acid operation when air and moisture are present. Cracking is due Flushing the equipment with
75O"F tol500°F 300 Series SS. Alloy 6O0/60OH A combination of environment, used in sulfur-containing environments, until a leak appears during start¬ Flapper disc sanding prior to PT, dependent formation of chromium carbide in the grain
60 5.12.1 Stress Corrosion to sulfur acids forming from sulfide scale, air and moisture N/A alkaline or soda ash solution to
(400“C to 815°C) and Alloy 800/800H material, and stress commonly damaged heat exchanger up. Cracking propagates boundaries of the metal. Sensitization occurs in the 75OUF to
Cracking (PASCC) acting on sensitized austenitic stainless steels. Usually neutralize sulfur acids
adjacent to welds or high stress areas.
tubes, furnace tubes and piping intergranularly 1500°F (400-C to 815 ”C) temp, range.

WFMT or ACFM techniques,

Combined action of tensile stress and corrosion in aqueous All non-PWHT carbon steel piping and
Surface breaking flaws that PWHT all carbon steel welds in PT is usually not effective. Amine cracking is a form of alkaline
alkanolamine systems used to remove /absorb H2S and/or equipment in lean amine service
initiate on the ID of piping and piping and equipment. Water wash UT technique including external SWUT. Amine cracking is more stress corrosion cracking. It is most
Amine Stress Carbon steel and low alloy Solid or clad stainless Level of tensile stress, amine including contactors, absorbers,
61 5.122 CO2 and their mixtures from various gas and liquid N/A equipment primarily in the weld non-PWHT carbon steel piping and AET can also be used for monitoring properly termed amine often found at or adjacent to non-
Corrosion Cracking steels steel, Alloy 400 concentration and temperature strippers, regenerators and heat
hydrocarbon streams. Amine cracking is most often HA2. Cracking typically develops equipment prior to welding, crack growth and locating growing stress corrosion cracking PWHT’d carbon steel weldments or in
exchangers as well as any equipment
associated with lean amine services. parallel to the weld treatment orstearrcut. cracks highly cold worked parts
subject to amine carryover.

Hydrogen Blistering: Surface bulges on the ID, the OD or

within the wall thickness of a pipe or pressure vessel. The Effective barriers that protect the Blistering results from hydrogen generated by corrosion, not
Hydrogen blisters appear as
hydrogen atoms combine to form hydrogen molecules that surface of the steel from the wet hydrogen gas from the process stream. PWHT will not prevent
bulges on the ID or OD surface
are too large to diffuse out and the pressure builds to the H2S environment Blistering and HIC from occurring
point where local deformation occurs, forming a blister.

Hydrogen Induced Cracking (HIC): Hydrogen blisters can

form at many different depths from the surface of the steel,
Blistering, HIC, SOHIC and SSC damage
in the middle of the plate or near a weld. In some cases,
Environmental conditions (pH, can occur throughout the refinery HIC damage can occur wherever
neighboring or adjacent blisters that are at slightly different HIC is often found in so-called "dirty" steels with high levels of
HjS level, contaminants, temp.), wherever there is a wet H2S blistering or subsurface HIC-resistant steels can be used
depths (planes) may develop cracks that link them together. inclusions
material properties (hardness, environment present. In laminations are present
Interconnecting cracks between the blisters often have a stair
microstructure, strength) and hydroprocessing units, increasing
step appearance, and so HIC is sometimes referred to as Process conditions should be
Blistering, HIC, and tensile stress level. concentration of ammonium bisulfide
"stepwise cracking" evaluated. Inspection for wet H2S
SOHIC: Hydrogen permeation or above 2% increases the
Wet H2S Damage damage generally focuses on weld
Stress Oriented Hydrogen Induced Cracking (SOHIC): SOHIC Ambient and 300°F Carbon steel and low alloy diffusion rates have been found potential for blistering, HIC and SOHIC.
62 5.1.2.3 (Blistering/HIC/ N/A seams and nozzles. WFMT, EC, RT or
is similar to HIC but is a potentially more damaging form of (150°C) or higher steels to be minimal at pH 7 and Cyanides significantly increase the
SOHIC/SSC) ACFM techniques. UT techniques
cracking which appears as arrays SSC: Below about increase at both higher and probability and severity of blistering,
including external SWUT. AET can be
of cracks stacked on top of each other. The result is a through 180uF (82°C) lower pH. HIC and SOHIC damage. SSC is most In pressure-containing
used for monitoring crack growth. Blistering, HIC and SOHIC damage are not related to steel hardness.
thickness crack that is perpendicular Hydrogen permeation increases likely found in hard weld and heat equipment, SOHIC and SSC
SOHIC is driven by localized stresses so that PWHT is also somewhat
to the surface and is driven by high levels of stress (residual or with increasing H2S partial affected zones and in high strength damage is most often associated
effective in reducing SOHIC damage.
applied). They usually appear in the pressure. components including bolts, relief valve with the weldments Wash water injection to dilute the
base metal adjacent to the weld heat affected zones where springs, 400 Series SS valve trim, HCN concentration.
they initiate from HIC damage or other compressor shafts, sleeves and springs. PWHT can also help to minimize
cracks or defects including sulfide stress cracks. susceptibility to SOHIC.
Specialized corrosion inhibitors
Sulfide Stress Cracking (SSC): Cracking of metal under the
SSC can also be found at any SSC can initiate on the surface of steels in highly localized zones of
combined action of tensile stress and corrosion in the
location where zones of high high hardness in the weld metal and beat affected zones. Hardness
presence of water and H2S. SSC is a form of hydrogen stress
hardness are found in is primarily an issue with SSC. PWHT is highly effective in
cracking resulting from absorption of atomic hydrogen that is
vessels or in high strength steel preventing or eliminating SSC by reduction of both hardness and
produced by the sulfide corrosion process on the metal
components residual stress
surface.

Hydrogen Stress Cracking is a form of environmental cracking

All piping and equipment exposed to HF Same mechanism that is
that can initiate on the surface of high strength low alloy Surface breaking cracks, usually PWHT is beneficial in reducing the Susceptibility increases with increasing
acid at any concentration with hardness Metallography, WFMT, Hardness responsible for SCC in wet
Hydrogen Stress steels and carbon steels with highly localized zones of high Carbon steel and low alloy Steel hardness, strength and associated with weldments. hardness and residual stresses. Use hardness. Hardness levels above
63 5.1.2.4 hardness in the weld metal N/A N/A levels above the recommended limit testing H^ environments except
Cracking - HF steels. stress Cracking will be intergranular. carbon steels with Carbon Rockwell C 22 (237 BHN) are highly
ASTM A193B7M bolts are also that HF acid is generating
and HA2 as a result of exposure to aqueous HF acid Equivalents (CE) less than 0.43. susceptible.
susceptible if overtorqued the hydrogen
environments

Surface breaking cracks that occur adjacent to carbon steel

Post-fabrication stress-relieving Monitoring the pH, CO3 2 Water wash non-PWHT piping and
Fluid catalytic cracking unit main
Carbonate Stress welds under the combined action of tensile
Residual stress level of carbon Propagates parallel to the weld in heat treatment of 1200°F to 1225’F concentration of FCC sour waters. equipment prior to steamout or heat
fractionator overhead condensing and
Carbon steel and low alloy steel and the water chemistry. the heat-affected zone, or (649°C to 663°C). WFMT or ACFM, UT including external treatment in hot carbonate
64 5.1.2.S Corrosion Cracking stress in systems containing a free water phase with N/A N/A reflux system, the downstream wet gas Carbonate cracking
steels Most failures have occurred in adjacent base metal within 2 A metavanadate inhibitor can be SWUT techniques. systems. Grinding out the cracks is a
(ACSCC) carbonate, where some amount of H2S is also compression system, and the sour
the range of pH 8 to 10 inches (50 mm) of the weld used in hot carbonate systems in AET for crack growth and locating viable method of crack depth
present water systems
CO2 removal units growing cracks. determination

5.13 Other Mechanisms