Unit 1

MODULE
INSECTICIDE
4 FORMULATIONS
I. Introduction
Insecticide is any toxic substance that is used to kill insects. Such
substances are used primarily to control pests that infest cultivated plants or to
eliminate disease-carrying insects in specific areas.
Insecticides can be classified in any of several ways, on the basis of their
chemistry, their toxicological action, or their mode of penetration. In the former
scheme, besides the synthetics, some organic compounds occurring naturally in
plants are useful insecticides, as are some inorganic compounds; some of these
are permitted in organic farming applications. Most insecticides are sprayed or
dusted onto plants and other surfaces traversed or fed upon by insects.

II. Learning Objectives

At the end of the module, students are expected to:

1. Identify the different types of synthetic insecticides.

2. List the different active ingredients of synthetic insecticides.

3. Distinguish the different effects and entry point of each synthetic insecticide.

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III. Pre-Test
Questions
What is a synthetic insecticide?

Question
What are the different chemical groups of synthetic insecticides?

Question
What is AI or Active Ingredient?

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V. Discussion

Synthetic insecticides

The synthetic contact insecticides are now the primary agents of insect
control. In general they penetrate insects readily and are toxic to a wide range of
species. The main synthetic groups are the chlorinated hydrocarbons, organic
phosphates (organophosphates), and carbamates.

Chlorinated hydrocarbons

The chlorinated hydrocarbons were developed beginning in the 1940s

after the discovery (1939) of the insecticidal properties of DDT. Other examples
of this series are BHC, lindane, Chlorobenzilate, methoxychlor, and the
cyclodienes (which include aldrin, dieldrin, chlordane, heptachlor, and endrin).
Some of these compounds are quite stable and have a long residual action; they
are, therefore, particularly valuable where protection is required for long periods.
Their toxic action is not fully understood, but they are known to disrupt
the nervous system. A number of these insecticides have been banned for
their deleterious effects on the environment.

This category, which was developed in the 1930s and 1940s, includes the
chlorinated ethanes, chlorinated cyclodienes, and other chlorinated compounds.
Dichlorodiphenyltrichlorethane (DDT) is the most famous of the chlorinated

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insecticides. First synthesized in 1943, it was used extensively (worldwide) in
agriculture from the end of World War II until 1972, when it was banned in the
United States. It was first used to control disease-carrying insects such as body
lice and mosquitoes that spread malaria. DDT also provided effective against a
variety of agricultural pests and was extensively used on crops. This highly lipid-
soluble compound is stored in fat—in fact, the fat of most U.S. residents contains
DDT concentrations of 5–7 mg kg–1. DDT is very persistent in the environment
and is biomagnified (Fig. 28.24) in the food chain. That is, smaller organisms
absorb the compound, then they are eaten by larger organisms, and the
progression continues until DDT attains a relatively high concentration in
macrovertebrates such as fish, which are then eaten by humans and other large
animals.

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 In general, DDT is toxic to humans and most other higher animal life only
in extremely high doses. However, because of its low toxicity, it was applied in
much greater quantities than were necessary. Then, in the 1960s, the effects of
these massive applications became noticeable. For example, certain birds, such
as the peregrine falcon, began to produce overly fragile egg shells that broke
before hatching, thereby threatening their survival as a species. Fish, too, are
extremely vulnerable to DDT, and die-offs occurred following heavy rains, when
the pesticide was washed into streams and rivers.

DDT and other chlorinated hydrocarbons are very resistant to metabolic

breakdown. In animals and humans, DDT is degraded to DDE (1,1-dichloro-2,2-
bis(p-chlorophenyl ethylene)) or dichlorodiphenyl dichloroethylene) or DDD (1,1-
dichloro-2, 2-bis(p-chlorophenyl ethane))

The other chlorinated hydrocarbons, such as lindane, toxaphene, mirex,

and kepone, are similar to DDT. In general, then, we can say that all
organochlorine insecticides cause some central nervous system (CNS)
stimulation, increase cancer incidence in laboratory animals, and persist in the
environment to some degree.

Organophosphates

The organophosphates are now the largest and most versatile class of
insecticides. Two widely used compounds in this class are parathion and
malathion; others are Diazinon, naled, methyl parathion, and dichlorvos. They
are especially effective against sucking insects such as aphids and mites, which
feed on plant juices. The chemicals’ absorption into the plant is achieved either
by spraying the leaves or by applying solutions impregnated with the chemicals
to the soil, so that intake occurs through the roots. The organophosphates

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usually have little residual action and are important, therefore, where residual
tolerances limit the choice of insecticides. They are generally much more toxic
than the chlorinated hydrocarbons. Organophosphates kill insects
by inhibiting the enzyme cholinesterase, which is essential in the functioning of
the nervous system.

Organophosphorus insecticides are the most toxic of the insecticides; they

are dangerous not only to insects but also to mammals. Many of the compounds,
such as parathion, paraoxon and tetram are in the “supertoxic” category for
humans. Human fatal doses for those toxicants are < 5 mg/kg. As little as 2 mg of
parathion has been known to kill children (Yu, 2001).

Organophosphorus compounds do not persist in the environment and

have an extremely low potential to produce cancer; thus insecticides based on
these compounds have largely replaced the chlorinated hydrocarbon
insecticides. However, these phosphorous-containing compounds have a much
higher acute toxicity in humans than the organochlorines, and are the most
frequent cause of human insecticide poisoning. Fortunately, both laboratory tests
and antidotes are available for acute organophosphorus poisoning.

A typical organophosphorus insecticide is parathion, which must be

metabolized to the compound paraoxon to exert its toxic effect. This toxic effect
stems from the compound’s ability to inhibit the enzyme cholinesterase, a crucial
chemical for the regulation of the nerve transmitter acetylcholine. Thus acute
effects of poisoning with organophosphorus insecticides include fibrillation of
muscles, low heart rate, paralysis of respiratory muscles, confusion, convulsions,
and eventually death. Other organophosphorus pesticides, such as malathion,
are less toxic in acute doses than parathion.

Carbamates

The carbamate insecticides, which include carbaryl and aldicarb, have

toxicities very similar to those of the organophosphorus insecticides. Like the
organophosphorus pesticides, these widely used chemicals also act by inhibiting
cholinesterase, but the toxic effects of carbamates may be more easily reversed
than those of the organophosphorus compounds. In addition, current evidence
does not seem to suggest carcinogenicity as a toxic effect of the carbamates.
Although most of these chemicals are not persistent in the environment, aldicarb
may be the exception. Used on potato crops in Long Island, New York, aldicarb
has contaminated groundwater there. It has been estimated that levels of 6 μg L–
1 may persist up to 20 years.

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 The carbamates are a group of insecticides that includes such compounds
as carbamyl, methomyl, and carbofuran. They are rapidly detoxified and
eliminated from animal tissues. Their toxicity is thought to arise from a
mechanism somewhat similar to that for the organophosphates.

Other Insecticides

The insecticides may be of natural or synthetic origin and recently gene

coding for insecticidal proteins is being incorporated into various crop plants. The
primary effects of insecticides on target species are: neurotoxicity by interference
with sodium channel or interaction with neurotransmitter receptors, paralysis by
disruption of energy metabolism, or growth inhibition by blocking chitin synthesis.

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V. Activity

Post-Test

Identify the active ingredients and mode of action of each chemical group
of synthetic insecticides.

1. Organophosphorus Insecticides
Active Ingredient:
Mode of Action:

2. Carbamates
Active Ingredient:
Mode of Action:

3. Chlorinated Hydrocarbons
Active Ingredient:
Mode of Action:

4. Pyrethroids
Active Ingredient:
Mode of Action:

5. Neonicotinoids
Active Ingredient:
Mode of Action:

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VI. Summary

The main synthetic groups are the chlorinated hydrocarbons, organic

phosphates (organophosphates), and carbamates.

The organophosphates are now the largest and most versatile class of
insecticides. Two widely used compounds in this class are parathion and
malathion; others are Diazinon, naled, methyl parathion, and dichlorvos.
They are especially effective against sucking insects such as aphids and
mites, which feed on plant juices.
Organophosphates kill insects by inhibiting the enzyme cholinesterase,
which is essential in the functioning of the nervous system.

The chlorinated hydrocarbons which was developed in the 1930s and

1940s, includes the chlorinated ethanes, chlorinated cyclodienes, and
other chlorinated compounds.

Dichlorodiphenyltrichlorethane (DDT) is the most famous of the

chlorinated insecticides. It was first used to control disease-carrying
insects such as body lice and mosquitoes that spread malaria. DDT also
provided effective against a variety of agricultural pests and was
extensively used on crops.

The carbamates are a group of insecticides that includes such compounds

as carbamyl, methomyl, and carbofuran. They are rapidly detoxified and
eliminated from animal tissues. Their toxicity is thought to arise from a
mechanism somewhat similar to that for the organophosphates.

VII. References

https://www.britannica.com/technology/insecticide

https://www.croplife.org.ph/uploads/4/7/0/6/47068703/modeofaction-labeling.pdf

https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/insecticide

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