Stainless Steels

Present by
Welding department
 What are stainless steels ?
“ stain less”
❖ Steels containing 10.5 - 30%
Chromium
❖ The chromium oxide forms a thin
passive layer on the surface when
exposed to atmosphere.
❖ This prevents corrosive attack and
gives the steel its property.
❖ Minimum 10.5% Cr needed to protect
against atmospheric corrosion.
❖ Elements like Ni, Mo, Cu, Nb, Ti etc
added to improve mechanical
properties and corrosion resistance
Natural Passivation
Carbon steel VS Stainless steel
General properties of Stainless Steel
❖ Corrosion resistant
❖ Very durable
❖ Temperature resistant
❖ Easy formability and
fabrication
❖ Low-maintenance (long lasting)
❖ Attractive appearance
❖ Environmentally friendly
(recyclable)
 FERRITE FORMER

➢ Chromium
➢ Titanium
➢ Niobium/Columbium
➢ Silicon
➢ Molybdenum
 AUSTENITE FORMER

➢ Nickel
➢Nitrogen
➢ Copper
➢ Carbon
➢ Manganese
Effect of Alloying Elements and their Purpose
Chromium (Cr)
❖ Oxidation & Corrosion Resistance

Nickel (Ni)
❖ Increases resistance to mineral acids
❖ Produces tightly adhering high temperature oxides
❖ Increases Toughness properties
Effect of Alloying Elements and their Purpose
Molybdenum (Mo)
❖ Increases resistance to chlorides.
❖ Resistance to pitting corrosion

Copper (Cu)
❖ Provides resistance to sulfuric acid.

Manganese (Mn)
❖ Increases the solubility of nitrogen
Effect of Alloying Elements and their Purpose
Sulfur (S)
❖Improves resistance to chlorides.
❖ Improves weldability (Penetration) of certain
austenitic SS.
❖ Improves the machinability of certain austenitic SS.

Titanium (Ti)
❖ Stabilizes carbides to prevent formation of Cr carbide.
❖ Precipitation hardener
 Effect of Alloying Elements and their Purpose
Niobium (Nb) & Columbium (Cb)
❖ Carbide stabilizer.
❖ Precipitation hardener

Aluminum (Al)
❖ Deoxidizer – Precipitation hardener

Carbon (C)
❖ Carbide former and Strengthener
 Types of stainless steels

• Martensitic
• Ferritic
• Austenitic
• Duplex
(Austenite +Ferrite)
• Precipitation hardening
 Welding of stainless steels
•All standard welding processes is SMAW, GMAW,
FCAW, GTAW, PAW and SAW maybe used depending
on the application.
•Generally corresponding grades of filler metal
composition are used to match corrosion and / or
heat resistance properties along with strength.
•Weldability problems are different for different
types of stainless steels eg martensitic, Ferritic,
austenitic, duplex and precipitation hardening.
•Weldability considerations are similar for wrought
and cast alloys
How differentiation to Ferritic & Martensitic
Stainless steel
❖ Ferritic SS – 4xx
❖ Martensitic SS – 4xx

Ferritic SS – Cr > 12.5%

Low Carbon
High Chromium

Martensitic SS – Cr < 12.5%

High Carbon
Low Chromium
Ferritic stainless steels
Ferritic SS – 4xx

Ferritic SS – Cr > 12.5%

Low Carbon
High Chromium
 Ferritic stainless steels
❖ AISI 405, 409, 430, 446 grades

❖ Ferritic structure - higher ductility and resistance

to SCC & pitting corrosion.

❖ Used as thin sheet for corrosion, oxidation & heat

resisting applications and decorative purposes eg.
Automobile exhausts, Solar water heater, catalytic
converters and automobile trim.
 Welding of Ferritic steels
❖ Softer and more ductile than martensite steels but poorer formability
than austenitic steels.
❖ Corrosion resistance and formability improved by increasing Cr & Mo
content and lowering levels of interstitial elements e.g. C & N to below
100 ppm. Low interstitial or Super Ferrites.
❖ Ferrite phase does not transform to martensite but susceptible to 475
deg embrittlement and sigma phase formation in higher chromium
grades.
❖ Problem of grain growth during welding leading to brittle structure in
HAZ.
❖ Grains may be refined only by cold work and re-crystallization.
❖ Generally welded with austenitic SS electrodes or TIG process with
restricted heat input.
 Applications of Ferritic SS

Solar water heater Automobile exhausts

Martensitic stainless steels
 Martensitic stainless steels
❖ AISI 403, 410, 416, 420, & 440 A/B/C
grades

❖ Martensitic structure - higher carbon

grades used in tempered condition.

❖ Used for cutlery, surgical instruments,

steam, gas & hydel turbine blades, ball
bearings and races.
 Welding of Martensitic Steels
❖ Higher carbon grades used in the quenched and
tempered condition
❖ Problem of Hydrogen induced cold cracking in HAZ.
❖ Pre-heat and post-weld heat treatment required if
welded with matching composition martensitic SS
electrodes.
❖ Austenitic SS electrodes generally used which
avoids cracking problems without pre and post
heating
Application of Martensitic SS
Duplex stainless steels

60% austenite
+
40% ferrite structure
 Duplex stainless steels
❖ Half the nickel content of austenitic steels
❖ Cr 18 – 28%
❖ Ni 4.5 – 9.0 %
❖ Almost twice the strength of austenitic steels
❖ Excellent pitting + SCC resistance
❖ Used for plant and piping in oil and gas production,
corrosive applications to resist chloride ion media. Higher
strength structurals
 Weldability of Duplex steels
❖Duplex stainless steels have fairly good weldability.
❖All standard welding processes can be used.
❖Not quite as easily welded as the austenitic grades but low
thermal expansion in duplex grades reduces distortion and
residual stresses after welding.
❖All grades
➢Solidify as ferrite, austenite formation during cooling
➢Austenite/Ferrite ratio dependent on 2 primary variables
❑Alloying effects – Cr & Ni equivalents
❑Heat input/cooling rate
 Welding metallurgy of Duplex steels
• The longer the cooling time between 900 and 1100 C the higher the
austenite content
• Faster cooling rate produces higher Ferrite which leads to reduced low
temperature impact strength and corrosion resistance
• Slow cooling through 1050 – 550 C produces carbides, nitrides, sigma etc
which affect corrosion resistance and cause embrittlement

Fast cooling Correct cooling Slow cooling

Too high Ferrite Between 30 -60 % Nitrides, Carbides
ferrite & intermetallics
Welding of Duplex Stainless Steels

–Overmatch nickel in filler metal

–Control heat input and cooling rates carefully

–Use N2 in shielding gas

–Ensure low impurities in base and filler

Application of Duplex SS
 Precipitation Hardening stainless
steels
Cr 12 –18%
C 0.05 – 0.15%
Ni 3.0 – 27.0% +
Mo, Cu, Al, V, Cb, Ti
❖ This sub-group provides a combination
of austenitic and martensitic properties.
❖ Hardening is achieved by adding one or
more elements such as aluminium,
molybdenum, niobium, titanium, and
copper.
❖ It is capable of developing high tensile
strength through heat treatment
❖ Available as forgings, castings, bar and
plate and used for compressor blades,
pumps, gears for metering chemicals etc
 Stainless Steel Casting grades
Alloy Type Wrought grade Casting grade
Martensitic 12Cr 410 CA15
Ferritic 21Cr 442 CB30
Austenitic 19Cr 9Ni 304 CF8
Austenitic 19Cr 9Ni Nb 347 CF8C
Austenitic 19Cr 12Ni 2.5Mo 316 CF8M
Austenitic 25Cr 20Ni 310 CK20
do Heat Resistant - HK40
Duplex 25Cr 5Ni 2.5Mo 3 329Cu CD4MCu
Cu
Duplex 22Cr 5Ni 3Mo 0.15N Alloy 2205 Alloy 2205
 Wrought Grade
C – Corrosion service
Example:
H – High – temperature service
CA15
C - Corrosion service
A - Refer Fig
15 – 0.15%Carbon (max)
Austenitic stainless steels
 Austenitic stainless steels
❖ AISI 304, 310, 316, 321 & 347 grades
❖ Austenitic structure gives good weldability
with excellent ductility and toughness down
to cryogenic temperatures.
❖ Nickel improves general corrosion
resistance
❖ Widely used for chemical, petrochemical,
fertilizer plant and food processing. Also
used for nuclear and cryogenic plant
 Physical properties of austenitic stainless
steels
• Has 50% higher coefficient of linear expansion, than carbon
steels
• Has poor thermal conductivity, 30% less than carbon steels
• Results in much higher distortion after welding
• Steps to prevent distortion
- closer tacking
- greater use of jigs and fixtures
- use of balanced and skip welding
techniques
- use of copper chill bars to help remove heat
- limit heat input by use of low currents and
stringer beads
 Welding of Austenitic steels
Generally good weldability as there is no martensitic
transformation but following problems encountered:

❖ Sensitization leading to inter-granular corrosion –IGC

❖ Hot cracking
❖ Stress corrosion cracking –SCC

❖ Sigma phase formation leading to embrittlement

❖ Higher distortion during welding
 Sensitization and inter-granular
corrosion
❖ Sensitization refers to the
precipitation of carbides at grain
boundaries in a stainless steel or
alloy, causing the alloy to be
susceptible to intergranular
corrosion.
❖ austenitic stainless steel may become
sensitised if they are heat treated or
used at temperature in range 450-
900c. the heat affected zones of welds
may also be sensitised in some
circumstance
Sensitization and inter-granular
corrosion
 Steels to prevent IGC
❖ Standard grades
304 – 18Cr / 8Ni
316 – 18Cr / 12Ni / 2.5Mo – for pitting resistance

❖ Steels with elements having higher affinity for carbon

eg. Ti , Nb/Cb – stabilised steels. Form carbides in
preference to Cr.
321 grade – Ti stabilised
347 grade - Nb stabilised

❖ Steels with low carbon 304L & 316L grades( 0.03% C

max)
 Hot cracking in austenitic welds
❖ Hot cracking or solidification cracking is
caused due to low melting eutectics
formed at the grain boundary.
❖ As the weld solidifies, in combination
with shrinkage stresses, leads to cracks in
fully austenitic welds
❖ Promoted by S, P, Nb, Ti, N etc.
❖ Prevented by adjusting weld metal
composition to give 5 – 10 % ferrite phase
in the deposit.
❖ Also prevented by reducing heat input
and controlling design stress.
 Sigma Phase embrittlement
❖ Sigma phase is a non-magnetic composed mainly of iron and chromium
which forms in Ferritic and austenitic stainless steels during exposure at
475ºC-980ºC .
❖ Many stainless steels and other iron-chromium alloys are susceptible
grain boundary phenomenon known as sigma-phase embrittlement.
❖ Alloy elements such as chromium, molybdenum, titanium and silicon
promote the formation of sigma phase
Sigma Phase embrittlement
 Sigma Phase embrittlement
CAUSES
❖ Loss of ductility and toughness
❖ Corrosion resistance resulting in cracking
❖ Failure of components
❖ Especially those subjected to impact loads or excessive stress

PREVENTION
❖ Nitrogen and carbon reduce as it tendency to form.
❖ Annealing treatment
THE BASICS OF COLD WORKING AND ANNEALING

❖ Cold working makes alloys stronger and harder

while reducing the material’s ductility.
❖ annealing reduces strength and hardness while
restoring ductility.
❖ The sequence of change in microstructure and
mechanical properties comprises three steps: Cold
work, heating the material to its recrystallization
temperature, and soak time at the elevated
temperature
 AUSTENITIC STAINLESS STEEL SOLUTION
ANNEALING
❖ For the more conventional stainless steels, such as AISI 201, 202, 301, 302,
303, 304, 304L, 305, and 308, recommended solution-annealing
temperatures are around 1010 to 1120 ºC(1850 to 2050 F).

❖ For higher Cr-containing steels such as the AISI 309 and 310 or steels
containing molybdenum such as AISI 316, 316L, 317, and 317L, the
recommended solution-annealing temperatures are around 1040ºC -
1120ºC (1900 to 2050ºF).

❖ For the stabilized stainless steels (titanium-stabilized AISI 321 type, which
are more prone to secondary recrystallization or abnormal grain growth,
the solution annealing temperature range should be at a lower level,
between 955 and 1065ºC (1750 and 1950ºF),

❖ For the niobium-stabilized AISI 347 and 348 (nuclear grade) type ,
between 980 and 1065ºC (1800 and 1950ºF),
FACTORS THAT AFFECT GRAIN SIZE

A heavily cold-worked
structure has elongated
grains and a large amount of
residual stress . A moderate
amount of annealing causes
the elongated grains to
recover and new grains to
form (centre). Extended
annealing is associated with
grain growth
 Pre Cleaning
❖ When working with this material, one of the first things to ensure is that it
is clean, clean, clean.
❖ When working with stainless it is essential that the material and
surrounding environment be clean
❖ Ensuring you have a clean (carbon-free) atmosphere is very important, as
is cleaning of the stainless steel to remove impurities that may cause
oxidation (rust) later and prohibit the rebuilding of the passive layer, which
creates the protective layer to minimize oxidation.”
❖ Removing the oils, Dust
❖ Contaminants on the stainless can lead to oxidization, but they also
present a problem during the welding process, potentially causing defects.
❖ So it is important to clean the surface before starting to weld.
 Pre Cleaning
❖ Shop environments are not always the cleanest, and cross-
contamination can be problematic when working with both
stainless steel and carbon steels
❖ a shop will have a number of fans running or an air
conditioner to cool down workers, which can push
contaminants across the floor or cause condensation to drip or
build up on raw material
❖ This is particularly challenging when carbon steel particles
are blown onto stainless
❖ Keeping these materials separate and in a clean environment
will make all the difference when it comes to effective welding.
 Post Cleaning
❖ stainless steel, have an oxide layer at the surface. Heat tinting
causes this naturally occurring oxide layer to become thicker
which causes discoloration. The temper colors are a direct
result of light interference effects as light bounces off the metal
surface
❖ welding industry, various terms are used to describe this
phenomenon, such as discoloration, oxide scale, and rainbow
effect. All these terms are talking about the same thing, a
change in the color of the top layer of stainless steel
❖ Light reflected from the oxide film’s normal surface and that
which is reflected from the oxide metal interface created by
welding cause a variety of colors depending on the oxide layer
thickness
❖ It usually occurs around the weld bead and within the
surrounding zone that has been affected by the heat.
Post Cleaning
 Types of weld Cleaning

❖ Mechanical Weld Cleaning

❖ Chemical Weld Cleaning
❖ Electrochemical Weld Cleaning
 Mechanical Weld Cleaning
❖ Mechanical weld cleaning is a common and low cost method used for cleaning
stainless steel
❖ involves grinding machines and abrasives to clean the top layer of metal surfaces
where rust and other slag particles can form
 Chemical Weld Cleaning
❖ chemical pickling paste for cleaning after a welding job. The paste is
applied to the affected areas using a brush or spray and left on the surface
for some time to interact with the metal
❖ chemical pickling paste contains a variety of toxic acids, including
hydrofluoric, nitric, and sulfur acids. These chemicals are quite dangerous
for the human body and they can cause serious, long-term damage to the
skin and internal organs if they are consumed or breathed in.
 Electrochemical Weld Cleaning
❖ Electrochemical weld cleaning, also known as electropolishing, is
considered the most effective method of cleaning stainless steel
❖ It is faster, safer and preferred by welders, compared to the other two
methods. It doesn’t pose any major health risks for the welder.
Thank You