Introduction to the Skeletal System

Humans are vertebrates, animals having a vertabral column or backbone. They rely on
a sturdy internal frame that is centered on a prominent spine. The human skeletal
system consists of bones, cartilage, ligaments and tendons and accounts for about 20
percent of the body weight.

The living bones in our bodies use oxygenand give off waste products in metabolism.
They contain active tissues that consume nutrients, require a blood supply and change
shape or remodel in response to variations in mechanical stress.

Bones provide a rigid framework, known as the skeleton, that support and protect the
soft organs of the body.

The skeleton supports the body against the pull of gravity. The large bones of the lower
limbs support the trunk when standing.

The skeleton also protects the soft body parts. The fused bones of the craniumsurround
the brain to make it less vulnerable to injury. Vertebrae surround and protect the spinal
cord and bones of the rib cage help protect the heart and lungs of the thorax.

Bones work together with muscles as simple mechanical lever systems to produce body
movement.

Bones contain more calcium than any other organ. The

intercellular matrix of bonecontains large amounts of calcium salts, the most important
being calcium phosphate.

When blood calcium levels decrease below normal, calcium is released from the bones
so that there will be an adequate supply for metabolic needs. When blood calcium
levels are increased, the excess calcium is stored in the bone matrix. The
dynamic process of releasing and storing calcium goes on almost continuously.

Hematopoiesis, the formation of blood cells, mostly takes place in the red marrowof the
bones.

In infants, red marrow is found in the bone cavities. With age, it is largely replaced by
yellow marrow for fat storage. In adults, red marrow is limited to the spongy bone in
the skull, ribs, sternum, clavicles, vertebrae and pelvis. Red marrow functions in the
formation of red blood cells, white blood cells and blood platelets.

Structure of Bone Tissue

There are two types of bone tissue: compact and spongy. The names imply that the two
types differ in density, or how tightly the tissue is packed together. There are three types
of cells that contribute to bonehomeostasis. Osteoblasts are bone-forming cell,
osteoclasts resorb or break down bone, and osteocytes are mature bone cells. An
equilibrium between osteoblasts and osteoclasts maintains bone tissue.

Compact Bone
Compact bone consists of closely packed osteons or haversian systems.
The osteonconsists of a central canal called the osteonic (haversian) canal, which is
surrounded by concentric rings (lamellae) of matrix. Between the rings of matrix, the
bone cells (osteocytes) are located in spaces called lacunae. Small channels
(canaliculi) radiate from the lacunae to the osteonic (haversian) canal to provide
passageways through the hard matrix. In compact bone, the haversian systems are
packed tightly together to form what appears to be a solid mass. The osteonic canals
contain bloodvessels that are parallel to the long axis of the bone. These blood vessels
interconnect, by way of perforating canals, with vessels on the surface of the bone.

Spongy (Cancellous) Bone

Spongy (cancellous) bone is lighter and less dense than compact bone. Spongy bone
consists of plates (trabeculae) and bars of bone adjacent to small, irregular cavities that
contain red bone marrow. The canaliculi connect to the adjacent cavities, instead of a
central haversian canal, to receive their blood supply. It may appear that the trabeculae
are arranged in a haphazard manner, but they are organized to provide maximum
strength similar to braces that are used to support a building. The trabeculae of spongy
bone follow the lines of stress and can realign if the direction of stress changes.
Bone Development & Growth
The terms osteogenesis and ossification are often used synonymously to indicate
the process of bone formation. Parts of the skeleton form during the first few weeks
after conception. By the end of the eighth week after conception, the skeletal pattern is
formed in cartilage and connective tissuemembranes and ossification begins.

Bone development continues throughout adulthood. Even after adult stature is attained,
bone development continues for repair of fractures and for remodeling to meet changing
lifestyles. Osteoblasts, osteocytes and osteoclasts are the three celltypes involved in
the development, growth and remodeling of bones. Osteoblasts are bone-forming cells,
osteocytes are mature bone cells and osteoclasts break down and reabsorb bone.

There are two types of ossification: intramembranous and endochondral.

Intramembranous
Intramembranous ossification involves the replacement of sheet-like connective tissue
membranes with bony tissue. Bones formed in this manner are called intramembranous
bones. They include certain flat bones of the skull and some of the irregular bones. The
future bones are first formed as connective tissue membranes. Osteoblasts migrate to
the membranes and deposit bony matrix around themselves. When the osteoblasts are
surrounded by matrix they are called osteocytes.

Endochondral Ossification
Endochondral ossification involves the replacement of hyaline cartilage with bony
tissue. Most of the bones of the skeleton are formed in this manner. These bones are
called endochondral bones. In this process, the future bones are first formed as hyaline
cartilage models. During the third month after conception, the perichondrium that
surrounds the hyaline cartilage "models" becomes infiltrated with blood vessels and
osteoblasts and changes into a periosteum. The osteoblasts form a collar of compact
bone around the diaphysis. At the same time, the cartilage in the center of the diaphysis
begins to disintegrate. Osteoblasts penetrate the disintegrating cartilage and replace it
with spongy bone. This forms a primary ossification center. Ossification continues from
this center toward the ends of the bones. After spongy bone is formed in the diaphysis,
osteoclasts break down the newly formed bone to open up the medullary cavity.

The cartilage in the epiphyses continues to grow so the developing bone increases in
length. Later, usually after birth, secondary ossification centers form in the epiphyses.
Ossification in the epiphyses is similar to that in the diaphysis except that the spongy
bone is retained instead of being broken down to form a medullary cavity. When
secondary ossification is complete, the hyaline cartilage is totally replaced by bone
except in two areas. A region of hyaline cartilage remains over the surface of the
epiphysis as the articular cartilage and another area of cartilage remains between the
epiphysis and diaphysis. This is the epiphyseal plate or growth region.
Bone Growth
Bones grow in length at the epiphyseal plate by a process that is similar to
endochondral ossification. The cartilage in the region of the epiphyseal plate next to the
epiphysis continues to grow by mitosis. The chondrocytes, in the region next to the
diaphysis, age and degenerate. Osteoblasts move in and ossify the matrix to form bone.
This process continues throughout childhood and the adolescent years until the
cartilage growth slows and finally stops. When cartilage growth ceases, usually in the
early twenties, the epiphyseal plate completely ossifies so that only a thin epiphyseal
line remains and the bones can no longer grow in length. Bone growth is under the
influence of growth hormonefrom the anterior pituitary gland and sex hormones from the
ovaries and testes.

Even though bones stop growing in length in early adulthood, they can continue to
increase in thickness or diameterthroughout life in response to stress from
increased muscle activity or to weight. The increase in diameter is called appositional
growth. Osteoblasts in the periosteum form compact bone around the external bone
surface. At the same time, osteoclasts in the endosteum break down bone on
the internal bone surface, around the medullary cavity. These two processes together
increase the diameter of the bone and, at the same time, keep the bone from becoming
excessively heavy and bulky.
Classification of Bones

Long Bones

The bones of the body come in a variety of sizes and shapes. The four principal types of
bones are long, short, flat and irregular. Bones that are longer than they are wide are
called long bones. They consist of a long shaft with two bulky ends or extremities. They
are primarily compact bone but may have a large amount of spongy bone at the ends or
extremities. Long bones include bones of the thigh, leg, arm, and forearm.
Short Bones
Short bones are roughly cube shaped with vertical and horizontal dimensions
approximately equal. They consist primarily of spongy bone, which is covered by a thin
layer of compact bone. Short bones include the bones of the wrist and ankle.

Flat Bones
Flat bones are thin, flattened, and usually curved. Most of the bones of the craniumare
flat bones.

Irregular Bones
Bones that are not in any of the above three categories are classified as irregular
bones. They are primarily spongy bone that is covered with a thin layer of compact
bone. The vertebrae and some of the bones in the skull are irregular bones.

All bones have surface markings and characteristics that make a specific bone unique.
There are holes, depressions, smooth facets, lines, projections and other markings.
These usually represent passageways for vessels and nerves, points of articulation with
other bones or points of attachment for tendons and ligaments.

Divisions of the Skeleton

The adult human skeleton usually consists of 206 named bones. These bones can be
grouped in two divisions: axial skeleton and appendicular skeleton. The 80 bones of the
axial skeleton form the vertical axis of the body. They include the bones of
the head, vertebral column, ribs and breastbone or sternum. The appendicular skeleton
consists of 126 bones and includes the free appendages and their attachments to the
axial skeleton. The free appendages are the upper and lower extremities, or limbs, and
their attachments which are called girdles. The named bones of the body are listed
below by category.

Axial Skeleton (80 bones)

Skull (28)
Cranial Bones

 Parietal (2)
 Temporal (2)
 Frontal (1)
 Occipital (1)
 Ethmoid (1)
 Sphenoid (1)
Facial Bonesr

 Maxilla (2)
 Zygomatic (2)
 Mandible (1)
 Nasal (2)
 Platine (2)
 Inferior nasal concha (2)
 Lacrimal (2)
 Vomer (1)
Auditory Ossicles

 Malleus (2)
 Incus (2)
 Stapes (2)

Hyoid (1)
Vertebral Column

 Cervical vertebrae (7)

 Thoracic vertebrae (12)
 Lumbar vertebrae (5)
 Sacrum (1)
 Coccyx (1)
Thoracic Cage

 Sternum (1)
 Ribs (24)
Appendicular Skeleton (126 bones)

Pectoral girdles

 Clavicle (2)
 Scapula (2)
Upper Extremity

 Humerus (2)
 Radius (2)
 Ulna (2)
 Carpals (16)
 Metacarpals (10)
 Phalanges (28)
Pelvic Girdle

 Coxal, innominate, or hip bones (2)

Lower Extremity

 Femur (2)
 Tibia (2)
 Fibula (2)
 Patella (2)
 Tarsals (14)
 Metatarsals (10)
 Phalanges (28)
Articulations
An articulation, or joint, is where two bones come together. In terms of the amount of
movement they allow, there are three types of joints: immovable, slightly movable and
freely movable.

Synarthroses
Synarthroses are immovable joints. The singular form is synarthrosis. In these joints,
the bones come in very close contact and are separated only by a thin layer
of fibrousconnective tissue. The sutures in the skullare examples of immovable joints.

Amphiarthroses
Slightly movable joints are called amphiarthroses. The singular form is amphiarthrosis.
In this type of joint, the bones are connected by hyaline cartilage or fibrocartilage. The
ribs connected to the sternum by costal cartilages are slightly movable joints connected
by hyaline cartilage. The symphysis pubis is a slightly movable joint in which there is a
fibrocartilage pad between the two bones. The joints between the vertebrae and the
intervertebral disks are also of this type.
Diarthroses
Most joints in the adult body are diarthroses, or freely movable joints. The singular form
is diarthrosis. In this type of joint, the ends of the opposing bones are covered with
hyaline cartilage, the articular cartilage, and they are separated by a space called the
joint cavity. The components of the joints are enclosed in a dense fibrous joint capsule.
The outer layer of the capsule consists of the ligaments that hold the bones together.
The inner layer is the synovial membrane that secretes synovial fluid into the joint cavity
for lubrication. Because all of these joints have a synovial membrane, they are
sometimes called synovial joints.

Review: Introduction to the Skeletal System

Here is what we have learned from Introduction to the Skeletal System:

 The human skeleton is well-adapted for the functions it must perform. Functions
of bones include support, protection, movement, mineral storage, and formation
of blood cells.
 There are two types of bone tissue: compact and spongy. Compact bone
consists of closely packed osteons, or haversian system. Spongy bone consists
of plates of bone, called trabeculae, around irregular spaces that contain red
bone marrow.
 Osteogenesis is the process of bone formation. Three types of cells, osteoblasts,
osteocytes, and osteoclasts, are involved in bone formation and remodeling.
 In intramembranous ossification, connective tissue membranes are replaced by
bone. This process occurs in the flat bones of the skull. In endochondral
ossification, bone tissue replaces hyaline cartilage models. Most bones are
formed in this manner.
 Bones grow in length at the epiphyseal plate between the diaphysis and the
epiphysis. When the epiphyseal plate completely ossifies, bones no longer
increase in length.
 Bones may be classified as long, short, flat, or irregular. The diaphysis of a long
bone is the central shaft. There is an epiphysis at each end of the diaphysis.
 The adult human skeleton usually consists of 206 named bones and these bones
can be grouped in two divisions: axial skeleton and appendicular skeleton.
 The bones of the skeleton are grouped in two divisions: axial skeleton and
appendicular skeleton.
 There are three types of joints in terms of the amount of movement they allow:
synarthroses (immovable), amphiarthroses (slightly movable), and diarthroses
(freely movable).