UNIT 2 MODELS OF COMMUNICATION

Structure
2.0 Introduction
2.1 Learning Outcomes
2.2 Communication Models
2.3 Shannon and Weaver’s Mathematical Model
2.4 Osgood and Schramm’s Models
2.5 Berlo’s Model
2.6 Gerbner’s Model
2.7 Newcomb’s Model
2.8 Westley and Maclean’s Model
2.9 Jakobson’s Model
2.10 A Critique of Transmission Perspective
2.11 Let Us Sum Up
2.12 Keywords
2.13 Further Readings
2.14 Check Your Progress: Possible Answers

2.0 INTRODUCTION
In this unit we will study various models of communication. With their help, we
will try to understand the process of communication with various steps and stages.
We will start with some basic communication models and then move to the more
complex models of communication. Alongwith them, we will uncover various
concepts of noise, feedback, context, shared experience and equilibrium.
We will further discuss how these concepts affect and impact the process of
communication and effectivity of a message. Towards the end of unit, we will try
to critique the perspective adopted by these models and explore other ways of
understanding the process of communication from other angles.

2.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES

After completing this model you should be able to:

explain why we need models to understand communication;

describe the basic and more complex models;

discuss how these models are relevant in the contemporary social and media
environment;
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Introduction to Communication enumerate the basic elements that are an essential requirement (SMCR) for
communication and understand the interrelationship between these different
elements.
explain how these models can be applied to interpersonal communication
and which of these models are useful to better understand mass
communication;
understand and critique the notion of ‘transmission perspective’ in
communication models.

2.2 COMMUNICATION MODELS

Communication is a complex process, involving many stages, many participants,
formation and consumption of a message. Communication studies use communication
Models to understand and discuss the process of communication. Now the question
arises why communication models?
Models visualise the process of communication. In other words we are able to
understand the communication process by representing it in a graphic form. Models
are thus abstractions of larger and complex processes and ideas of communication.
They should be seen as maps that guide us to better understand human as well
as technology driven communication. Some models are more detailed than others,
while others are more basic and rudimentary. As the communication studies as a
paradigm evolved, so did the attempts at learning and depicting the process.
According to Harold Lasswell, (1948) a convenient way to describe an act of
communication is to answer these questions:
Who
Says what
In which channel
To whom
With what effect
If we focus on this model carefully we can observe that the emphasis has been
placed on the effect of communication on the receiver. The whole process is
understood as a means of creating an effect on the receiver by ‘transmitting’ some
information. Its quality is judged by the end result, which in this case is if the
message was accepted favourably. Let us look at some other variations of
transmission models.

2.3 SHANNON AND WEAVER’S MATHEMATICAL

MODEL OF COMMUNICATION
Our journey began at the Bell Telephone laboratories where Shannon and Weaver
worked on the mathematical model of communication. They were not social
science researchers but engineers working on the process of communication. Let
us look at this model as given in Figure 1:
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 Models of Communication
Shannon & Weaver’s Mathematical Model of Communication

Fig 1.1

In this linear model of communication, Shannon and Weaver have tried to

understand and describe the process of communication by taking cues from the
telephone system. Their main concern is to look for the most efficient way to use
a channel of communication to transmit maximum amount of information from the
source to the destination. In this process of communication the message that
originates with the source is transformed into a signal by the transmitter; this signal
is then sent across to the receiver through the channel and finally reaches the
destination. In a telephone system the channel is the telephone cable, the signal
the electric current and the transmitter and receiver are the telephone instruments.
Because of the way, this model has been conceptualised, it is also known as the
engineering model of communication. According to John Fiske, Shannon and
Weaver’s mathematical understanding of communication is based on the premise
that accuracy and efficiency are the key concerns for effective communication. In
doing so Shannon and Weaver assumed that efficient communication can best
convey desired meaning or enable semantic accuracy.

Q: What is semantics?
A: Semantics is about understanding how meaning is attached to words.
These meanings have extra linguistic connections and are rooted in our
culture. For example while we use the word ‘Lift’ in North America, the
prevalent usage is of the word ‘Elevator’, a machine that takes us to the
upper floors of a high rise building. Through this example we can see that
efficiency and accuracy in the transmission of messages are not sufficient
categories for understanding effective communication. We need to go deeper
to understand the area of ‘meaning making’ to complicate these ideas.

The most important aspect of Shannon and Weaver’s model is the concept of
noise, which can hinder the process of effective communication. “Noise is something
that gets added to the signal between its transmission and reception that is not
intended by the source,” (Fiske: 1982). In other words, noise is an unwanted
signal that gets added and creates a hindrance in the transmission of the intended
message, making the process of decoding of the message much harder. This
hindrance could be in the form of a physical noise, like a booming microphone,
a noisy ceiling fan, a blaring loudspeaker or just static in the telephone connection.
But there are other ways also in which we can conceptualise noise. Semantic
noise would occur even when the transmission of the massage is accurate and
efficient, but is unable to transmit the intended meaning. Can you think of any real 23
Introduction to Communication world examples where someone says something very eloquently, but is misread
by the intended audience? Shannon and Weaver also argued that there could be
three levels of problems in this suggested model of communication:
The technical problem: Where there is a problem in the channel or decoding.
This will affect the accuracy of the message. For e.g. if the pages of this
book are torn, or the ink is illegible, you may not understand what is written.
The semantic problem: Where there is a discrepancy in the meaning
understood by the receiver. For e.g. if you do not understand English, reading
and comprehending this text would be impossible.
The effectivity problem: Where there is a question of the message being
received, comprehended, but still not effective. Many social messages fail to
work as they do not bring about the intended change in the behaviour of the
audience. Going by the same analogy again, if you find this text boring, you
may not learn anything, which is the intended result of this book.

2.4 OSGOOD AND SCHRAMM’S MODEL OF

COMMUNICATION
Charles E. Osgood (1954) developed a model in which the sender and the
receiver enter into a dynamic relationship with each other in the process of
communication. The process according to them is bilateral instead of being unilateral
and is equally important.

Fig. 2

In this model the source or the sender encodes a message which gets decoded
and interpreted by the receiver. But the process does not end here. Now it is the
receiver’s turn to encode a message and send it to the source. This message is
now decoded and interpreted by the source. The strength of this model is that it
looks at communication as a far more dynamic and interactive process in which
both the source and receiver or A and B participate by responding to each other
and picking up cues from each other. Wilbur Schramm (1971) further elaborated
on the idea of the processual nature of communication. He added another very
significant element to the process of communication which is known as feedback.
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 Models of Communication

Fig. 3
So when A is in conversation with B, the following chain of events take place: A
encodes a message and sends it through a channel. B receives the message,
decodes it and responds by sending his feedback. This feedback can in the form
of a gesture or a word or even a long sentence. The sender will be able to
understand the effectivity of his message by the help of feedback which in turn
would lead to better communication. The element of feedback makes Schramm’s
model reciprocal and extremely interactive in nature. According to Schramm, “it
is misleading to think the communication process as starting somewhere and
ending somewhere. It is really continuous.”
Schramm also emphasised that the source begins with pictures in his head, but
these cannot be transmitted unless they are encoded into signs for transmission.

Encoder

Translator
Message

Decoder

Fig. 4
So the first stage is the encoding of the message in words or other symbols. Once
encoded the message is free of the sender. In other words, the sender has no
control over the message. Even before we consider the effectiveness of the
message, we need to consider whether the message will bring out the desired
meaning? For this the message has to be decoded by the receiver.
According to willber schramme the important question is, ‘’whether the picture in
the head’ of the receiver will bear any rememberance to that in the head of the
sender.’’. In other words, the receiver and the sender have to be in tune with each
other. This is similar to the need for a radio transmitter and receiver to be on the
same frequency for the signal to get transmitted.

Fig.5 25
Introduction to Communication In this model, Schramm introduces the concept of field of experience, which is
vital for communication to take place. These fields are nothing but peripheries of
the total human experience a person has. If both the source and receiver are in
tune with each other, then the signal will be within the circles of accumulated
experience of the two individuals. In such a case communication process will be
able to deliver the intended message.

Let us go back to the example of the usage of the word Lift instead of the word
Elevator. The sender will encode the message according to her experience. So if
the word Lift is used and the receiver is not familiar with it, in the context in which
the sender is using it, there will be difficulty in communication. The problem here
is that the Lift is not part of the receiver’s field of experience. He/she is more used
to the word Elevator. Thus it is important that while selecting words, signs or
symbols to encode a message, the sender keeps in mind the experience of the
receiver. This example can also be used to understand the concept of semantic
noise.

What is a sign?
Messages are made of signs and symbols. A sign is a signal that stands for
something in experience. A sign can be in the form of a word, image, a sound
or gesture. Therefore the sign stands for something other than itself. For
example, the word ‘chair’ has no natural relationship with the object it
represents. This relationship has been created by convention in the English
language. The word ‘chair’ can be interpreted at a denotative level as an
object we sit on. While at the connotative level, it stands for power or
hierarchy. The word could be meaningless in societies where people sit on
the floor using woven mats. That is because it not part of their field of
experience.

2.5 BERLO’S MODEL OF COMMUNICATION

Fig. 5

This model as suggested by Berlo lists four basic elements involved in the
process of communication. The source (S) is the originator of the message (M),
which needs a channel (C) for it to reach to the receiver (R). Here again we can
observe that the entire process of communication is seen as a linear chain of
events, geared towards transmitting a message to the receiver. The source, the
originator of the entire process of communication drafts a message according to
his skills and opinions, which is transmitted through a channel to reach out to the
receiver.
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 Models of Communication
Communication Attitudes Knowledge Social System Culture
Skills

Content Elements Treatment Structure Code

Hearing Seeing Touching Smelling Culture

Culture
Communication Attitudes Social System Culture
Knowledge
Skills

Fig. 2.6: A source encodes a message for a channel to a receiver who decodes the
message: S-M-C-R Model

In Berlo’s model, the source encodes the message according to his communication
skills, knowledge, attitude and social and cultural values. The message itself has
been understood with the help of various categories like its content, treatment and
structure. The channel can be as diverse as hearing, touching, seeing, tasting and
smelling. Finally the receiver decodes the message according to his/her knowledge,
communications skills and attitudes.
Check Your Progress 1
Note: 1) Use the space provided below for your Answers.
2) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
1. What is semantic noise?
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2. What is the role of feedback in Osgood and Schramm’s model of
communication?
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2.6 GERBNER’S MODEL OF COMMUNICATION

George Gerbner’s model brings another dimension into our understanding of
communication. That is the dimension of perception and meaning. By doing so
Gerbner makes a clear distinction between ‘reality’ and the message that shapes
this ‘reality. According to Gerbner, communication process has two dimensions –
the perceptual and the communicating or means and control dimension. 27
Introduction to Communication

Access to SE 1: Selection
MZ: MEZ :
Selection MVE 1 Percept of
Channels Form Content Reception
E: Event Context
Peroept Media statement Consumption
Availability Content availability
Control about event

Fig. 7
The process in this model begins with an event E, something in external reality
which is perceived as M (M can be a human or a machine such as the camera).
M’s perception of E results in E1. This is the perceptual dimension at the start
of the process. The relationship between E and E1 involves selection. M cannot
possibly perceive the whole complexity of E. If M is a machine this selection is
determined by its engineering or its physical capabilities. But if M is human,
however the selection is done through interaction and negotiation. In other words,
an individual tries to match the external stimuli with internal patterns of thought to
arrive at some perception of the event. This process involves the social and
cultural experience of the individual. M brings into the process of perception his
own experience and point of view. This also means that different people will have
perceptions about the event E.
In the second stage in this model which is the vertical dimension, E1 turns into
a signal or SE (signal about the event). This is in the form of a message or a
statement about the Event or E. SE includes S, the form and shape of the
message as well as E, or the content of the message. In this vertical dimension
it is important to select the medium or channel of communication. This process
of selection required M to have some control over the media or channels of
communication. Just as E1 can never be a complete response to E similarly SE
can never be a complete and comprehensive response to E1. There are bound
to be some distortions or exclusions.
In the third stage we once again come back to the horizontal dimension. In this
the receiver or M2 is making a perception of SE. Once again the receiver (M2)
perceives SE through interaction and negotiation. M2 brings to SE his own needs
as well as his social and cultural experience and finds meaning in the message
accordingly to turn it into SE1.
What is important about Gerbner’s model is that reality and our perception of
reality are seen as distinct. That is why there is a difference between E the event
and the percept E1. Similarly there is a difference between the message SE and
how it is perceived by the receiver as SE1.

Activity
The Metro Rail is going to make its first ever trip in your neighbourhood,
connecting it to the other parts of the mega city. How will you apply
Gerbner’s model to this event?

2.7 NEWCOMB’S MODEL

Newcomb’s model is shaped like a triangle and its importance lies in the way it
introduces us to the idea of the role that communication plays in a society. For
28 Newcomb this role is to maintain equilibrium in society.
 X Models of Communication

A B
Fig. 8
In this model A and B are communicator and receiver. They may be individuals
or organisations or a Government and its people. X is part of their social
environment. ABX thus becomes a system, which means its internal relations are
interdependent. In this ABX system if A changes, B and X will change as well;
if A changes his relationship to X, B will have to change its relationship with X
or A. The ABX system will be in an equilibrium only if A and B have similar
attitude towards X. The more important a place X has in A and B’s social
environment the more urgent will be their need to communicate and share a
common orientation towards X.
For example, if A is the Government, B is an organisation representing financial
institutions and X is the economy then during the time of economic recession A
and B will have to communicate more with each other because it concerns them
both in a significant way. Similarly, during the period of war more communication
and sharing of information are required between the A, the Government, and B
the people over X which is the War.
What is important about Newcomb’s model is its concern with those social
situations which trigger the need for more communication. Secondly, Newcomb’s
model is concerned with broader orientations and attitudes between A and B
towards X in the ABX system. Communication plays a key role in giving information
about our social environment to create a state of equilibrium in a democratic
society.

2.8 WESTLEY AND MACLEAN’S MODEL

This model designed by Westley and Maclean in 1957 is an important model for
our understanding of mass media like newspapers, radio and television. This
model is also understood as one that has extended Newcomb’s model by
introducing C as the new element in the ABX system. C acts as a filtering
mechanism that decides what and how to communicate. Here is what the model
looks like.

Fig. 9 29
Introduction to Communication X = Source of information

A = Sender

C = Gatekeeper

B = Audience

F = Feedback

In this model, A is the sender and B is the receiver or the audience. A relies on
various sources (X) for information. Thus X or the social environment is closer
to A than to B in this model. The arrows are now one way as in earlier linear
models. What is significant about this model is the multifarious nature of X which
is accessed by A. A the reporter writes her story by her interactions with X at
various levels which are depicted as X1, X2, X3, X4 and so on. What is
interesting here is that X can be interpreted in its plurality, representing several
voices and events, thus providing several options of selection and negotiation to
A. Thus mass media are extending the social environment (X) to be accessed by
A, which B needs to relate to. But B has no direct contact with X. C acts as the
Gatekeeper and decides which information that has been provided by A should
ultimately reach the audience.

We can take the example of a newspaper reporter A, who sends a story to her
editor C to get published in the newspaper. The editor may use the story but in
a modified manner or take it as it is. It is also possible that the editor decides not
to use the story at all. So the editor or C as shown in figure 10 is acting as a filter.
After going through this filtering process, the message reaches B or the audience.
B is very much at the mercy of both A and C. Even in terms of feedback, C acts
as a filtering mechanism. The audience here is seen as dependent on mass media
for information, while the means to satisfy this need for information is severely
restricted through the process of selection as carried out by A and the process
of gate-keeping carried out by C.

According to Dennis McQuail, Westley and Maclean’s model is important since

it makes an assertion that, “mass communicators do not originate messages or
communication. Rather they relay to a potential audience their own account (news)
of a selection of events occurring in the environment.” This selection is done on
the basis of an assessment of what the audience might find interesting.

Activity
A reporter working for a newspaper daily is sent to a temple town where
several people have lost their lives in a stampede at the site of the temple.
Apply the gate keeping model and show how the news will reach the
reader in this situation, keeping in mind all the actors involved as envisaged
in this model.

Even though this model is useful for mass media like newspapers, it would work
equally well for television, the internet or can be applied to film festivals, cultural
festivals and diverse media forms like the animation industry. In the case of a film
festival, a festival coordinator may receive several films to be considered for
screening at a film festival. The curators of the festivals will have to then go
through a process of selection and elimination to select a certain number of films
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that can be shown at the festival. They may set up the guidelines for the selection Models of Communication
criteria according to the theme and the focus of the festival.
Westley and Maclean’s model can thus be applied to various media technologies
and networks. But the model is not concerned with the criteria for selection and
elimination. It does not tell us on what grounds the process of gate-keeping takes
place, but makes us aware of the role of gatekeepers in mass media.

2.9 JAKOBSON’S MODEL

This model draws from both linear and triangular models. Jakobson was a linguist
and therefore frames his model on questions of meaning and the internal structure
of a message. The importance of this lies in the fact that it moves far beyond the
transmission perspective in communication. The model gives importance to the
context and the codes involved in communication. The model enumerates six
factors of communication with six corresponding functions.

Fig. 2.10

The (1) addressor sends a (2) message to the (3) addressee. To be effective,
the message requires a (4) context which performs the referential function. The
other factor is the (5) contact which keeps the physical and psychological
connections between the addressor and the addressee open. The last element is
the (6) code which is shared by the addressor and the addressee. Each of these
elements performs an important corresponding function in verbal communication.
Factor Type of Function Function
Addressor Emotive Expresses feelings and attitudes of the
addressor.
Context Referential Gives the factual information or the
‘reality.’ It is concerned with the
descriptive or the denotative part of
communication.
Message Poetic Gives importance to the style and
aesthetics of communication
Contact Phatic It keeps the channels of communication
open and point s t owards t he
relationships that are created through the
interaction.
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Introduction to Communication Code Metalingual It points towards the genre or the nature
of interaction.

Addressee Conative It persuades or influences the addressee

according to the desired goal.
According to this model, each factor is important for communication to take place
but it is not necessary that all the six functions should play an equally important
role. A communication event may give importance to only one or more of these
functions. For example, if the poetic function is given importance than other
functions such as the referential function may become dormant. In other cases, the
emotive function may take precedence over the other functions.
Check Your Progress 2
Note: 1) Use the space provided below for your Answers.
2) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
1. Explain how gatekeeping affects the process of communication.
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2. Identify the six functions of communication listed in Jakobson’s model.
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2.10 A CRITIQUE OF TRANSMISSION

PERSPECTIVE
We began this unit by studying Harold Lasswell’s model which attempts to answer
the question, who says what to whom, through what channel and with what
effect? This model and most of the other models discussed above fall within the
dominant paradigm, which is concerned with the technical efficiency of
communication in transmitting or transporting information from the source to the
destination. Thus the two ends of this process (the source and the destination)
determine that linearity will be embedded in the way we approach communication.
This is known as the transmission perspective of the communication models.
According to Dennis McQuail in the transmission driven models the message is
determined by the source. One of problems with the transmission perspective is
that it looks at communication in an instrumental way to bind it in a cause and
effect format. Several of the models discussed come under the rubric of transmission
perspective, which are geared towards a one-dimensional flow of the message
from the sender to the receiver.
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James Carey, a communication scholar introduced the Ritual or Expressive Models of Communication
model of communication that depends on shared meanings and culture. The
purpose of communication as conceptualised in the ritual perspective is not to
bring out an ‘effect’ or to persuade someone, but rather to bring out the pleasures
of a shared culture. Communication is not seen to perform a utilitarian function but
is seen as a symbolic process whereby ‘reality is produced, maintained, repaired
and transformed.’ The purpose of communication is not for the purpose of control
but for the representation of shared beliefs. In the ritual model importance is given
to the performative quality of communication rather than its efficiency. Therefore,
meanings may be ambiguous and latent, drawing from a timeless shared culture
which everyone is familiar with.
In this context it is interesting to see the way advertisements use the ritual model
of communication ultimately to persuade the viewers to buy their products. For
example, a familiar image in a commercial for cooking oil is a mother frying pooris
for her children. This image draws upon the idea of purity and authenticity through
the notion of ‘mother’s love’ thus reinforcing the idea of women as nurturers. So
the commercial is not just about selling cooking oil but equally about creating
symbolic associations which are familiar and part of a shared culture.
Transmission models usually suspect the audience to be passive, and the meanings
exist only waiting to be decoded correctly. It severely underestimates the dynamic
act of interpretation. It also shifts the power fulcrum in favour of the sender.
Alternative models are described as constructivist models. They acknowledge
that meanings can be generated and deconstructed by all parties involved, rather
than just being reliant on senders and receivers. But scholars of this field reject
the idea of producing scaled diagrams or structuring the process of communication.
They instead opine that act of attaching meaning to a set of symbols is situated
in the socio-cultural and political context.

2.11 LET US SUM UP

The purpose of this unit is to help us better understand the process of communication
with the help of models which have been devised by several scholars. By using
models as a tool we are able to map the communication process in a graphic
form; this helps us understand better the flow of communication. Each model
gives importance to different elements that are essential for communication. We
notice that as we go along, the models become more and more complex leading
us to ask different kind of questions. This leads us towards more research and
further need for models.

2.12 KEYWORDS
Mathematical model : Linear or telephone model of communication. Also
known as engineering model.
Encoder : Sender of message.
Decoder : Receiver of message.
Semantics : Meanings attached to words.
Fields of experience : Periphery of total human experience.
Gatekeeping : Filtering mechanism of messages.
Ritual model : Focusses on shared meanings and culture. 33
Introduction to Communication Agenda setting : The theory that the media provide topics of
discussion and importance for consumers.
Codebook : A menu or list of responses used in coding open-
ended questions.
Construct : A combination of concepts that is created to describe
a specific situation (for example, “authoritarianism”).
Degrees of freedom : An intentional and predetermined reduction in
sample size to provide a conservative data
adjustment to compensate for research error.
Homogeneity : Equality of control and experimental groups prior
to an experiment; also called point of prior
equivalency.
Longitudinal Study : The collection of data at different points in time.
Scientific Method : Asystematic, controlled, empirical, and critical
investigation of hypothetical propositions about the
presumed relationships among natural phenomena.
Open-ended Question : A question to which respondents are asked to
generate an answer or answers with no prompting
from the item itself (for example, “What is your
favourite type of television program?”).
Proposition : A statement of the form “if A, then B” that links two
or more concepts.
Sample : A subgroup or subset of a population or universe.
Secondary Analysis : The use of data collected by a previous researcher
or another research organisation; also called data
re-analysis.

2.13 FURTHER READINGS

Wilbur Schramm and Donald F. Roberts (ed) 1971, The process and Effects
of Communication, University of Illinois Press
John Fiske, 1982, Introduction to Communication Studies
Dennis McQuail, 2000, (fourth Edition) Mass Communication Theory, London,
Sage
Baran and Davis, Mass Communication Theory
Harold Lasswell, 1995, “The Structure and Function of Communication in
Society.” In Approaches to Media: A Reader Edited by Oliver Boyd Barrett
and Chris Newbold, London, Arnold
Lakoff, George & Mark Johnson (1980): Metaphors We Live By. Chicago:
University of Chicago Press
McQuail, Denis & Sven Windahl (1993): Communication Models for the
Study of Mass Communication. London: Longman
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 Models of Communication
2.14 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS: POSSIBLE
ANSWERS
Check Your Progress 1
1. Semantic noise occurs when there is a difference of understanding meaning
of the communicated message between encoder and decoder (sender and
receiver).
2. The sender will be able to understand the effectivity of his message by the
help of feedback which in turn would lead to better communication. The
element of feedback makes Schramm’s model reciprocal and extremely
interactive in nature.
Check Your Progress 2
1. Gatekeeping not only filters the initial message sent across, it also can add
opinions and views of the person who is doing the gatekeeping to the message
being sent forward.
2. The six functions are emotive, referential, poetic, phatic, metalingual and
conative.

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