BRS 103 Summary Notes - 1-1

The African concept of the world
African peoples have elaborate views/ideas about the world and universe at large. No human
being can live without forming some ideas/views about life and the world. These ideas/views are
formed after a long reflection or observation of the world around. These views are expressed in
myths, legends, proverbs, rituals, symbols, beliefs and wise-sayings. Some cosmological views
of the Africans are:
●The universe was created

Africans believe that the universe was created by God. There is no agreement on when or how
the universe was created. In many African languages, the name of God means or denotes creator.
When Africans explain the universe as having been created by God, they are viewing the
universe in a religious way. All the myths of creation explain God as having created the
universe.
●The universe is divided into visible and invisible parts

The visible is earth and the invisible heaven, sky and underworld. All these divisions are related
to each other. The invisible part is thought to be the home of God and spirits. The visible part
comprises created things which are living and non-living.
●Man/humanity is at the center of the Universe.

Humanity is the link between the universe and God (creator). Humanity manipulates the
universe to create harmony. Humanity turns parts of the universe into sacred objects. He/she
creates myths to explain how the universe came into being. Thus he/she sees the universe from a
human perspective.
African people regard the universe as inhabited by divinities and spirits. Through them,
humanity is able to establish a direct relationship with God. Humanity is not the master of the
universe, but is at its centre. For that reason he/she has to live in harmony with the universe,
obeying the laws of natural, moral and mystical order.
●The universe is eternal/ unending

The universe is unending in terms of space(s) time, people and events. Seasons come and go, but
the universe remains. In many places, circles are used as symbols of the continuity of the
By Sr. Bibiana M. Ngundo
universe. Circles are used in rituals, eternity and continuity. Since the universe was created by
God, it is dependent on him for continuity. God is the sustainer, the keeper and upholder of the
universe.
●There is order and power in the universe

There is order in laws of nature; this gives a sense of security and certainty to humanity in the
universe. Without order the world would be in chaos. This would endanger existence of both life
and the universe.
There is moral order in the universe. This gives rise to customs and institutions of social control.
Moral order enables people to distinguish, good from evil, right from wrong and truth from
falsehood. Moral order also enables people to formulate values which deal with relationship
among people, and between people and God and other spiritual beings, and humanity with
nature.
●There is mystical order governing the universe. This is shown in the belief in magic,
witchcraft, sorcery and divination/healing. Such mystical powers are either useful or harmful.
They can be useful in healing, rainmaking, finding the cause of misfortunes and detecting thieves
Harmful mystical powers are used in evil magic, witchcraft, sorcery and curses.
Introduction
The term African culture refers to all that distinguishes the African from the European or the
Asian. They lifestyle of an African such as dressing, beliefs and practices, foods, governance and
general attitude to life distinguishes Africans from the rest of the races. The continent
comprises a number of tribes, ethnic and social groups. One of the key features of African
culture is the large number of ethnic groups. Most ethnic groups are sub-divided into several
tribes. Some countries can have twenty or more ethnic groups, each having diverse beliefs and
practices. For example, Kenya has over forty two (42) ethnic groups. African culture is complex
and quite rich at the same time. Africans in general like to celebrate. African celebrity is more
prevalent as they go through different rites of passage such as birth, puberty initiation rites,
marriage and death. During these celebrations, music and dance express the emotions
particular to the occasion. Dressing is yet another unique factor among Africans. In Central and
West Africa particularly, people take pride in their traditional attire that make them outstanding
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and unique among others. Nigerians for instance, have different dressing styles for men and
women that make each of them elegantly African.
Africa culture is expressed through different languages, cuisines, beliefs and practices, art and
symbols, musical styles and dances.
In the following lecture we shall explore the meaning of culture. From time immemorial, human
beings have struggled for survival. In the process of survival human beings have left behind
traces of achievements at various levels of development.
What is Culture?
The online etymology dictionary roots the word culture in the Latin word cultura meaning
Culture cultivating or agriculture. Figuratively cultura means care, culture, an honoring from the
past participle stem of colere meaning to tend or to guard. Culture is a word for people's 'way
of life', meaning the way they do things. Different groups of people may have different cultures.
A culture is passed on to the next generation by learning, whereas genetics are passed on by
heredity. Culture is seen in people's writing, religion, music, clothes, cooking, and in what they
do.
Culture can be defined as the complex pattern of ideas, emotions, and observable/symbolic
manifestations that tend to be expected, reinforced, and rewarded by and within a particular
group. The Cultural Oriental Approach blends this theoretical concept with a practical
appreciation of the impact of culture and the importance of cultural competence, which allows
people to purposely reduce risk, enhance innovation, and maximize opportunities as they
adjust to new environments and different conditions. Culture results when people organize and
interact, but this occurs mostly subconsciously and on the basis of their experiences,
expectations, and beliefs about themselves, others, and their shared context.
Culture is the characteristics of a particular group of people, defined by everything from

language, religion, cuisine, social habits, music and arts. Today, in the United States as in other
countries populated largely by immigrants, the culture is influenced by the many groups of
people that now make up the country.
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The concept of culture is very complicated, and the word has many meanings. [1] The word
'culture' is most commonly used in three senses:
 Excellence of taste in the fine arts and humanities, also known as high culture.
 An integrated pattern of human knowledge, belief, and behaviour.
 The outlook, attitudes, values, goals, and practices shared by a society.
'Culture' includes all human phenomena which are not purely results of human genetics. The
discipline which investigates cultures is called anthropology, though many other disciplines play
a part.
-Culture embraces all the manifestations of social habits of a community, the reactions of the
individual as affected by the habits of the group in which he lives, and the product of human
activities as determined by these habits-Franz Boas
-Culture is what makes you a stranger when you are away from home- Philip Bock
-Culture is a well-organized unity divided into two fundamental aspects -- a body of artifacts
and a system of customs- Bronislaw Malinowski
- Culture is the collective programming of the mind distinguishing the members of one group or
category of people from another- Geert Hofstede
Tylor Edward sums up culture as the cumulative knowledge and way of life of human beings.
Culture is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, law, morals, customs, and
other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society. It is the sum total of the
material and intellectual equipment whereby they satisfy their biological, social and
environmental needs. Culture embraces everything which contributes to the survival of human
kind.
Culture manifests itself in peoples behavior, in the way they accomplish their human roles and
the tools they use to accomplish these roles. The way people behave or do things is influenced by
various factors particular to the environment in whose life they share (Ayisi, 1992), For example,
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those from warm areas may tend to be slow in doing things while those from cold areas may tend
to be faster. The term culture is therefore the sum total of all realities of a given society. A
culture is common to all people who share the same traditions in social terms. The culture of a
people is learnt through the process of socialization, education and personal experience.
Characteristics of Culture
1. Culture is a coping mechanism/survival. It is the means by which every individual
copes with the biological, social and geographical environment.
2. Culture is owned by a people who have learnt it and lived according to it. Culture is a
social legacy, an inheritance from a peoples ancestors.
3. Culture is an expression of ideas or concepts. Culture is the mind of an individual, in
every group/ society there are customs, values and practices. These form
concepts/ideas in the mind of members of the group. The way people act, think or
behave is culture.
4. Culture is learnt. We learn culture from our parents and others whom we interact with.
Culture is passed from generation to generation through, unconscious process of
teaching and imitation.
5. Culture consists of a worldview. The way people express ideas about life and their
world reflects their culture through conversation, artistic expressions, myths, legends,
proverbs, rituals, symbols, beliefs and wise sayings.
6. Culture produces materials:
- Material products (artifacts) Tools, containers, carvings, house, clothes etc.
- Non-material products concepts, behavior patterns, customs, rituals, ideas.
Dimensions of Culture
1. Universalism/Particularism- This dimension concerns the standards by which relationships
are measured. Universalist societies tend to feel that general rules and obligations are a
strong source of moral reference. Universalists are inclined to follow the rules even when
friends are involved. They assume that their standards are the right standards, and they
attempt to change the attitudes of others to match theirs. Particularist societies are those in
which particular circumstances are more important than rules. Bonds of particular
relationships (family, friends) are stronger than any abstract rules. Response to a situation
may change according to the circumstances and the people involved. Particularists often
argue that it all depends.
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1. Individualism versus Communitarian- This dimension is about the conflict between an
individual's desire and the interests of the group he belongs to. Do people primarily regard
themselves as individuals or as part of a group? In a predominantly individualistic culture,
people are expected to make their own decisions and to only take care of themselves and
their immediate family. Such societies assume that quality of life results from personal
freedom and individual development. Decisions are often made on the spot, without
consultation, and deadlocks may be resolved by voting. In contrast to this, members of a
predominantly communitarian society are firmly integrated into groups which provide help
and protection in exchange for a strong sense of loyalty. In such cases, people believe that an
individual's quality of life improves when he takes care of his or her fellow man. The group
comes before the individual, and people are mainly oriented towards common goals and
objectives. Negotiation is often carried out by teams, who may withdraw in order to consult
with reference groups. Discussion is used to reach consensus.
2. Specific People from specifically oriented cultures begin by looking at each element of a
situation. They analyze the elements separately then put them back together again. Viewing
the whole is the sum of its parts. Specifically oriented individuals concentrate on hard facts.
People from diffusely oriented cultures see each element in the perspective of the complete
picture. All elements are related to each other. The elements are synthesized into a whole
which is more than simply the sum of its parts. This dimension also concerns our degree of
involvement in relationships. Specifically oriented individuals engage others in specific areas
of life, affecting single levels of personality. In specifically oriented cultures, a manager
separates the task relationship with a subordinate from the private sphere. Diffusely oriented
individuals engage others diffusely in multiple areas of life, affecting several levels of
personality at the same time.
3. Neutral versus Affective- This dimension focuses on the degree to which people express
emotions, and the interplay between reason and emotion in human relationships. Every
culture has strong norms about how readily emotions should be revealed. In cultures high on
affectivity, people freely express their emotions: they attempt to find immediate outlets for
their feelings. In emotionally neutral cultures, one carefully controls emotions and is
reluctant to show feelings. Reason dominates one's interaction with others. In a neutrally
oriented culture, people are taught that it is incorrect to overtly show feelings. In an
affectively oriented culture, it is accepted to show one's feelings spontaneously.
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4. Achievement Ascription The dimension achievement-ascription focuses on how personal
status is assigned. While some societies accord status to people on the basis of their
performance, others attribute it to them by virtue of age, class, gender and education. While
achieved status refers to action and what you do, ascribed status refers to being and who you
are.
5. Time Orientation- The time orientation dimension has two aspects: the relative importance
cultures give to the past, present, and future, and their approach to structuring time. If a
culture is predominantly oriented towards the past, the future is often seen as a repetition of
past experiences. In a culture predominantly oriented towards the present, day-by-day
experiences tend to direct people's lives. In a future-oriented culture, most human activities
are directed toward future prospects. In this case, the past is not considered to be vitally
significant to the future. People who structure time sequentially view time as a series of
passing events. They tend to do one thing at a time, and prefer planning and keeping to plans
once they have been made. Time commitments are taken seriously and staying on schedule is
a must. People structuring time synchronically view past, present, and future as being
interrelated. They usually do several things at once. Time commitments are desirable but are
not absolute and plans are easily changed.
6. The internal versus external control dimension This concerns the meaning people assign to
their environment. People who have an internally controlled mechanistic (or mechanistic)
view of nature - a belief that one can dominate nature - usually view themselves as the point
of departure for determining the right action. In contrast to this, cultures with an externally
controlled (or organic) view of nature - which assumes that man is controlled by nature -
orient their actions towards others. They focus on the environment rather than on themselves.
These concepts are highly abstract terms, deliberately so because we seek to include a large
number of family resemblances beneath each bifurcation.
(Htt://www.slideshare.net?THTconsulting?the seven-dimensions-of culture)
Foundations of African traditional religion

Introduction
Among the African people, the word religion does not exist in their vocabulary. Religion is life
rather than a concept. The Africans have cultural experiences that are clearly religious. The
religious experience of the Africans is not recorded in holy books. It is however, encoded in the
memory of the African people and is repeatedly expressed in beliefs, practices, ceremonies,
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festivals, values, attitudes, symbols and myths. These serve as templates for the African religion
Mbiti (1969) notes that African religion permeate into all the departments of life so fully that it is
not easy or possible always to isolate it. It is religions such as Christianity that create a
dichotomy. Religion is the strongest element in traditional background, and exerts, probably the
greatest influence upon the thinking of Africans.
Beliefs and practices

Belief is a mental attitude. All religions have the basis of belief. Belief shows how people think
about the universe, and their attitude towards life. African religion is concerned with beliefs
such as the existence of God, Spirits, human life and magic among others. Beliefs among the
Africans are realized in various ways such as, healing rituals and death rituals. Certain practices
such as praying, sacrificing and offerings, performing ceremonies and observance of taboos and
0customs indicate underlying beliefs among the people.
Religious objects and places

These are things and places which people have set apart as holy/sacred. They are not commonly
used except for religious purposes. Some are private, (belong to families/individuals) such as
traditional clothing. Among the Akamba for instance, diviners possess musical instruments such
as drums, an accordion and a guitar. These objects are only used by the diviner or other
authorized persons. Others objects and belong to the whole community (are public) these
include: shrines, graves, sacred hills, mountains, charms, masks etc. Shrines include - graves of
departed members of family groves (small group of trees), rocks, Caves, Hills, Mountains, under
certain trees. In these sacred places, prayers and sacrifices were offered to God and spirits
(Kirika, 1988). These places/shrines are considered sacred and no bird, animal or tree living
there may be killed or destroyed. In these sacred places people perform religious rituals. Some
of the sacred places are man-made houses/temples etc, others are naturals. Religious objects
such as, charms, and amulets are worn, kept in pockets/bags/houses roofs/gates, swallowed and
buried. All these shrines/objects/places are outward a material expressions of religious ideas and
beliefs.
Values and Morals

This deals with ideas that safeguard or uphold the life of people in their relationship with one
another and the world around them. They help people to live with one another, settle their
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differences, maintain peace and harmony, make use of their belongings and relate with their
environment as expected by the community. Values and morals entail concepts such as truth,
justice, love, right and wrong, good and evil, respect for peoples property, crime and
punishment, praise and blame, beauty, character and decency.
Religions specialists and leaders

These men/women are custodians of religious heritage. They conduct religious matters such as
ceremonies, sacrifices, formal prayers, divination, they are more knowledgeable in religious
affairs than other people, and so they are highly respected. Some are trained, others are not, they
may or may not be paid for their duties, but in most cases, people give to them tokens for their
work. They include: priests, rain-makers/stoppers ritual elders, diviners, medicine-men, and
rulers/Kings. The role accomplished by one specialist cannot be adequately accomplished by
another. For example, although some diviners can prescribe herbal cures, they may not be as
accurate and convincing as herbalists may be.
Rituals
Rituals are the outward actions, words and behavior symbolizing an inner attitude to be in
communion with the Sacred. People in traditional societies celebrated life more intensively than
it is done today. They celebrated their life through songs and dance. Such celebrations were
carried out through rituals. Mbiti (1992) describes rituals as a set form of carrying out a
religious action or ceremony. It is seen as a means of communicating something of religious
significance, through word, symbol or action. A ritual can also be described as an outward action
expressing a persons inner desire to be in communion with the Sacred. Rituals embody what
people belief in, which in turn provoke them to do certain things that they value.
Significance of Rituals
●They create feelings (sense) of confidence.
●They act as occasions far blessings and protection
●They are moments of separation and announcement, for example, in marriage both spouses are
separated from their family
●Rituals help to reduce tensions in various fields of social life above all; rituals are religious
ways of implementing the values and beliefs of people. Without such religious values and
beliefs ritual can be like any play or game.
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●Rituals are associated with education.
●Law – there is physical punishment if rituals are not observed.
Ceremonies and festivals

Ceremonies and festivals have a lot of religious meaning to Africans. Through their observation,
religious ideas are perpetuated and passed on to the next generations. Africans are gregarious
(like the company of others, sociable) in nature, hence high levels of socialization. They like to
be heard, hence loud noise. They like large numbers, hence large families (polygamy) they like
congregating with others to celebrate and keep customary festivals. Some festivals observed are
for example during harvest, start of rainy season, birth, naming of a child, victory over enemies
and during caledrical puberty initiation rites.
Symbols
What is a symbol?
Etymologically the term symbol originates from the Greek word symbalein which denotes
the two halves of a broken coin. Here a symbol was understood as the process by which
human beings can arbitrarily make certain things stand for other things. This meaning here is
appropriate to the word sign than symbol. African people have variety of symbols which
have a religious meaning. Some symbols are forested by locusts/birds (owl), certain tress
(Mugumo tree), figures, shapes, colours, animals (chameleon protect and security),
persons such as chiefs (power) and places such as shrines (sacredness). Therefore arts and
symbols among Africans give religious ideas and help to comment and strengthen religious
ideas.
Characteristics of Symbols
 Symbols are not created but are far out of life. They are not out of creative faculty of
man; imagination for example, the symbol of darkness, light and water were given to
humans with their existence in the world. Their meaning forced itself upon humanity, it
does not depend upon arbitrary decisions of people therefore symbols appear to be built
into people’s experience (as symbols are universal).
 A symbol is versatile. Symbols refer to a variety of things at different times and places.
For instance, water confronts people in their existence in many different ways for
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example, waters may be cool and refreshing this points to beneficence of creations, water
in floods as storms at seas has a malevolent aspect
 Symbols are therefore rich in expression. The significance of symbol is not limited, they
have flexibility and constancy. A symbol operates because it bears relationship with what
is represented.
 A symbol can only reveal what is present within it and it cannot represent what it is not
symbolizing. A good example is the symbolism of fire which possesses flexibility
(versatile content) in that it can represent reality in its aspects. Fire can consume, cleanse
or purify. It represents energy too.
 A symbol is a language for ultimate reality. It pushes beyond the frontiers of knowledge
and grasps the reality of things, the real nature of life and the staff of existence in itself.
 Symbols have powers to direct orientation. Symbols are essential as they are conceived
with human subjectivity and that of the cosmos. They are out for an ancestral dialogue
between the “I and THOU for example, the richness of symbols in Bible helps to
explain God as father, teacher lover and nurse guide. These flow from multitude of
personal levels of relationship with God in person to person creation.
Proverbs, Riddles and wise sayings

These are sources of African wisdom. Most of these contain religious beliefs, ideas and moral
teachings. They express religious ideas- speak about God, the world, humanity and nature.
They are short, rich in meaning, and are easy to remember. Thus, they are easier to pass orally
from one generation to the next.
Myths and Legends

These constitute the traditional experiences and wisdom of African people. They are important
sources of information and means of communication. African religion has no sacred writings.
Thus myths and legends express religious ideas whenever they are told.
Customs
Customs deal with what people approve of and do. A custom is a legacy from the ancestors
which is passed on from generation to generation. Customs such as initiation practices, burial
rites and marriage proceedings when continued become part and parcel of a peoples pattern of
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life. Customs influence peoples behavior. They act as an identification mark to a certain
extent.
Dimensions of religion
Ninian Smart a renowned scholar of religion outlines several dimensions of religion as discussed
below:
1. Doctrinal/Philosophical dimension -- many religions have a system of doctrines - beliefs
about the nature of Divinity or ultimate reality and the relationship of humans to that ultimate,
real, divinity
2. Mythological/Narrative dimension myths are the sacred stories which pass from
generation to generation - they are sacred because they reveal and explain what that tradition
believes to be the ultimate nature of gods, humans and the universe.
3. Ethical/Legal dimension - in every tradition you will find sets of rules, behavioural precepts
or guidelines for conduct according to which the community judges a person good or evil
depending on the level of conformity to those precepts. This dimension describes the
systematic formulation of religious teachings in an intellectually coherent form
4. Ritual dimension -- this is the way in which the community re-enacts its myths and confirms
and expresses its beliefs through action.
5. Experiential/emotional dimension -- this is one of the most attractive dimensions of religion

- the capacity of ritual, prayer, worship to evoke feelings of security and comfort or on the other
hand feelings of awe, inexplicable presence, mystery, ecstasy.
6 Social/Institutional dimension -- a religious tradition implies some sort of social

organization through which it perpetuates itself. There can be individuals who exemplify the
religious tradition, and who live outside of society, but the teachings and the tradition itself is
preserved and passed on through the social organization of churches, temples, mosques or
monasteries.
1. Material: Ordinary objects or places that symbolize or manifest the sacred or supernatural
(htt-server.carleton.ca/ /notes/34.101dimesions of religion)

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Worship in African Traditional Religion
Africans share a great sense of respect for God. People revere Him in the family, clan, in the
village and as an ethnic group. Parrinder (1954) makes reference to Blue altars in West
Africa which are commonly owned property and where the chief is in charge. These altars were
also managed by the priests possessed by strange forces and guided by diviners.
Worship expresses submission to God. Mbiti (1969) views worship as uttered rather than
meditational in the sense that it is expressed in external forms. It involves among others
adoration, petitions and resignation to God. Majority of Africans spend their time in acts of
worship for example the Dinka and Nuer of Sudan. Worship involves prayers, sacrifices such as
cows, goats and sheep, offerings such as food stuffs, drinks such as milk and beer given as
libation. Sometimes human sacrifice was found necessary in time of deep community crisis such
as famine or pestilence. Different communities engage in various acts of worship. Worship
among Africans can be carried out at homesteads, village and tribal shrines found in caves,
forests and mountains. Roscoe (1995) refers to the sacred places of worship in the Baganda
kingdom as Temples (masabo). Priests were put in charge and a sacred fire was kep burning
around the temple shrines. The Baganda built these places to honour the ancestral spirits.
Sacrifices such as bark cloth, banana beer firewood and cowrie shells were offered in the shrines.
Shrines are found in many African communities which are regarded as a sanctuary for animals
and humans alike.
The Ashanti had temples and palaces which were decorated with the symbols of the heavens.
The priests among the Ashanti would wear gold and silver ornaments. In many communities
sacrifices were offered to God either commonly or privately. Among the Agikuyu sacrifices were
offered under sacred trees where meat and other foods were left at the foot of the tree for God
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and the rest was eaten by worshippers. Parrinder (1954) argues that there was no regular sacrifice
to God in Africa. This was only done when necessary. In some communities especially in
Southern Africa, sacrifices were given to the ancestors because God was believed to be far away.
The Mende of Sierra Leone believe that, God after creation left the universe in the hands of
lesser gods, spirits, ancestors and chiefs. It is therefore through them that He could be reached.
The Igbo rarely sacrificed to God. However, when things were really bad, slaves or kola nuts
were offered. Many societies sacrificed to God when calamities threatened life such as droughts,
famine, epidemics and wars.
According to Mbiti (1969), worship kept alive the contact between the visible and the invisible
worlds (spiritual and martial worlds). Worship was used to restore peace, harmony, security,
prosperity as well as the original link between God and man. Acts of worship are a means of
linking the human person to the spiritual world. Through worship man becomes an intelligent
link between God and creation. According to Lukwata (1991) the ancient Baganda worshipped
the God they called Katonda who is the Supreme God. On sacrifice Lukwata asserts that a
sacrifice implied the killing of the victim and offering the same to the gods. Sacrifices were
therefore offered as gifts, propitiation, for communion and as a symbol of gratitude to the God.
Sacrifices which formed the most important part of worship served the purpose of pleading for
favors from God, prosperity and abundant life.
Prayer as a means of worship played a key role in uniting the community and individual families
to God and spirits. According to Magesa (1998), prayer is means of restoring wholeness and
balance in life. He opines that African prayer acknowledges the mutual interdependence as a
visible and invisible world. It expresses the dependence of the living on the ancestors and God.
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For Africans petition is the main element in prayer. They ask for practical needs that comply
with their religious perception of a full life. For example, the Ameru people of Kenya God as the
owner of all things and the protector of life. Petition for the Baganda involves asking God for
blessings, good health, wealth and offspring. They also pray for protections and healing of all
kinds of illnesses and diseases.
In African worship and prayer the use of intermediaries is crucial. These are people or spirits
who pray on behalf of the people. Africans make use of helpers in approaching God who can be
divided into human beings and spiritual beings. Human intermediaries include priests, medicine
men and women, rain makers and ritual elders. According to Mbiti (1975) spiritual helpers
include divinities and spirits. As a whole, helpers act as a link between God and the people. It is
believed that in order to reach God effectively, it may be useful to approach him first by
approaching those who are lower to Him and higher than the ordinary human beings.
Intermediaries therefore fulfill the following functions:
●Priests- They offer sacrifices, offerings and prayers. They conduct both private and public
rituals and ceremonies. They also perform judicial functions, act as counselors and take care of
temples and shrines.
●Seers and prophets- These act as ritual elders, give advice on religious matters, receive
messages from the divinities and spirits through spirit possession or dreams on behalf of the
people.
●Oracles- These are the mouth piece of the divinities and spirits. They tend to be connected with
divinations.
●Diviners or medicine men and women- These perform religious functions for example, during
war. They are believed to communicate with spirits in search of answers to daily dilemmas of
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life. For some communities such as the Luo people of Kenya they offer sacrifices and prayers to
God on for the benefit of the people.
●Rain makers- These consult God through rituals, prayer and sacrifices. They are believed to
possess the ability to cause rain to come through their God given power enacted through rituals.
Among the Baluhya of Kenya, there are some communities believed to possess this ability.
Spirit veneration
Africans believe that the world is inhabited by spirits. Some spirits are benevolent while others
are malevolent. It is believed that they are more powerful than human beings and therefore a
good relationship must be maintained with them to avoid misfortune. This is done by appeasing
and placating them. There are two categories of spirits: Divinities and ancestral spirits.
Divinities
Africans believe that divinities were created by God. They never lived as human beings and so
they are natural. These are closely associated with him and often stand for his activities. He
makes use of them in various ways. Some divinities are heroes who have been deified. Among
the Ashanti for example, these beings are known as abosom. According to them, these came
from God and act as his servants and intermediaries between him and humanity. They believe
that God purposely created them in order to protect people. These divinities belong to different
departments depending on peoples activities, for example, among the Banyoro, Basoga and
Edo there are divinities of war, harvest and healing. Among the Akamba there are divinities of
water, wandering or passing spirits. Among the Yoruba there are about 1700 divinities, all
associated with natural phenomena and objects, as well as with human activities and experiences.
To remain in good relationship with these spirits, constant sacrifices are offered, offerings and
libations for the purpose of appeasing them to avoid evil.
Ancestral spirits (the living dead-the sasa period)- Ancestral spirits are also known
as the living dead. These belong to people who died up to five generations in the lineage. For
these spirits to be recognized as ancestral spirits, proper burial with all funeral rites must have
been accorded them and by the right person. One must have been married and died having left
behind descendants. Children in this case cannot become ancestors. These are still people
according to Africans and have not yet become things, spirits or its. They are remembered by
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their family members. They return to their families from time to time and even share meals with
them, they maintain interest of the family affairs, warn members of impending dangers, intervene
among their descendants who venerate them, punish wrong doing but also confer blessings and
at times offer suggestions to family problems. Nevertheless, if the visits are too frequent, the
living resent them. Relationship with them is maintained through the pouring of libation of milk,
beer or tea, placing food and other articles in a certain place.
Africans believe that ancestors are invested with mystical authority and right. Other people
believe that the dead not yet transformed into ancestors perform evil to force their descendants
perform rites to incorporate them to the ancestral world. Ancestor veneration is specifically
referable only to that segment of the social life in which descent and succession play the
organizing role.
Spirits (the long dead-the zamani period)

These beings have no personal relationship with any one since their names have evaporated.
They do not visit the living. They are feared and so people offer them sacrifice from time to time
in order to silence them. However, people with esoteric personalities and roles such as diviners,
priests, medicine men and women consult them as part of their normal practice. These spirits
belong to the period of the zamani (past) (Mbiti, 1969). Sacrifices and libations were offered to
them to avoid misfortune and to ensure a harmonious relationship with them
African ontology
Ontology (from onto-, from the Greek ὤν, ὄντος "being; that which is", present participle of the
verb εἰμί, eimi "be", and -λογία, -logia: "science, study, theory") is the philosophical study of the
nature of being, becoming, existence, or reality, as well as the basic categories of being and their
relations (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ontology)
Africans in the South of the Sahara have similar concept of ontology. In his book, Bantu
philosophy (1952), Fr. Placide Temples presents his understanding of the Balubas (Congo)
concept of the nature of existence of being. He concludes that this concept (ontology) of the
Baluba gives a meaning and direction to their beliefs and religious practices, their language,
institutions and customs, psychological reactions, and their general behaviour. For Temples, all
the customs of the Bantu depend on a single principle, the ontological principle. This principle
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is called the vital force: all behaviour/practices are aimed at acquiring vital force, to live
strongly. He thus notes that force is being, and being is force.
Jahn Heinz:
Jahn adopts the African religious philosophy of Alexis Kagame who described the vitality
through the concept of NTU (the power in everything). He explains this force (NTU) using four
categories, which are arranged hierarchically.
1) Muntu the philosophical category which includes God, spirits of the departed human
beings, and deified men, spirits, human beings and things. These constitute a force
endowed with intelligence.
2) Kintu includes all forces which do not act on their own, but act under the command of
Muntu. These include plants, animals, minerals and tools. This explains the importance
of amulets, charms and talismans among Africans
3) Hantu This is the category of place/space and time. It is subject to Muntu, the author of
space and time.
4) Kuntu This governs items like beauty, (environment) social behaviour such as,
procreation, sorcery and farming.
According to Jahn, NTU which occurs in all four categories is the universal force. This force
never occurs on its own. It has to be manifest in Muntu, Kintu, Hantu and Kuntu. Thus NTU is
being. It expresses not only the effect of these forces, but also their being.
Mbitis ontology
John S. Mbiti criticizes the philosophies advanced by Temples and Jahn by stating that these
scholars were apologists of African religions and philosophy. Their views are based on personal
interpretations. Temples deals with the Baluba people among whom he had worked for many
years as a missionary, and generalizes his views by applying it to other Africans. Jahn overstates
his views by noting that Europe has nothing similar to this African philosophy. This makes him
appear an apologetic.
In this regard, Mbiti comes up with his own order of African ontology which is essentially
religious and anthropocentric. He divides this ontology into five categories.
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1. God the originator of humanity and all that exists
2. Spirits made up of super human beings and the spirits of men who died a long time ago
3. The human person human beings who are alive, and those about to be born
4. Animals and plants the remainder of biological life
5. Phenomena and objects without biological life
Expressed anthropocentrically, God is the originator and sustainer of the human person while
spirits explain the destiny of the human person. Humanity is at the centre of this ontology.
Animals, plants, natural phenomena and objects constitute the environment in which man lives.
While they provide a means of existence, the human person establishes a mystical relationship
with them.
From the foregoing, it is evident that according to African ontology, every being has a rank. No
being is without a rank irrespective of its status. This is what is called primogeniture or the
Hierarchy of beings. Let us here below discuss it:
1. God He is all good and all knowing, neither man/woman, nor animal nor a stone/celestial
being can be likened to him. He has no husband or wife.
2. Supernatural uncreated Beings- African religion, like any other religion holds the view that,
there exist in the universe beings, which existed long before human existence. These beings
were never created in the manner that man/woman was created. In African religion these
beings are called Orishas or divinities (cf with angels, arch angels, Satan). These are
messengers of God.
3. The ancestors- They are broadly divided into two categories
a) Those who died a long time ago
b) Those who died recently the living dead.
The ancestors are closely linked to human beings since they too were humans before death. They
continue to exist in peoples memory up to the fourth generation. Till then, members of their
families remember them in different ways such as naming, use of traditional attires and
sacrifices. By these practices family members establish a harmonious relationship between them
and the ancestors.
4. The living Human Beings
19
These include members of the extended family, lineage members, clan members and ethnic
members. In African culture, the living human beings consider elders as much wiser and holier
than the rest of community members. Their longevity in life suggests wisdom/experience and
more esteem by God. The elders should have led a moral and productive life. Longevity of life
and a moral and fruitful life suggests holiness. Essential function of elders is to discern the right
order of things, guide community along the right and the true path. They are custodians of
morality.
5. Living things
Plants, animals, insects, reptiles, and birds
6. Non-living things
Rocks, minerals, wood, celestial bodies, tools and appliances
Mystical powers in Africa

Africans believe that there are some invisible mystical powers in the universe. These mystical
forces are neutral. They are neither evil nor good in themselves. They are just like other natural
things at human disposal. It is also believed that certain people have a knowledge and ability to
tap control and use these powers at will or by drive. Magicians, diviners, witches and sorcerers
are believed to posses these powers and are looked upon as enemies of society.
1) Magic- Magic has a neutral connotation. It refers to ritual acts involving the manipulation of
material substances (often inadequately translated as medicines) and use of verbal spells or
addresses all directed towards the influencing of forces often conceived as impersonal and
subject to direct human control. These forces are believed to govern and are the cause of events.
There are two types of magic namely:
a) white magic- This type of magic is seen as beneficial to man. It is protective, productive,
therapeutic and curative. This kind of magic is believed to be helpful to the promotion of life in
the society
b) Black magic- This is the type of magic that is used for destructive purposes and is therefore
experienced as bad magic. It is used to cause harm to others as in the case of love potion, this is
bad medicine in that it works upon a person against his/her consent for the benefit of another.
20
Both white and black magic interact in that protective magic may be used to ensure protection of
ones property for instance, but in also cause harm to a thief.
2. Sorcery- Sorcery is synonymous to black magic. Some scholars however define sorcery as
black magic that has not been legitimized socially. A sorcerer is one who harms others
mystically and illegitimately by practicing destructive magic i.e. by performing rites, applying
material substances (medicines) and making these effective by using more or less formal spells
or addresses (Pritchard, 1965).
In the common understanding and speech, a sorcerer has been identified as a male and a witch as
female. Nevertheless another departure from terminological convention by anthropologists, both
terms are applied both to men and women.
A sorcerer and witch are both enemies of society. A sorcerer brings harm to others by anti-social
illegitimate use of destructive magic for example, by performing magical rites on peoples
clothes, hair and footsteps among others.
3. Witchcraft- A witch is a person who harms others intentionally or unintentionally simply

responding to an inner drive. According to Evans Pritchard (1965), a witch is one who is
believed to harm others mystically and illegitimately by means of psychic emanations from an
inherent physiological condition that is transmitted biologically. Witchcraft can therefore be
inborn, inherited or acquired in various ways.
Witches are believed to harm others by use of incantations, words, rituals and magic objects.
Objects such as, hair of the victim, clothes, pricks or evil wishes are used. Magic objects may
also be planted in the path where the victim will pass. Other witches may send insects like bees
or flies to the home of the victim.
●It is also believed the spirit of a witch can leave him at night to visit the intended victim and eat
him up until he slowly dies (Mbiti, 1992 p.168). Other ways may be speaking ill words intended
to inflict harm, looking at a person or even wishing harm on the person
●It is also believed that powerful magic can be used in which case a person can change into an
animal or a bird and attack his perceived enemy.
21
4) Names- Africans did not understand the whole mystery of conception and birth. However one
thing that is clear is that they were very cautious in giving names to new born children. The
name given was very significant. In African culture, the child who was not yet named was
referred to as a thing and not a person. The name gives an individual identity, a sense of
belonging as well as making the child a member of the community. Names are given for specific
reasons. Among the Agikuyu people of Kenya, a woman receives a new title after childbirth. She
receives the title by the name of her child for example, the mother of Mbugua. Among the Luhya
of Western Kenya names are given by a grandparent who calls out different names amidst the
childs cries. If a name is mentioned and the child stops crying it is believed that the ancestors
are in agreement with that particular name. The power of a particular name is believed to
manifest through behavior traits. For example, a child named after a lazy woman is associated
with that same character.
b) Medicine- African medicine was highly despised by the WESTERN world because they
failed to see the connection between the medicine and the ailment, between stomachache and the
spitting of saliva and uttering words that healed it. Here what is important is the words uttered.
Think of the treatment for mumps or words uttered after a child has extracted some tooth.
c) Laughter- Laughter is a very special aspect of life. It is also believed that it is only human
beings that have the gift of laughter. It expresses an experience in life and inner beauty. It helps
in co-creating and promoting life.
d) Crying- A cry expresses sorrow and inner pain. One may cry also to express a deep emotion
positive or negative. It communicates a deep personal feeling which calls for attention. Crying
can be therapeutic especially as a means to release inner tension and stress. Africans believe that
only women should show their tears in public and not men.
e) Curses and blessings- These are confined to the elders since they are believed to vital force.
The use of a curse is negative and reduces vital force. A sick person or a very elderly person can
curse the living family members for not taking care of them.
●It is also believed in some communities that the living dead can also curse members of their
families
22
●It is also believed in some communities that the family head can curse a piece of land meaning
that anyone who uses that piece of land becomes victim of the curse.
●Fathers can also curse their children
●To avert a curse, Africans will use ritual to cleanse the victims. When the person who passed
on the curse is dead it becomes a family issue to avert it, through ritual sacrifices
●Some people are also believed to have an
f) Evil tongue. Such people only need to mention a word on someone or something and there are
immediate results
Rites of Passage in African Cosmology

Introduction
The term rites of passage was coined by Arnold Van Gennep (1873-1956) a French
anthropologist. It refers to stages or levels of life. Rites of passage are a series of passages from
one age group to another, from one occupation to the other or one state of life to the next and one
territory to another. This progression from one group to the next or state to another is
accompanied by special acts enveloped in ceremonies. (en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rite_of_passage
Wikipedia)
.
Mugambi (1989) describes rites of passage as a ceremony that was performed on an individual as
he/she passed from one stage to another.
Eliade (1987) views rites of passage as categories of rituals that mark the passage of a person
through the life cycle from one social position to another integrating the human and cultural
experiences with biological destiny like birth, reproduction and death.
Webster (1960) asserts that the term rite is used to denote religious ceremonies and activities
performed in an established or prescribed manner or words or acts constituting or accompanying
it.
To the African traditional people, no act is free of the sacred. For example, the ceremonies of
birth, childhood, social, puberty, marriage, pregnancy, fatherhood, initiation into religious
societies and funerals are all seen as sacred. For every one of these ceremonies, there are events
whose essential purpose is to enable the individual to pass from one defined position to another..
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In this respect human life resembles nature, and neither the individual nor the society is
independent of this connotation. This is because the universe is governed by periodic deity
which has some repercussions (far reaching effects of event) on human life with stages and
transitions, movements forward, and periods of relative inactivity. Thus, human life actually
resembles nature.
Classifications of rites
Purification rites
So far, no scheme of classification of passage rites has met with general acceptance, although
many names have been given to distinguishable types of rites and to elements of rites. The name
purification ceremonies refer to an element of ritual that is very common in rites of passage and
also in other kinds of religious events. In most instances, the manifest goal of purification is to
prepare the individual for communication with the supernatural, but purification in rites of
passage may also be seen to have the symbolic significance of erasing an old status in
preparation for a new one.
Life cycle ceremonies
Life-cycle ceremonies are found in all societies, although their relative importance varies. The
ritual counterparts of the biological crises of the life cycle include numerous kinds of rites
celebrating childbirth, ranging from baby "showers" to pregnancy rites to rites observed at the
actual time of childbirth and, as exemplified by Baptism and the fading Christian rite of
churching of Women, a ceremony of thanksgiving for mothers soon after childbirth. These rites
involve the parents as well as the child and in some societies include the couvades (a ceremony
in some cultures whereby a husband is put on bed at the same time his wife is giving birth). At
this time the father follows elaborate rules of ritual procedure that may include taking to bed,
simulating labour pains, and symbolically enacting the successful birth of a child. In all societies
some ritual observances surround childbirth, marriage, and death, although the degree of
elaboration of the rites varies greatly even among societies of comparable levels of cultural
development. Rites at coming-of-age are the most variable in time in the life span and may be
24
present or absent. In some societies such rites are observed for only one sex, are elaborate for
one sex and simple for the other, or are not observed for either sex. Death is given social
attention in all societies, and the observances are generally religious in intent and import. In
societies that fear dead bodies the deceased may be abandoned, but they are nevertheless the
focus of ritual attention. Most commonly, rites at death are elaborate, and they include clearly all
of the stages of separation, transition, and reincorporation.
Ceremonies of social transformation
Ceremonies of social transformation include all of the life-cycle ceremonies, since these involve
social transitions for the subjects of the ritual and also for other persons. When a man or woman
dies, for example, he assumes a new social role as a spirit that may be socially important to the
living; the bereaved spouse becomes a widow or widower; and the children have an unnamed but
changed status as lacking one parent. A vast number of rites of social transformation, such as
rites of initiation into common-interest societies, have no direct or primary connection with
biological changes. These are abundant in the United States and European nations, usually as
secular ceremonies. In primitive societies, rites of this kind mark induction into age-graded
societies, principally limited to males, and a variety of common-interest societies such as warrior
societies, curing societies (special groups whose purpose is to cure illnesses), and graded men's
societies that are hierarchically ranked in prestige. Whether hereditary or achieved by
appointment or election, assumption of important office in various kinds of societies is often
observed by elaborate ritual. Any other events involving changes in social status tend to become
the subjects of institutionalized ritual, which is then a prerequisite for the new status. Common
examples are initiation ceremonies of college fraternities, sororities, and honorary societies; adult
fraternal societies, and social groups of other kinds centered on common interests. Other social
changes of importance that apply to a substantial number of people but do not involve initiation
into organized social groups are also given ritual attention. Common among these are graduation
exercises, festivities marking retirement from work, and various kinds of award ceremonies.
Ceremonies of religious transformation
Religious-transformation ceremonies signal changes in religious statuses, which may be matters

of the greatest importance to the people. Performing ritual such as making sacrifices and
offerings may be required in the normal course of life, and these acts may be regarded as
25
conferring a new religious status or state of grace. Sacrifices are a frequent feature of rites of
passage, and for important ceremonies such as coronations and funerals of rulers, sometimes
required the sacrifice of many human beings for example among the Akan people of Ghana.
Among the laity, entry into a religious society or the assumption of any other new religious role
is customarily an event celebrated by rites such as those of baptism and confirmation. Among
professional religious personnel, the achievement of any distinct status of specialization is
ordinarily observed by rites corresponding to the Christian rites of ordination--the rites through
which religious functionaries become entitled to exercise their respective functions. As with
other rites of passage, these rites may be simple or complex and their degree of complexity may
generally be easily seen as reflecting the religious and social importance of the newly acquired
status. A single element of an elaborate rite in one society, such as circumcision or the dressing
of the hair in a distinctive way may in another society be the central or sole event of rites of
either social or religious transformation. These ceremonies may, accordingly, be called rites of
circumcision or be identified by the name of the style of hair-dress.
General ceremonies
The term “rites of passage” is occasionally applied to institutionalized rites for curing serious
illness and, rarely, to cyclic ceremonies such as harvest festivals. No new social or religious
status is ordinarily gained by recovery from illness or participation in harvest rites, however, and
these ceremonies have probably been included among the rites of passage because of similarities
in their ritual procedures. In some societies, recovery from a very critical illness is regarded as a
divine sign that the erstwhile invalid should assume the role of a religious specialist, but rites of
ordination are quite separate. Some elements of ceremonies pertaining to changes in the seasons
may be seen as incorporating acts of separation and incorporation, symbolically saying goodbye
to the old season and welcoming the new, but these are not customarily called rites of passage.
Although clearly denoting a change in social status, divorce has rarely been regarded as a rite of
passage. Festive observances at this time are perhaps common in some societies, but they are
often informal practices of the individual or simple acts of local custom, such as discarding
wedding rings, that are not institutionalized in the entire society. The absence of divorce from the
conventional roster of rites of passage illustrates an outstanding characteristic of this class of
rites: all celebrate events that are either socially approved or, like death and illness, unavoidable.
Rites of passage that signal the assumption of social statuses disapproved by society are both out
26
of keeping with the prevailing interpretation of the rites as being socially supportive and would
broaden them to cover such events as trials by jury and commitment to prison for serious crimes.
Rites of passage can further be divided into:

●Rites of separation – These are rites through which an individual is separated from the earlier
group that he/she belonged to. This may be by secluding the initiate in a place for a time, alone
with others. Such rites often include the cutting of umbilicus of a child, seclusion of initiates for
a period of time, the cutting of the tip of the penis during circumcision or the clitoris, keeping the
body of a deceased relative in a special place.
●Transition rites- These are rites that mark the passing of an individual from one stage to
another such as giving instructions to the initiates, or lighting of fire in the period of mourning,
shaving hair, avoiding work or even food foe some people during a mourning period, or a
woman remaining indoors until the child is named.
●Rites of incorporation- This period is marked by receiving the initiates back home with song
and dance, giving of gifts, at marriage, giving of new names, new dress, at death laying the body
to rest and cleansing rituals after burial. This rite comprises practices that give the final shape to
an action and mark of identity. These are mostly performed as the final rites which give a feeling
of finality and perfection of the entire rite.
Rites of Passage
Pregnancy and Childbirth
According to Kirwen (2005), birth is a process that begins with conception till the child is finally
born. Once it is noted that a woman is expectant, Africans are filled with joy for such an event
has many implications. First of all the woman herself has the reason to rejoice because it is only
by giving birth to children that she can be assured of a permanent marriage. The ceremonies
during pregnancy and childbirth are together taken as a whole i.e. they are not separable. The
first rites performed are intended to separate the pregnant woman from society. This is followed
by rites pertaining to her family such as abstinence from sex and certain foods, certain manual
works and use of certain tools such as sharp objects. This is because pregnancy makes the
woman impure and dangerous meaning that pregnancy places her physiologically and socially in
an abnormal condition. Thus, she is treated with caution.
27
Pregnancy ceremonies, like those of child birth, have a purpose of facilitating delivery and to
protect the mother and child (and sometimes evil forces which may be impersonal or personified)
Rites connected with childbirth vary considerably. In some communities, the baby may not be
given its mothers milk until rituals of purification have been performed. Sometimes the
mother and child are kept from each other for some days; others may seclude the mother and
child from the public for several days or even weeks.
Birth rites become more complex in abnormal cases, especially if the mother has given birth to
twins or triplets or more. Some societies used to kill such children while others would kill both
the mother and child, or kill one child (usually the weak one). After birth, the rite of
reintegration of the mother and the child to the community follows.
Another important ceremony surrounding birth is the naming of a child.
Puberty initiation rites

Among Africans, there was variety of puberty initiation rites. For one to be recognized as a
grownup in any African community there was need to undergo one type of initiation rite or
another.
Circumcision as a Rite of Passage

We shall now discuss the circumcision rite of both males and females and examine its
significance as a rite of passage and its implication for gender identity and formation.
●For those who practice circumcision and clitoridectomy, these rites were (are) one of the
conditions of adulthood and full tribal membership.
●Initiation rites gave one the right to own property. The gifts given at circumcision marked this
new beginning.
●New names were given among some ethnic groups to indicate a new rebirth into the world of
adulthood.
●The ceremonies, dances, songs, rites and education accompanying circumcision and
clitoridectomy, had as their main purpose the transformation of the initiation both spirituality
and psychologically as a preparation for the changing nature and role in society. The required
28
behavioral change was enshrined in symbolism of the practices and its discourse. In this, the
initiate was not just a recipient of social institutions and expectations but an active participant.
●Through the related communal and family sacrificial rites, prayers and the shedding of blood
during the operation, God and the Spirits of the ancestors were believed to be directly involved
in making this change. The change was thus believed to be spiritually sealed.
●The shedding of blood was the focal point which united the individual initiate and all those who
shared the same circumcision knife with the spirits of the ancestors and the earth.
●All initiates were believed to be bonded in a covenant of oneness and harmony especially due
to the sharing of the same knife. Therefore, among the Meru, Gikuyu, Maasai, Embu, the change
for childhood to adulthood was not only biological but most importantly a social and religious
matter.
●Circumcision and clitoridectomy were not only important in empowering a sexual role, but also
in development of sexual discipline and gender identity. This was highly emphasized in the
Ideas of manhood and womanhood which were accentuated in the rites and discourses
accompanying the ritual. The development of the virtues of manhood and womanhood and the
physical and psychological transformation were believed to come only with circumcision and
clitoridectomy. This practice can thus be rightly viewed as the climax, the test, the mark and at
the same time, the vehicle for the individual achievement of manhood and womanhood.
Marriage as a rite of passage

Mbiti (1969) describes marriage in Africa as a drama in which all members of the community are
participants. He reiterates that marriage among Africans is not a dance with one leg but an
engagement of full participation. Every grownup boy or girl is expected to get married and raise
a family. Failure to comply to this mandatory practice of the community means that the
concerned person has rejected society and society has rejected him or her. In Africa marriage of
a close relative is taboo and a matter of spiritual and social offense. Kiura (1999) further notes
that marriage is a lifelong union between two people of the opposite sex which is
institutionalized by the payment of bride wealth. She asserts that, for Africans, marriage is more
or less the reason why people live. It is the meeting point with both the living members of the
community and the living dead family members.
29
Marriage correlates the most important of transition from one social category to another. This is
because of change of family and clan from one status to another. Sometimes the newly married
couple establish themselves in a new house. The three principles which stimulate marriage are:
1. Consent of those involved i.e. women husband and guardian if need be.
2. Exchange of marriage gifts.
3. Official cohabitation.
Marriage in Africa can be monogamous, polygamous, wife to wife (with a hidden male figure
between them-some tomes), polyandry and ghost marriages. Marriage in an African context
serves several purposes such as, procreation, unity, companionship, remembrance of parents,
social status, completeness, children and family (Mbiti, 1969).
▪Marriage as a Rite of separation
Normally, marriage starts with bride wealth negotiations followed by abduction or capture. A
woman is captured from parents and taken to a new place or home. To marry is to pass from
adolescence to adult group, from a given clan to another, from one family to another, and often
from one group from village to another.
Marriage expresses the loss of one’s former status of responsibility to a new particular restricted
group. The rite of capture is therefore an essential rite of separation which emphasizes one’s
personality and subjects one to permanent or temporary taboo regarding the types of
performances by the group or particular sex.
▪Marriage as a rite of transition

From the moment of betrothal, transition begins with the breaking of ties of the young man or the
girl from former groups (age groups, sex groups, kinship groups and ethnic group). These ties are
often so powerful to break. Bride wealth is paid in installments. In the same way, incorporation
into the new groups (such as family, social group of marriage men/women who have lost their
virginity, the clan, or the ethnic group) is not accomplished at once.
During the period of varying duration the newcomer is an intruder especially in relation to the
new family. This period is the period of cohabitation of the couple. There are the mother-in
law and the father-in-law taboos for daughter-in-law and son-in-law. The position of the new
wife remains uncertain until her pregnancy or until the first child birth. Therefore transition
begins from betrothal to the period of first pregnancy or child birth.
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Marriage as a rite of incorporation

This rite is divided into:
a) Industrial rites which unite the two young couples. These are symbolized in the
exchange of articles such as belts, bracelets, rings, binding each other with a single cord,
eating together, drinking each other’s blood, washing each other, sharing the drink from
the same container, using objects belonging to each other, entering the new house etc.
b) Rites with collective significance.
It is symbolized by the journey of individuals to a new family and unity of the two
families. This is indicated by exchange of gifts, participation in ritual dances, betrothal
and wedding feasts, exchange of visits etc.
Death as a rite of passage

Africans are quite aware that death is inevitable and therefore the only entry into the ancestral
home. This explains why numerous rituals are performed to facilitate a peaceful communion of
the deceased person and his or her ancestors. The main rituals surround actual death, mourning
period, the grave, burial and after the burial. According to Dickson and Paul (1969) many
African communities carry out elaborate post burial purification rites without which the
concerned persons remain unclean and isolated. Among the Lumwe of Malawi, there is a special
ceremony following the burial of an adult. Close relative remain close to the tomb for three to
four days depending on ones status. This is followed by a ceremony of calling home the spirit
of the departed person. A ceremony that is meant to crush death is performed by some elderly
people, men and women (four in number) after which, members believe that the spirit of the
defunct person is now present among them. Among the Kisii people, rituals are performed both
on the body of the dead person as well close relatives. These include bathing, clothes, contact
with others especially in the event a woman loses her husband or vice versa (Mosoti 1998).
Significance:
●Death is an opening to new life in the spiritual world.
●It marks a change of status whereby one enters into a deeper relationship with the clan, the
family and the community at large.
●It is the beginning of a deeper relationship between the individual and the whole universe.
31
●In death one becomes an ancestor
●The spirit of a dead person is incorporated into the life of the living community through among
others, naming, sacrifices and prayers.
●The grave, the closing of the house, burying the body, putting the deceased’s belongings to the
grave, particular dances especially among the Luhya all indicate the pain of separation
●The silence, dances, gatherings, feasting, wearing of the deceased’s clothing, sexual intercourse
among close relatives before burial and shaving indicate mourning and hence transition. Dances
and foods are meant to appease the spirits
●Rituals to send away the spirit of death, ritual sex between the bereaved wife and a brother of
the deceased or any other person, cleansing rituals, washing of feet by the grave diggers in Kisii,
entry into a new house all indicate incorporation. Prayers are also offered to incorporate the
deceased into the world of the ancestors
32

BRS 103 Summary Notes - 1-1

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BRS 103 Summary Notes - 1-1

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The African concept of the world

●The universe was created

●The universe is divided into visible and invisible parts

●Man/humanity is at the center of the Universe.

●The universe is eternal/ unending

●There is order and power in the universe

Culture is the characteristics of a particular group of people, defined by everything from

Foundations of African traditional religion

Beliefs and practices

Religious objects and places

Values and Morals

Religions specialists and leaders

Ceremonies and festivals

Proverbs, Riddles and wise sayings

Myths and Legends

5. Experiential/emotional dimension -- this is one of the most attractive dimensions of religion

6 Social/Institutional dimension -- a religious tradition implies some sort of social

(htt-server.carleton.ca/ /notes/34.101dimesions of religion)

Worship in African Traditional Religion

as famine or pestilence. Different communities engage in various acts of worship. Worship

and humans alike.

famine, epidemics and wars.

favors from God, prosperity and abundant life.

kinds of illnesses and diseases.

Intermediaries therefore fulfill the following functions:

temples and shrines.

God on for the benefit of the people.

Spirits (the long dead-the zamani period)

4. The living Human Beings

Mystical powers in Africa

3. Witchcraft- A witch is a person who harms others intentionally or unintentionally simply

Rites of Passage in African Cosmology

Life cycle ceremonies

Ceremonies of social transformation

Ceremonies of religious transformation

Religious-transformation ceremonies signal changes in religious statuses, which may be matters

Rites of passage can further be divided into:

Another important ceremony surrounding birth is the naming of a child.

Puberty initiation rites

Circumcision as a Rite of Passage

Marriage as a rite of passage

▪Marriage as a rite of transition

Marriage as a rite of incorporation

Death as a rite of passage

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