CHAPTER

THE SKELETAL SYSTEM

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SECTION I FEATURES OF THE SKELETAL SYSTEM

The adult human skeletal system consists of 206 bones together with a network of
tendons, ligaments and cartilage that connects them. The skeletal system performs vital
functions such as support, movement, protection, blood cell production, calcium storage
and endocrine regulation that enable us to survive.

ORGANIZATION OF BONES
Bone cells
Bone is a metabolically active tissue composed of several types of cells. These cells
include osteoblasts, which are involved in the creation and mineralization of bone
tissue, osteocytes, and osteoclasts, which are involved in the reabsorption of bone tissue.
Within the marrow of the bone, there are also hematopoietic stem cells. These cells give
rise to other cells, including white blood cells, red blood cells, and platelets.
Bone tissue
Bone tissue or osseous tissue is a type of connective tissue with a hardened,
calcified matrix. Matrix contains calcium salts and collagen fibers. Calcium salts give
strength to bone while the collagen gives bone some flexibility. It is important to realize
that each bone is composed of other tissues besides osseous tissue. For example each
bone includes other tissues such as blood (liquid connective tissue), endothelial tissue,
smooth muscle tissue, nerve tissue, adipose tissue, and lymphatic tissue.
Almost every bone in the body is made of the same materials. The outer surface of
bone is called the periosteum. It's a thin, dense membrane that contains nerves and
blood vessels that nourish the bone. The next layer is made up of compact bone. This
part is smooth and very hard. Within the compact bone are many layers of cancellous
bone, which looks a bit like a sponge. Cancellous bone is not quite as hard as compact
bone, but it is still very strong. In many bones, the cancellous bone protects the
innermost part of the bone, the bone marrow. Bone marrow is sort of like a thick jelly,
and its job is to make blood cells.

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Types of bone
There are five types of bones in the human body: long, short, flat, irregular, and
sesamoid.
Long bones are characterized by a shaft, the diaphysis, which is much longer than
its width; and by an epiphysis, a rounded head at each end of the shaft. They are made
up mostly of compact bone, with lesser amounts of marrow, located within the
medullary cavity, and areas of spongy, cancellous bone at the ends of the bones. Most
bones of the limbs, including those of the fingers and toes, are long bones. The
exceptions are the eight carpal bones of the wrist, the seven articulating tarsal bones of
the ankle and the sesamoid bone of the kneecap. Long bones such as the clavicle, which
have a differently shaped shaft or ends are also called modified long bones.
Short bones are roughly cube-shaped, and have only a thin layer of compact bone
surrounding a spongy interior. The bones of the wrist and ankle are short bones.
Flat bones are thin and generally curved, with two parallel layers of compact bones
sandwiching a layer of spongy bone. Most of the bones of the skull are flat bones, as is
the sternum.
Sesamoid bones are bones embedded in tendons. Since they act to hold the tendon
further away from the joint, the angle of the tendon is increased and thus the leverage of
the muscle is increased. Examples of sesamoid bones are the patella and the pisiform.
Irregular bones do not fit into the above categories. They consist of thin layers of
compact bone surrounding a spongy interior. As implied by the name, their shapes are
irregular and complicated. Often this irregular shape is due to their many centers of
ossification or because they contain bony sinuses. The bones of the spine, pelvis, and some
bones of the skull are irregular bones. Examples include the ethmoid and sphenoid bones.

MAJOR BONES IN THE BODY

The bones of the skeletal system can be subdivided into two large groups, the axial
skeleton, and the appendicular skeleton. When describing the bones of the skeleton, it is
important to differentiate between paired and unpaired bones. Bones in the hands, arms,
legs, and feet are paired bones. There is a left and right for each bone. Some bones of
the skull and the vertebrae are unpaired bones. For these particular bones, there is only
one bone in the body with that name. Examples of unpaired bones include the frontal
bone, occipital bone, hyoid bone, and sternum.
The Axial Skeleton
The axial skeleton consists of the skull, spinal column, ribs and sternum
(breastbone).
The skull is subdivided into two parts: the cranium and the facial portion. Some of
the bones in the skull have the same name as the regions of the brain: frontal, parietal,

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occipital, temporal. All of these bones except the occipital occur in pairs. There are two
frontal bones, two parietal bones, and two temporal bones. The maxillae are the two
bones that form the upper jaw. They are found between the nose and mouth. The
mandibles are the two bones that form the lower jaw. They are found below the mouth.
The zygomatic bones are also called the cheekbones. Skull bones are mostly connected
by sutures.
The bones of the trunk include the vertebral column (the spine), the ribs (costae)
and the sternum. The vertebral column is made up of 33 irregularly shaped bones, called
vertebrae divided into: seven cervical vertebrae (the first vertebra, the atlas, supports the
head, the second, the axis, enables the movements of the head), twelve thoracic, five
lumbar, five sacral vertebrae which are fused together to form the sacrum, four or five
small terminal bones which are also fused together to form the coccyx. And curves are a
normal part of the spine's structure.
The bones of the thorax form a cone-shaped rib cage, which protects the heart,
lungs and other organs. It is composed of twelve pairs of ribs and the sternum. The first
seven pairs of ribs are attached anteriorly to the sternum. Each rib from the next three
pairs is attached to the rib above. The last two pairs have no anterior attachment and are
called the floating ribs.
The Appendicular Skeleton
The appendicular skeleton forms the skeleton of the upper and lower limbs.
The bones of the upper limb include the pectoral (shoulder) girdle composed of two
bones: the clavicle (or collarbone) and the scapula (shoulder blade). The arm bone is
called the humerus; the forearm bones are the ulna and the radius. There are eight
carpals in each wrist, five metacarpals in each palm, three phalanges in each finger, and
two phalanges in each thumb.
The bones of the lower limb are attached to the pelvic girdle, which consists of two
hip bones (coxae). Each lower limb contains the thigh bone called the femur, the patella
(kneecap), and two leg bones, the tibia (shin bone) and fibula. There are seven tarsals in
the ankle, five metatarsals in the middle of each foot, two phalanges in each big toe, and
three phalanges in each other toe.

THE FUNCTIONS OF BONE

Bones perform a wide range of important functions that can be classified into three
categories:
Mechanical Functions of Bones:
Protection: At numerous places inside the body, bones serve to protect important
and delicate organs. For example, bones of the skull and the vertebrae of the vertebral

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column provide protection for the brain and spinal cord, respectively, while the bones of
the thoracic cage provide protection for the heart and lungs.
Shape: Because of their rigid nature, bones provide a framework for the body. So
bones are responsible for the shape and form of human body.
Movement: Together with skeletal muscles, tendons, ligaments and joints, the
bones form the moving machinery of human body. The major role of bones in
movement is to act as levers, which make use of the forces generated by skeletal
muscles in a beneficial way to maximize the efficiency of movement and strength.
Synthetic Functions of Bones:
Synthesis of blood cells: The major synthetic role of bones is to produce blood
cells. Bones have the bone marrow, which contains hematopoietic stem cells, capable of
producing blood cells. This supply of blood cells helps to keep pace with the billions of
red blood cells that are routinely destroyed each day. In infants, bone marrow of all long
bones is capable of this synthesis, however, as a person gets older, the red marrow turns
into yellow fatty marrow, which is no more capable of hematopoiesis.
Metabolic Functions of Bones:
Role in acid-base balance: Bone buffers the blood against excessive pH changes by
absorbing or releasing alkaline salts.
Storage of Minerals and Fats: Bones can act as a reservoir for calcium and
phosphorus and serve as the fat storage such as fats stored in the yellow bone marrow of
long bones.
Extra calcium is stored in the bone matrix. It is taken out of the bone matrix and put
into the bloodstream when the body is in need of more calcium. Homeostasis of calcium
levels is controlled by two hormones: Calcitonin which is made in the thyroid gland and
Parathyroid hormone (PTH) which is made in the parathyroid glands. When calcitonin
is released into the bloodstream, it causes the extra calcium in the blood to be taken out
and added to the bone matrix. It is then stored in the matrix until needed. When calcium
is needed by the body, PTH causes it to be taken out of bone matrix and put into the
bloodstream.

ACCESSORY STRUCTURES OF BONES

The skeletal system also includes cartilage, ligaments, tendons and connective
tissue that join bones together at joints.
Cartilage
Cartilage is an important structural component of the body. It is a firm tissue but is
softer and much more flexible than bone. It is a resilient and smooth elastic tissue, a
rubber-like padding that covers and protects the ends of long bones at the joints, and is a

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structural component of the rib cage, the ear, the nose, the bronchial tubes, the
intervertebral discs, and many other body components.
Cartilage is made up of specialized cells called chondrocytes. These chondrocytes
produce large amounts of extracellular matrix composed of collagen fibres,
proteoglycan, and elastin fibers.
Cartilage is classified in three types: elastic cartilage, hyaline cartilage and
fibrocartilage, which differ in relative amounts of collagen and proteoglycan. Cartilage
does not contain blood vessels or nerves. In other words, it is avascular and aneural.
Ligaments and Tendons
Ligaments and tendons are both made up of fibrous connective tissue.
Ligaments appear as crisscross bands that attach bone to bone and help stabilize joints.
It serves to hold structures together and keep joint stable. For example, the anterior cruciate
ligament (ACL) attaches the thighbone to the shinbone, stabilizing the knee joint.
Tendons, located at each end of a muscle, attach muscle to bone to move the bone.
Tendons are found throughout the body, from the head and neck all the way down to the
feet. The Achilles tendon is the largest tendon in the body. It attaches the calf muscle to
the heel bone. The rotator cuff tendons help your shoulder rotate forward and backward.
Joints – Articulations
Bones are not particularly flexible but the skeleton as a whole is very flexible. In
order for the skeleton to be flexible, bones must be able to move or articulate relative to
one another. This is accomplished through the use of joints. A joint is the place in your
body where two or more bones come together.
There are many different types of joints and most, but not all, allow for some
degree of movement between the bones that make up the joint. Joints can be subdivided
or classified based on their structure or on the amount of movement that can take place
at the joint. A typical synovial joint is the knee. The knee is the articulation between the
femur and the tibia. Note the fibula does not articulate with the femur and is not part of
the knee joint, however, it does articulate with the tibia. The articulation between the
tibia and fibula is a good example of a joint that allows little movement between bones.
The joints between the bones of the skull, called sutures, are good examples of joints
with no movement. The knee is a synovial hinge joint that allows movement (flexion
and extension) mainly, along one axis. Muscles work across hinge joints supplying the
power to flex or extend the joints. Muscles are attached to bones by strong connective
tissue components called tendons.
Within the joint capsule of the knee, there are two cartilage pads, menisci, made
from fibrocartilage, that cushion and protect the ends of the bones. In addition to the
cartilage pads, the end of each bone is covered with a protective layer of hyaline

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 cartilage. The remaining space within the joint capsule is filled with synovial fluid
which lubricates and nourishes the interior of the joint. Associated with the knee are a
number of supportive ligaments that help stabilize the joint. Ligaments are made of a
similar connective tissue as tendons. The difference is that ligaments hold bones
together, while tendons attach muscles to bones.
Joints are under a lot of pressure and are quite prone to stress, injuries, and
inflammation. The main diseases affecting them are gout, osteoarthritis, and rheumatoid
arthritis. These usually cause inflammation. Injuries to the joint include contusions,
dislocations, sprains, and penetrating wounds. Stress on a joint can come from heavy
lifting or playing rigorous sports

EXERCISE A. Answer the following questions.

1. What are the functions of the skeleton?
……………………………………………………………………………………
The skeletal system performs vital functions such as support, movement, protection, blood cell
production, calcium storage and endocrine regulation that enable us to survive.
……………………………………………………………………………………
2. What does the skeletal system consist of?
……………………………………………………………………………………
The adult human skeletal system consists of 206 bones together with a network of
……………………………………………………………………………………
tendons, ligaments and cartilage that connects them.
3. What does the axial skeleton comprise?
……………………………………………………………………………………
The axial skeleton consists of the skull, spinal column, ribs and sternum
……………………………………………………………………………………
4. What are 33 vertebrae divided into?
The……………………………………………………………………………………
vertebral column is made up of 33 irregularly shaped bones, called vertebrae divided into: seven
cervical vertebrae, twelve thoracic, five lumbar, five sacral vertebrae which are fused together to form the
……………………………………………………………………………………
sacrum, four or five small terminal bones which are also fused together to form the coccyx
5. Which bones does the rib cage include?
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
6. How many bones does the wrist contain? What are they called?
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
7. What are the other names of the collar bone, shoulder blade and patella?
Where are they located?
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
8. Is the humerus proximal or distal to the ulna?
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
9. Is the tibia distal to the humerus or femur?
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………

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10. How many bones does the middle of the foot contain? What are they called?
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
EXERCISE B. Complete the sentences below with the appropriate words.
1. The spine is comprised of 33________. One of them is called a ________.
2. There are 12 pairs of________.
3. Ribs connect to the ________ in the middle of the chest.
4. Bone tissue or osseous tissue is a type of connective tissue with a hardened, calcified
________.
5. The skull is subdivided into two parts: the ________and the facial portion.

EXERCISE C. Choose the correct word or phrase to complete each sentence below.
1. The occipital / parietal bone is located at the back of the head.
2. Calcitonin is the molecule that forms bone matrix / hormone that adds calcium to
bone.
3. The spine / cranium also protects the spinal cord, a large bundle of nerves that sends
information from your brain to the rest of your body.
4. The first seven vertebrae at the top are called the cervical / thoracic vertebrae.
5. The sacrum / coccyx is made up of five vertebrae that are fused together to form one
single bone.
6. The matrix of bone is made of water and collagen / calcium and collagen.
7. All 12 pairs of ribs attach in the back to the spine, where they are held in place by the
thoracic / lumbar vertebrae.
8. Small disks made of cartilage / ligaments are in between each vertebra. These disks
keep the vertebrae from rubbing against one another, and they also act as your spine's
natural shock absorbers.
9. The femur connects with the radius / tibia at the knee joint.
10. The outer surface of bone is called the periosteum / cancellous bone.

Figure 4.1 Tendons and ligaments Figure 4.2 The major bones of the skull
in the knee joint Source: Anatomy and Physiology for
Source: Anatomy and Physiology for English Language Learners
English Language Learners
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EXERCISE D. Where are the following bones in the body? Check the correct box.
Wrist and Hand Arm Leg Shoulder Region
1. Carpals    
2. Clavicle    
3. Humerus    
4. Metacarpals    
5. Phalanges    
6. Radius    
7. Scapula    
8. Ulna    
9. Femur    
10. Tibia    

EXERCISE E. Match the following bones and write the appropriate letter to the
left of each number.
1. carpals A. upper arm bone
2. fibula B. bones of hand connecting to phalanges
3. ulna C. foot bones connecting to phalanges
4. ischium D. collarbone
5. metatarsals E. wrist bones
6. humerus F. in the lower leg, beside the tibia
7. clavicle G. pelvic bone that lies below the ischium
8. pubis H. the largest of the two lower leg bones
9. metacarpals I. lower arm bone
10. tibia J. below the ilium

EXERCISE F. Complete the table about the summary of the appendicular skeleton.

Amount Structure Bones (Number of each bone)

4 A._________ clavicle (2) , scapula (2)
6 arm and forearm humerus (2), ulna (2) and B._________ (2)

C_________ (16), metacarpal (10),

58 hands
phalanges (D._________) and sesamoid (4)

2 pelvis / the pelvic girdle coxae / E._________ (2)

femur (2), tibia (2), F._________ (2) and
8 thigh and leg
fibula (2)
tarsals (14), H._________ (10), phalanges
56 G._________
(28) and sesamoid (4).

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EXERCISE G. Complete the following sentences with the words in the box.
aging tibia cartilage supporting joint
posture move fractured hardens fracture
pressure broken wounds protrudes inflammation
deficits spongy reasons outer include

1. The skeletal system is responsible for __________ the weight of the body, for
__________ and for gait.
2. Joints are under a lot of __________ and are quite prone to stress, injuries, and
__________.
3. Bella says she broke her leg below the knee. Nurses and doctors would say that she
__________ her __________or fibula.
4. Fred’s ulnar bone is __________ to the degree that it __________ out through his
skin.
5. Mrs. Brown is 85 years old and at risk for a hip __________. Her bones are more
fragile simply due to the __________ process.
6. Bones can break for a variety of __________: nutritional __________, aging, injury,
trauma, or disease.
7. As we grow older, the __________ in our spines __________ making us less and less
flexible.
8. Injuries to the joint __________ contusions, dislocations, sprains, and penetrating
__________.
9. __________ are located where bones meet and help us __________.
10. A typical bone has a dense and tough __________ layer. Next is a layer of
__________ bone, which is lighter and slightly flexible.

EXERCISE H. Complete the following passage with the words in the box.

knee adduct movable pivot ball-and-socket

turn saddle smoothly thumbs circumduction

In the human body, there are six types of (1) __________ joints. They are the hinge
(ginglymus), pivot (trochoid), gliding (arthrodia), ball-and-socket (enarthrosis),
condyloid, and saddle joints. Hinge joints only bend one way. Try to think of them like
the hinge on a door. The (2) __________ is an example of a hinge joint; so are the
knuckles in your fingers. Pivot joints allow you to (3) __________ a part of your body.
This is referred to as rotation. In this case, the bone moves around a central axis without

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 moving away from it. The neck is an example of a (4) __________ joint. You can pivot
your neck.
A gliding joint, on the other hand, is one in which a connecting bone is able to
swing back and forth as it passes (5) __________ over the other bone. Your ankle and
wrist can do this. A (6) __________ joint is one in which a rounded bone head moves
within the cavity of another bone. An example of this is your shoulder and hip joint. The
movement is called (7) __________ . A condyloid (ellipsoidal) joint allows movement
in an elliptical, pivotal manner. It can also flex, extend, abduct, and (8) __________ .
The wrist is an example of a condyloid joint. A (9) __________ joint has the same
movements of a condyloid joint - flexion, extension, abduction, and adduction - but it
cannot pivot or rotate. (10) __________ are the only saddle joints in the human body.

EXERCISE I. Match the type of joint with where it is located.

Joint Location
1. ball-and-socket A. wrist and head
2. hinge B. thumb
3. pivot C. wrist
4. gliding D. metacarpals, metatarsals, ribs
5. condyloid E. shoulder and hip
6. saddle F. finger, elbow, knee

Figure 4.3 A synovial joint Figure 4.4 Sutures in the skull

Source: Anatomy and Physiology for English Language Source: Anatomy and Physiology for
Learners English Language Learners

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 SECTION II DISORDERS OF THE SKELETAL SYSTEM

(1)________________: A bone condition caused by the over production and over

secretion of growth hormone after puberty. Because the condition develops after
puberty, the overall stature of the person is not affected since bone lengthening
has concluded. However, some bones and cartilage continue to growth throughout life.
As a result, these structures grow more than usual. Examples of bones that can
continue to grow after puberty include the bones of the hands and the mandible.
(2)________________: An inflammatory condition of joints. The surfaces inside joints
are normally extremely smooth to allow bones and tissues to move freely with no
friction. These smooth surfaces prevent damage to the structures that must slide past
each other. Damage to a joint can lead to inflammation which disrupts the character of
the joint. This results in swollen painful joints and painful movement of the joint.
Rheumatoid arthritis is an autoimmune condition that results in chronic inflammation of
the joints.
(3)________________: Breaking of a bone. Fractures have a variety of different names
based on which bones are broken and how they are broken. A pathological fracture is
fracture in a diseased bone. A fatigue or stress fracture is due to repeated minor trauma,
for example long-distance marching or running. Some of the different types of fracture
are open/compound fracture, comminuted fracture, displaced fracture, greenstick
fracture, impacted fracture and simple fracture. A greenstick fracture is incomplete, and
the break occurs on the convex surface of the bend in the bone. A fissured fracture
involves an incomplete longitudinal break. A comminuted fracture is complete and
fragments the bone. A transverse fracture is complete, and the break occurs at a right
angle to the axis of the bone. An oblique fracture occurs at an angle other than a right
angle to the axis of the bone. A spiral fracture is caused by twisting a bone excessively.
(4)________________: A condition that leads to “soft” bones through demineralization.
The condition is commonly caused by nutritional deficits of vitamin D or calcium or
both. This results in the loss of bone which can lead to pain and spontaneous fractures.
The vertebrae of the lower back are areas frequently affected. Treatment usually
includes vitamin D supplementation and an increase in dietary calcium.
(5)________________: The bone cells that make new bone are called osteoblasts, while
the cells that destroy bone are called osteoclasts. Osteoporosis results from an
imbalance between the activities of these cells. When osteoblast activity is reduced then
a loss of bone density follows. The reduced activity as has been linked to the reduction
in estrogen production which occurs in post-menopausal women. As a result, post-
menopausal women are at high risk of developing this condition.

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(6)________________: A common childhood disease in developing countries, it is
caused by nutritional deficiencies in calcium and vitamin D or severe malnutrition in
general. The weakened bones can bend under the pressure of the child’s weight which
can lead to bone deformities in adulthood.

EXERCISE A. Match the following subtitles with the suitable paragraphs.

A. Osteoporosis B. Fracture
C. Acromegaly D. Osteomalacia
E. Arthritis F. Rickets

EXERCISE B. Determine the meaning of the following vocabulary as used in the

reading text above.
1. puberty
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
2. inflammation
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
3. disrupt
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
4. malnutrition
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
5. fracture
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
6. trauma
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
7. imbalance
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
8. reduction
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
9. deformity
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………

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10. deficiency
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………

EXERCISE C. Match the first part of the sentence with the second part.
1. Arthritis is an inflammatory A. and painful movement of the joint.
2. Normally the surfaces inside of joints are B. condition of joints.
extremely
3. These smooth surfaces prevent damage C. disease that results in chronic
inflammation of the joints.
4. Damage to a joint can lead to D. smooth to allow bones and tissues to
inflammation move freely with no friction.
5. This results in swollen tender joints E. to the structures that must slide past
each other when you move a joint.
6. Rheumatoid arthritis is another type of F. which disrupts the smooth interior
arthritis which is an autoimmune character of a joint.

EXERCISE D. Match the following types of fracture with their descriptions.

1. open/compound fracture A. There is a break in the skin.
2. comminuted fracture B. The bone is bent. It occurs mainly in children.
3. displaced fracture C. The bone is broken into several pieces.
4. greenstick fracture D. The broken pieces are separated.
5. impacted fracture E. The broken pieces are pushed together.
6. simple fracture F. The bone is broken, but there is no break in the skin.

EXERCISE E. Put the sentences in the correct order to make a meaningful

paragraph about osteoporosis.
A. As a result, post-menopausal women are at high risk of developing this condition.
B. Osteoporosis results from an imbalance between the activities of these cells.
C. The bone cells that make new bone are called osteoclasts, while the cells that
destroy bone are called osteoblasts.
D. The reduced activity as has been linked to the reduction in estrogen production
which occurs in post-menopausal women.
E. When osteoclast activity is reduced, then a loss of bone density follows.

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 SECTION III FURTHER PRACTICE

EXERCISE A. Match each of the following terms with its suitable definition.
1. appendicular skeleton A. “U” shaped, non-articulating bone found in the neck which
supports the tongue
2. axial skeleton B. a short band of tough, flexible fibrous connective tissue
which connects two bones
3. calcium C. the place where two bones come together
4. cartilage D. consists of the clavicle and the scapula
5. erythropoiesis E. consists of the paired bones of the upper and lower extremities
and the paired bones of the pectoral and pelvic girdle
6. hyoid bone F. consists of the skull, vertebrae, hyoid, ribs and sternum
7. joint G. includes the ribs, sternum, and thoracic vertebrae
8. occipital bone H. location of erythropoiesis
9. pectoral girdle I. major alkaline earth metal making up the matrix of bone
10. red bone marrow J. a flexible but inelastic cord of strong fibrous collagen tissue
attaching a muscle to a bone
11. sternum K. one of many bones making up the vertebral column
12. thoracic cage L. process of making new red blood cells
13. vertebra M. a fluid-filled sac countering friction at a joint
14. ligament N. the ribs articulate with this bone on the anterior aspect of the
thoracic cage
15. tendon O. type of connective tissue found between bones at joints
16. bursa P. unpaired bone on the posterior aspect of the cranium

EXERCISE B. Match the common names of some bones with their terms.
Common names Anatomical terms
1. knee cap A. calcaneus
2. collar bone B. carpals
3. hip bone C. clavicle
4. thigh bone D. coxa
5. lower jaw bone E. coccyx
6. ankle bones F. femur
7. heel bone G. mandible
8. wrist bones H. talus
9. cheek bone I. patella
10. shoulder blade J. scapula
11. breastbone K. sternum

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12. shin bone L. tibia
13. tail bone M. zygoma
14. upper jaw bone N. maxilla
15. lower arm bone O. cranium
16. skull P. spine
17. backbone Q. radius
18. upper arm bone R. metatarsals
19. toe bones S. humerus
20. foot bones connecting to phalanges T. phalanges

EXERCISE C. Decide whether the following statements are True (T) or False (F),
on the basis of the roots related to the skeletal system.

T FF TT ROOTS RELATED TO THE SKELETAL SYSTEM

Word root Refers to Example
cost(o)- ribs costosternal
arthr(o)- joints arthrosclerosis
oste(o)- bone osteoarthritis
crani(o)- skull craniostenosis
spondyl(o)- vertebra spondylolysis

1. _____ Osteomalacia also known as adult rickets, is abnormal softening of bones in

adults.
2. _____ Plastic repair of the mandible is referred to as arthroplasty.
3. _____ Craniometry means abnormal hardening of the skull.
4. _____ Costectomy is surgical excision of a rib.
5. _____ Infection of the vertebrae is known as spondylitis.

EXERCISE D. Choose the word or phrase that best completes each sentence or
choose the best answer to each question.
1. Which function of the skeletal system would be especially important if you were in a
car accident?
A. storage of minerals
B. protection of internal organs
C. facilitation of movement
D. fat storage
2. Bone tissue can be described as _________.
A. dead calcified tissue
B. cartilage
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 C. the skeletal system
D. dense, hard connective tissue
3. Without red marrow, bones would not be able to _________.
A. store phosphate
B. store calcium
C. make blood cells
D. move like levers
4. Yellow marrow has been identified as _________.
A. an area of fat storage
B. a point of attachment for muscles
C. the hard portion of bone
D. the cause of kyphosis
5. Which of the following can be found in areas of movement?
A. hematopoiesis
B. cartilage
C. yellow marrow
D. red marrow
6. The skeletal system is made of _________.
A. muscles and tendons
B. bones and cartilage
C. vitreous humor
D. minerals and fat
7. Most of the bones of the skull are _________ bones.
A. long
B. sesamoid
C. flat
D. short
8. The axial skeleton, with a total of 80 bones, consists of the _________, the rib cage
and the skull.
A. phalanges
B. cranium
C. femur
D. vertebral column
9. The appendicular skeleton has a total of 126 bones, and is formed by the pectoral
girdles, the upper limbs, the _________ and the lower limbs.
A. mandible
B. pelvic girdle
C. extremities
D. scapula

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10. X-rays, MRIs, bone density tests and arthroscopy are some of the primary diagnostic
tools used to detect diseases and deformities of the _________ system.
A. skeletal
B. integumentary
C. circulatory
D. muscular

Figure 4.5 The skeleton

Source: Anatomy and Physiology for English Language Learners

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 WORD BANK

appendicular skeleton humerus ribs

axial skeleton lumbar sacrum
carpals metacarpals scapula
cervical metatarsals shoulder blade
clavicle patella sternum
coccyx pectoral girdle tarsals
collarbone pelvic girdle tibia
femur phalanges ulna
fibula radius vertebral column

SOURCES FORTHE READING PASSAGES

CHAPTER 4
THE SKELETAL SYSTEM
https://www.healthpages.org/anatomy-function/musculoskeletal-system-bones-joints-
cartilage-ligaments/
https://www.thoughtco.com/skeletal-system
https://www.encyclopedia.com/medicine/news-wires-white-papers-and-books/skeletal-
system
https://www.webmd.com/osteoporosis
https://www.healthline.com/health/osteomalacia
https://www.medicinenet.com/arthritis

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