UNIT 1 PRINCIPLES OF MEDIA ETHICS

Structure
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Learning Outcomes
1.2 Ethics: Concept and Theories
1.2.1 Consequentialism
1.2.2 Deontology
1.3 Why Media Ethics?
1.3.1 Media in the Complex Social Milieu
1.3.2 Media as Social Auditor
1.4 Media Form and Its Freedom
1.4.1 Authoritarian Model
1.4.2 Libertarian Model
1.4.3 Self-Regulation
1.5 Media and Market Pressures
1.6 Media Ethics in India: Some Breaches
1.7 Let Us Sum Up
1.8 Further Readings
1.9 Check Your Progress: Possible Answers

1.0 INTRODUCTION
This unit is designed to give you an overview of the ethical theories of relevance
to media followed by a brief history of media ethics in different parts of the
world. Thereafter, the ongoing debate on a code of conduct for television
broadcasters in India is outlined. The cases discussed in this unit provide an
insight into some of the contemporary discussions and debates on different facets
of media ethics, the objective being to prepare you for a more detailed exposition
of issues relating to truth, fairness and objectivity. This unit further seeks to
condition you to appreciate concerns relating to sensitivity in reporting and the
invasion of privacy, and provides a curtain-raiser to issues relating to the conflict
between commercial considerations and public interest.

1.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES

After going through this unit, you should be able to:
• define media ethics and discuss theories of ethics;
• take a historical overview of evolution of media ethics;
• discuss the need for ethical conduct for media persons;
• appreciate the hardships and the opposition journalists face while doing
their duty;
• analyse the impact of market forces over the media; and
• appreciate issues related to self-regulation of the media.
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 Activity - 1
Before you start going through this unit, try to explore the basic level of
awareness of those in your locality regarding the media and its conduct. Ask
the following questions to 10-15 people in your locality and note down their
responses. Tabulate the data obtained and analyse the responses.
Do you think that media plays an important role in society?
Yes No Can’t say
Do you think that the conduct of the Indian media is by and large ethical?
Yes No Can’t say
Do you think the government should regulate the media?
Yes No Can’t say

1.2 ETHICS: CONCEPT AND THEORIES

The word ‘ethics’ originates from the Greek word ethos which means ‘character’.
The subject of ethics has been discussed and debated by people the world over,
particularly by philosophers, for centuries. It is said that some 2500 years ago,
Greek philosophers had divided their work into three broad segments: aesthetics
or the study of beauty; epistemology or the study of knowledge; and ethics or the
study of choices between good and evil, truth and falsehood, virtue and vice.
Ethics is a subject that seeks to use rational and systematic principles, values and
norms to determine what is good or bad, correct or incorrect, right or wrong, as
far as human actions are concerned. Though used interchangeably on occasions,
ethics is different from morality as the latter pertains more to conventions and
customs that determine or govern behaviour and relatively less to whether the
action being judged is good or bad.

The first proponent of utilitarianism as an ethical principle was Jeremy Bentham

(1748–1832), the British jurist, philosopher, social reformer and political radical.
He noted that ‘nature has placed mankind under the governance of two sovereign
masters, pain and pleasure’. Another English philosopher and political economist
John Stuart Mill (1806–73), whose book Utilitarianism was published in 1863,
argued that ethical actions are those that generate the ‘greatest good for the greatest
number of people’. In this sense, utilitarianism directly refuted the views espoused
by Italian political philosopher Niccolo Machiavelli (1469–1527) who, in his
treatise The Prince, argued that ‘the ends justify the means’.

There are two main ethical theories which are frequently employed to determine
media behaviour: consequentialism and deontology.

1.2.1 Consequentialism
The Consequentialism theory holds that the ethical value of an action should be
judged on its consequences. Actions themselves lack interest value, but can be
appraised by virtue of their consequences. Consequentialist theories focus only
on the outcome of an action, without regard for the means, that is, how the
consequences came about. Therefore, all actions should be thoroughly considered
in terms of their possible outcomes, before being executed. The outcomes of an
action can be evaluated from two perspectives: ethical egoism and ethical altruism.
8 Ethical egoism holds that actions whose consequences will benefit the agent of
the action can be considered ethical. This perspctive does not present a cohesive
social model as such actions might harm others. Ethical altruism on the other
hand holds that actions that benefit others can be considered good. One of the
most popular consequentialist theories Utilitarianism, is based on ethical altruism
perspective, which is designated to create the greatest good for the greatest number
of people, is a direct inference of consequentialism. The utilitarian approach is
applicable to the media as it considers the well being of the society at large and is
thus commensurate with the socio-centrism of journalism.

Utilitarianism
Utilitarianism as already stated, considers ethical which is designed to create the
greatest good for the greatest number. Mill who formalised the ideas of Bentham
argued that an action should have positive consequences for as many people as
possible. Mahatma Gandhi’s concept of Sarvodaya, the welfare of all, resembles
the utilitarian theory. However, Gandhi was keen to stress that Sarvodaya was
not utilitarian because he felt that the utilitarian objective of satisfying as many
as possible was not sufficiently an ethical model, as why should the well being of
the minority be of any less value than that of the majority? Why should the welfare
of certain people be sacrificed? Thus there are many arguments against
consequentialism and the utilitarian theories of ethics.

1.2.2 Deontology
Deontology focuses on a person’s duty as a means to determine appropriate action.
Immanuel Kant, the most famous deontologist, felt that it was the intention behind
an action that rendered it ethical or unethical. He argued that the only right intention
was the intention to act out of duty. This duty is that which can be said to be good
in all situations. He believed that ‘goodwill’ was the only virtue that was good
without qualification. Actions done out of goodwill are done out of respect for
moral law and out of duty. This is a very pertinent concept for the media as it is
the media’s duty to serve the public by providing information which is impartial
and which promotes knowledge and reason.

Journalists have many duties, however, there is no guarantee that these will always
be concordant. For an honest and sincere journalist, the duty to serve the public,
the duty to protect sources and the duty of loyalty towards the employer can at
sometimes be in moral and ethical juxtaposition to each other. There are no easy
answers to such dilemmas. It is therefore important to be familiar with all aspects
of these ethical systems to determine the most appropriate course of action. It is
thus vitally important for a journalist to be aware of the implications of a report
before publishing or broadcasting it.
Check Your Progress: 1
Note: 1) Use the space below for your answers
2) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the Unit.
Explain the following concepts in brief:

1) Utilitarianism
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 2) Deontology
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1.3 WHY MEDIA ETHICS?

Social welfare is the raison d’être of the media. Various media of mass
communications - print, radio, television, cinema and the Internet - reach out to
large numbers of people, often from different sections of society and from across
diverse societies. The function of the mass media — sourcing, reporting and
dissemination of information is aimed at the public. The media revolves around
society; it is people who provide news and it is people to whom the news is
reported, hence the need for media ethics.

1.3.1 Media in the Complex Social Milieu

Individuals are complex, societies even more so, especially societies like India,
that are highly heterogeneous, plural, variegated and even deeply divided.
Journalists are faced with social nuances at every turn and have to come to terms
with these complexities. In sourcing information while presenting news, journalists
have to report on gender crimes; exploitation of the underprivileged; indulgence
of the affluent; arrogance of those in positions of power and authority; natural
calamities and man-made accidents; communal tensions and riots; conflicts and
wars and acts of terrorism. While reporting news, explaining facts, analysing
information and placing these in their historical, social, economic and political
contexts, journalists have to be aware of their audience and accordingly use the
language and tone considered appropriate, proper and relevant.

Media serves society by disseminating accurate information which is essential to

facilitate reasoned and ethical behaviour. Knowledge is an invaluable social
commodity and that is reflected in legal provisions such as the right to information,
freedom of expression, speech and debate — all of which lead to the freedom of
the media. Reason, which is facilitated by information and knowledge, has often
been recognised by philosophers, such as Immanuel Kant, as the best means for
determining ethical action. Ethics is such an important area of concern because it
views humans as being inextricable from society and that social interaction should
be governed by mutual consideration and respect. Journalism is concerned with
promoting ethically based decision-making and behaviour.

1.3.2 Media as Social Auditor

An independent media, in its role as an auditor, has often been described as
society’s watchdog. Unerring, loyal, vigilant, unforgiving and ready for corrective
action — these are supposed to be the qualities of a watchdog. Society needs its
watchdog but journalists, as mere mortals, are sometimes prone to doubt and
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misguided action. At times, however, the media has let society down, and as a
result has been subjected to scrutiny and fierce criticism. Several questions related
to ethics arise in journalism. A few of them are as follows:
1) What happens when a journalist sets her or his sights on destroying the
reputation, career, and dignity of an innocent woman or man?
2) What happens when the media, voluble and bullying like a mob, levels
unsubstantiated and false accusations against an individual or an
organisation?
3) What is the way to ensure that journalists act in a sensitive and responsible
manner when reporting on the grief-stricken?
4) When do journalists trade their conscience and humanity for a sensational
story?
Due to such factors, need for an effective institution arises in the society to keep
a watch on the wrorng doings of media.

1.4 MEDIA FORM AND ITS FREEDOM

Mass media has come a long way since Johannes Guttenberg invented the printing
press in Germany in 1456. At present, the media comprises a huge, diverse and
variegated conglomerate of enterprises that exercise considerable influence on
not just the way people talk and dress but also the way they think. The origin of
the word ‘journalism’ is in the Latin word diurnalis meaning daily and signifying
the current and timely reporting of events. But journalism has, over the centuries,
been transformed into a far more complex series of endeavours, especially in a
day and age when news is read and watched 24 hours, seven days a week.

1.4.1 Authoritarian Model

Historically, media has enjoyed various degrees or levels of freedom. In the years
when print was the dominant medium of mass communication, the press was
stringently monitored and regulated by governments. The unparalleled and
unprecedented power of the press to reach and influence people was promptly
recognised by governments and by those in authority. Therefore, governments
wanted to utilise and harness the power of communication that the press enjoyed
and this they did by enacting strict licensing laws for publications. Governments
and authorities sought to control the press to ensure that they did not publish
anything that would be considered vaguely derogatory to those in power, even if
such information was based on empirical evidence. This was known as
Authoritarian model in which government excercised control over the press.

1.4.2 Libertarian Model

Unlike the authoritarian model of controlling the media, the libertarian model
believed that an independent media was an extension of a fundamental human
right, the right to free expression. Libertarianism represented the beginnings of a
free press, one that operated independent of state control and which emphasised
the capacity of the citizenry to make informed and responsible decisions. The
libertarian model was influenced by the thinking of the John Milton (1608–74)
who wrote a pamphlet in England in 1644 titled Areopagitica. In fact it was his
speech to the parliament for unlicensensed printing of books. He stressed the
importance of free speech as a means to create open, public debates through
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 which, he believed, the truth would inevitably come out. This libertarian model
prevailed throughout the 18th and the 19th centuries and it radically changed the
function of the press, which attempted to free itself from the shackles of
government censorship.

Later trends of psychoanalysis presented some challenges to the libertarian model.

Where reason had previously been lauded as a sovereign principle of human
behaviour, psychoanalysts pointed out that not all human behaviour was rational.

Egalitarianism developed out of the libertarian model in response to the significant

transformation of the media in the 20th century. As a philosophical line of thought,
it focused on social equality and responsibility and two main ethical theories
consequentialism and deontology earlier discussed.

1.4.3 Self-Regulation
Many countries have regulatory bodies and laws to govern the behaviour of media.
However, rules and regulations have their limitations. Not all situations are alike
and, frequently, occasions arise that require at least a careful interpretation of
existing regulations to determine the best course of action. Moreover, regulations
and laws, for this very reason, are not exhaustive. Specific circumstances often
demand unique considerations. Self-regulation is considered the best means to
guarantee appropriate behaviour, for two major reasons. First, self-regulation
ensures that the media can continue to operate independently. An independent
media is essential for a thriving democratic society and therefore self-regulation
would be in the interest of the media as well as the state. Second, self-regulation
is a voluntary act that is not imposed externally and hence, carries more credibility
in the eyes of the public. Any state-sponsored regulation, even if brought with the
best of intentions, can be deemed authoritarian, or even draconian, and be opposed
by the media, interest groups and the public in general.

Self-regulation applies not only to media groups and organisations but also to
individual journalists. It is, therefore, of fundamental importance that media
practitioners nurture a strong ethical value system throughout their careers. You
will read more about self regulation in Unit 3 of this Block.

A free media is often described as the cornerstone of democracy: historically, the

press used to be accountable to the powers-that-be, but today those in government
and politics have perhaps to be equally accountable to the media. Recently, there
has been a spurt in instances of violent attacks against journalists, writers and
media organisations in different parts of India. In addition it has often been
criticised and viciously attacked by some politicians, bureaucrats and police
personnel. Former Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi had tried to introduce a
Defamation Bill in 1988 which was withdrawn after vehement opposition from
journalists. Earlier, during the Emergency period in 1975–77, the Union
government, headed by Indira Gandhi, had imposed censorship on the press — a
decision that was later publicly regretted by the then Information and Broadcasting
Minister Vidya Charan Shukla. Many supporters and well-wishers of the former
prime minister too felt that this specific move contributed considerably to the
electoral defeat of her party in March 1977.

On occasions, journalists believe they have been unfairly attacked. In 1999, during
the Kargil war, a reporter of the news group New Delhi Television (NDTV) was
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accused of endangering the lives of Indian soldiers by using a satellite phone, an
allegation she vehemently denied. These allegations resurfaced in a different form
in December 2008 when the then Indian Navy chief accused a woman television
reporter of behaving in an unethical manner that led to the death of three Indian
soldiers, a charge that was denied by the reporter in question. Earlier, in 1989, a
television journalist was accused of concocting interviews with criminals who
were supposed to have rigged elections in Bihar — a charge she too denies.

Twenty-four hour television channels came under criticism for the manner in
which the November 2008 terrorist attacks in Mumbai were reported. Various
sections, including the Indian government, argued that the media acted in a less-
than responsible manner and violated ethical norms while covering the incidents
of 26–28 November 2008 thereby re-igniting the debate on regulation of television
broadcasts.

Thus it is argued that over a period of time the ‘somewhat special status that the
media enjoyed as the fourth pillar of democracy has been considerably diluted’.
As a result public perception of media has altered and journalists are no longer
seen as belonging to a profession with an element of public service in it. The
‘ignorant reporting and comments’ have taken their toll and it is now up to the
media to introspect its present role and decide for its future.
Check Your Progress: 2
Note: 1) Use the space below for your answers
2) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the Unit.
Explain the following models in brief:

1) Authoritarian model
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2) Libertarian model
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 1.5 MEDIA AND MARKET PRESSURES
The media, collectively, gets a bad name when journalists lose the trust of the
public at large. Globally, and in India, concerns are frequently expressed that
given market pressures to maximise profit, the media is not really as free and
independent as it purports to be. Business imperatives of increasing revenue have
taken (and continue to take) their toll on editorial freedom and journalistic
excellence: the demands of advertisers and the drive to increase circulation figures.
At worst, the media is entirely controlled, albeit indirectly, by market pressures
and, therefore, the imperative of public service has fallen by the wayside and
neo-authoritarianism is the media model of the moment. At best, the media risks
compromising its role as society’s watchdog, becoming instead a mouthpiece
serving the interest of advertisers and owners of media organisations.

Mahatma Gandhi had warned: ‘… just as an unchained torrent of water submerges

the whole countryside and devastates crops, even so an uncontrolled pen serves
but to destroy….’ Former British Prime Minister Tony Blair did not cloak the
expression of his disillusionment when he famously called the media ‘a feral
beast’. The comparison to an unruly pack of hungry animals was part of a speech
delivered by Blair in June 2007 to highlight the problems of the media in today’s
world of ‘impact’ journalism. According to him, the state of the media — in
particular its relationship with politics — has reached a point where corrective
redress is warranted. In April 2008, the Russian Parliament urgently passed the
first reading of a special law that would empower courts to shut down media
houses that published stories considered libellous and/or unsubstantiated.

The move came in the wake of a tabloid story alleging that President Vladimir
Putin was going to divorce his wife of twenty-five years to marry a young gymnast
in her twenties. The story was picked up by media all over the world and widely
publicised before it was denied by the publication, Moskovsky Korrespondent,
itself whose owner then announced that the tabloid would be suspending
publication due to financial problems. An embarrassed Putin blamed journalists
who, ‘with their snotty noses and erotic fantasies, prowl into others’ lives’. Russia’s
lawmakers voted to give courts powers to close a news outlet that ‘disseminates
deliberately false information damaging individual honour and dignity’ of public
personalities.
Instead of providing information that, on occasions, not merely entertains but
educates and empowers as well, media products and services have become merely
vehicles to bring advertisers closer to consumers.
As for the integrity of journalists, the phenomenon of ‘embedded’ reporters, who
travelled with American troops and stayed with them while reporting on the war
in Iraq in March 2003, has raised a host of questions about the ‘independence’ of
such reporting. In India, certain journalists have argued that by reflecting the
class interests and biases of proprietors and managers of media organisations, the
media has ended up becoming one of the most exclusionist institutions in Indian
society.

1.6 MEDIA ETHICS IN INDIA: SOME BREACHES

Media watchers argue that instead of improving the quality of programming,
14 competition has resulted in a ‘race to the bottom’, a race in which television
news channels have conveniently forgotten basic ethical norms and principles of
journalism, principles of fairness, truthfulness and objectivity. There have been a
number of instances of Indian television channels abusing the tremendous power
enjoyed by the mass media by deploying questionable methods and tactics to
gain popularity. Some such instances are discussed below:

The Gudiya Episode

One such instance relates to a young Muslim woman named Gudiya who belonged
to a poor family from Meerut district in Uttar Pradesh. Her first husband, Arif,
served in the Indian army and had been sent to fight in the Kargil war soon after
they were married. As his family did not hear from him for five years, it was
presumed that he had either been killed or was serving time as a prisoner of war
in Pakistan. Gudiya then married a distant relative, Taufeeq. When she was eight
months pregnant with Taufeeq’s child, Arif suddenly turned up after he was
released from a Pakistani prison. He wanted to return to Gudiya and was willing
to accept her unborn child as his own though he was not the child’s biological
father. For weeks, television channels broadcast discussions and debates on
Gudiya’s story. Eventually, Gudiya succumbed to the pressures of various so-
called experts whose views were aired on television and decided to ‘remarry’ her
first husband. Her first child was born and she started living with Arif. She soon
became pregnant for a second time, but this time her child was stillborn. She fell
seriously ill, was hospitalised and then died of septicaemia on New Year’s day
2006. By then, the media had almost forgotten her.

Self-immolation by Gopal Krishan Kashyap

Gopal Krishan Kashyap, a hawker who used to ply his wares on a handcart in
Patiala, Punjab, set himself on fire near the city’s bus terminal. The incident was
witnessed by around 200 people, including policemen, and some 20 television
channels filmed the act of self-immolation. The channels broadcast the gory
incident that evening. Before committing suicide, Kashyap accused the mayor of
the local municipal corporation and an adviser to the state chief minister of
reneging on their promise to allot sheds to hawkers in the local marketplace.
Kashyap had even written letters to the prime minister regarding the issue. Nobody
attempted to prevent Kashyap from killing himself. After he died, the cause for
which he committed suicide was ignored by the media.

The Case of a School Teacher

In 2007, a Delhi school teacher was duped by a television journalist who conducted
a sting operation on her using a hidden camera and claimed that she was luring
her students into commercial sex work. The episode highlighted the excesses
committed by a small section of the mass media. The incident resulted in the
teacher having to spend time behind bars after she was sacked from her job. She
was publicly humiliated by an irate mob. The journalist was subsequently arrested.
It transpired that he had made an unsuccessful attempt to have the story broadcast
by a different television channel where he used to work as an intern. Thereafter,
he pilfered the tape and moved to a new television channel that aired the story
without verifying the tapes.

Media’s love for borewells

In what could be categorised as an example of media’s role in ‘making news’
rather than ‘reporting news’, in the wake of the onslaught of 24×7 news-channels,
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 the case of Prince, the five-year-old boy who accidentally fell into an open borewell
while playing with his friends on 23 July 2006 can be cited. Television channels
beamed the live coverage of the excruciating recovery exercise that was carried
out by the army in order to recover the child and earned huge TRPs in the process
as the nation sat glued to the television. Though lots of similar incidents have
followed the Prince incident, in which cameras have jostled with one another to
grab eyeballs, none have managed to earn as many TRPs as the Prince episode.
However, the issue nonetheless highlights the penchant of media to portray
episodes as ones that seemingly carry national importance.

The Aarushi–Hemraj murder case

When 14-year-old Aarushi Talwar and her family’s domestic help Hemraj were
murdered on 15 May 2008 in a house in Noida, near New Delhi, the manner in
which it was covered by the Indian media sparked off another debate on how
television channels and newspapers sensationalised crime stories to attract viewers
and readers. The media coverage of the murders gained momentum after senior
police officials’ speculative suggestions and that the murdered girl might have
had an ‘objectionable’ relationship with Hemraj. Even as the police officials who
made these suggestions were transferred from their positions and criminal
investigations handed over to the Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI), some
television channels and newspapers gave the story unprecedented coverage, much
of it speculative and based on unsubstantiated rumours.

Kathua Rape Case

In January 2018, an 8 year old tribal girl belonging to nomad Bakarwal community
was brutally raped and killed in Rasana village of Kathua district in Jammu and
Kashmir. The girl was held in captivity for a week, drugged, gang-raped and then
killed. Even though the crime occurred in January, media coverage of the incident
outside of the valley started in April only. The communal and political overtones
led to the case gaining widespread traction in mainstream media. Several media
houses revealed the identity and pictures of the victim and did not handle the
case with required tact and sensitivity. In April 2018, the Delhi High court issued
suo motu notices to these media houses for revealing the identity of the victim.

When the case was under trial, several details of evidence were released by the
media and even fake stories started appearing on mainstream as well as online
channels. One newspaper reported that the Kathua girl was not even raped and
that there were two post mortem reports. Another published the whole incident
revealing the identity of the victim in its ‘fake stories’ section and claimed that
the whole case was fabricated. The Delhi High court issued a fine of 10 lakhs on
twelve media houses for disclosing the name and other details of the rape victim
and using her photograph. The Kathua case was heard in-camera in court, media
was banned from the courtroom. Later media houses blanked out all the details
of the victim in their online editions which were already published. The case is
yet another example of media running parallel trials in sub-judice matters and
influencing the course of justice.

Above cases were followed by some other instances in which news was either
manufactured, trivialised or sensationalised, using questionable means.

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 Activity – 2
You would have come across several news reports in newspapers and
magazines, on TV and on the Internet, which in your opinion would have
‘crossed-the line’ and can be considered as unethical. Take newspaper cuttings
or printouts of reports from the Internet of three such news items and discuss
them with people in your locality. What do they think? Note down their
observations and compare them to your own analysis.
Check Your Progress: 3
Note: 1) Use the space below for your answers
2) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the Unit.
1) What is neo-authoritarianism?
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2) What is embedded journalism?

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1.7 LET US SUM UP

The media has always been important to the society at large, for it plays two
extremely vital roles: that of a messenger and that of an opinion maker. In
contemporary times, the development of multiple channels of delivery such as
radio, television and the Internet, has exponentially increased the reach of the
mass media and the speed with which news is reported. The vehicles of mass
media, the world over, have their eyes and ears open to alert the world about an
impending disaster before it strikes. The sheer volume and reach of the mass
media has meant that individuals and organisations in positions of power, influence
and have authority to function under the constant, scrutinising glare of the media.
It is in this capacity that the media has extended its role to that of intervening in
the social process. On the other hand, it is precisely because the media has such
a wide reach and impact, that the state often tries to control it either through its
legislative power or otherwise. Also, often, journalists are at the receiving end as
they attract the wrath of either the administration or politically powerful elements
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 in society. Media, driven as it is by market forces, has to tread on a fine line while
performing its duty in an increasingly complex social milieu. Some of the issues
raised in this unit will be further elaborated in the subsequent units of this Block.

1.8 FURTHER READINGS

Thakurta, P.G. (2012), Media Ethics: Truth, Fairness and Objectivity: Making
and Breaking News, Oxford University Press, New Delhi, India

Chomsky, N and Edward S. H (2002), Manufacturing Consent: The Political

Economy of the Mass Media, Pantheon Books, New York, US

Retief, J (2002), Media Ethics: An Introduction to Responsible Journalism, Oxford

University Press, Cape Town, South Africa

Rodman, G (2001), Making Sense of Media, Allyn & Bacon, Boston, U.S

1.9 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS: POSSIBLE

ANSWERS
Check Your Progress: 1
1) Utilitarianism is a consequentialist theory that is based on the perspective
of ethical altruism. This approach considers those deeds ethical, which
create the greatest good for the greatest number of people. The utilitarian
approach is applicable to the media as it considers the well being of the
society at large and acts as its watchdog.

2) Deontology focuses on the intention behind any act and this intention renders
any action as ethical or unethical. Kant, a proponent of deontology, argued
that the only right intention was the intention to act out of respect for
moral law and out of duty. This is an important concept for media which
aims to serve the citizens by providing objective and unbiased information.
Check Your Progress: 2
1) Authoritarian model propounded that all forms of communications were
under the control of the government or the ruling class. This model of
media control was developed for the print media, when government
authorities tried to curb its power to ensure that the print media did not
publish anything that showed them in a negative light.

2) Libertarian model stems from the fundamental rights of freedom of speech

and expression. This model believed in an independent media and
represented the beginnings of a free press, which was free of governmental
control and censorship.
Check Your Progress: 3
1) Neo-Authoritarian model of media is an offshoot of the authoritarian media
system in which pluralism is allowed, but only to a limited extent. Political
and electoral issues, information important for national security and other
news that may be vital for the ruling authorities are allowed only limited
freedom. Even though there are privately owned media, measures like,
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 subsidies, targeted tax advantages, government advertising, etc. are used
to control them.

2) Embedded Journalism is the practice of placing news reporters with military

units, so that they may report directly from the fields of conflict and war.
Such reporters who are placed with defence units are referred to as
‘embedded reporters’. The practice of embedded journalism began during
the Gulf War which raised questions about independence of such reporting.

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