COURSE CODE: BIO 111

COURSE TITLE: GENERAL BIOLOGY I

COURSE LECTURER – OGUNWOLE Ayodeji A. Ph.D

MODULE 1: CELL CONCEPTS

UNIT 1: THE PLANT CELL
SUBSECTION A
What is a Cell: A cell is the basic (fundamental) structural and functional unit of life.
The Plant Cell
Introduction
All plants are made up of one or more units called cells. The cell also bring structural and
functional stability to plants.
Plants are of two types:-
i. Unicellular plants: Plants that consist of single cell. In these plants all the vital functions are
carried out by the single cell. This type is also known as acellular e.g. Chlamydomonas,
Anacystis, Chroococcus, Synechococcus.
ii. Multicellular plants:- Most plants consists of many cells. All the function of life are carried out
by one or other group of cells. e.g. Sphagnum, Lycopodium etc.
In multicellular living things, a collection of cells that work together to perform similar functions
is called a tissue; various tissues that perform coordinated functions form organs; and organs that
work together to perform general processes form body systems.
Cell Theory
The cell theory or cell doctrine was proposed by Schleiden and Schwann in 1839 describe that all
organisms are composed of similar units of organisation, called cells.
In 1838 Matthias Schleiden found that all plant cells have basically similar structure.
Theodore Schwann (1839) observed that animal cells differ from plant cells in lacking cell wall
but are otherwise similar amongst them. He declared that all animals and plants are made up of
cells.
Schleiden (1838) summarized his observations into three conclusions about cells:
i. The cell is the unit of structure, physiology, and organization in living things.
ii. The cell retains a dual existence as a distinct entity and a building block in the construction of
organisms.
iii. Cells form by free-cell formation, similar to the formation of crystals (spontaneous
generation).
Rudolph Virchow (1858) states that "Omnis cellula e cellula"-that the new cells arise from pre-
existing cells only. The main features of cell theory as known nowadays are
i. All living organism are composed of cells. Therefore cell is structural unit of organisms.
ii. All cells arise from the pre-existing cells of similar type. Thus cell is a unit of heredity.
iii. All cells are basically alike in chemical composition and metabolism activities.
iv. The function of an organism as a whole is the result of the activities and interactions of its
cells.
Exceptions to the Cell Theory
i. Virus: it only has genetic material which is either DNA or RNA. It cannot be considered a cell
because it lacks protoplasm and nucleus.
ii. Bacteria and Blue Green Algae:- These organisms are also exception to the modern cell theory
because they lack nuclear membrane, thus the nuclear content is diffused or bathing (direct
contact) in with cytoplasm. No true cells.
iii. Some mould fungi:- This group is another outlier to the theory because their body is made-up
of undivided mass of protoplasm in which several nuclei (multinuclei) are scattered.
Cell size
Plant Cell size varies from micron to mm (a micron is a one thousandth part of a millimeter). The
smallest cells are found in bacteria called Mycoplasma laidlawii with a diameter of about 0.1-
0.15 micron. In plants the longest cells are fibres producing cells e.g. Jute (Corchorus olitorius),
Cotton Gossipium sp., ramie, which are about 55cm long. The longest single celled alga is
Acetabularia which measures about 10 cm in height.
Cell shape
Plant cell shape can be polygonal, spherical, elliptical, spindle-shaped, cuboidal, plate-like or
irregular. In multicellular plants, cell shape also depends on their location and nature of function.
The cell shapes are influenced by the surface tension and viscosity of the protoplasm, pressure
exerted by the surrounding cells and the rigidity of cell membrane.
Cell types
Two types of living cells were recognized in plants by Dougherty (1957). This division is based
on internal complexity
• Prokaryotic (pro = primitive, karyon = nucleus) cell : a. The nuclear material is not bounded by
nuclear membrane , the nuclear materials remain diffused with cytoplasm. b. a organized nucleus
is absent in the protoplasm, i.e., the nucleus is without nuclear membrane, nuclear reticulum,
nucleoplasm and nucleolus. Only monera i.e. Blue green algae (Cyanobacteria) and Bacteria are
prokaryotic cell known as prokaryotes. c. the genetic material contain DNA, histone absent
• Eukaryotic cell (eu =true, karyon =nucleus): This type of cells have:- a. A true nucleus with a
definite nuclear membrane by which nuclear material is bounded. b. the genetic material contains
DNA complex with histone proteins to form well-organized chromosomes. c. Nucleoli present.
The majority of plants are composed of eukaryotic cells. Distinct organelles, the small structures
that each performs a specific set of functions, are present within eukaryotes
Comparison of prokaryotic and eukaryotic plants

Features Prokaryotic Cells Eukaryotic Cells

Bacteria, and Cynobacteria Protists Fungi, Plants

Cell size and 1-10 mm: unicellular 5-100 mm: multicellular

cell
organization

Organelles Few or none nucleus, mitochondria, chloroplasts,

endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus,
etc

DNA Circular (or linear) DNA Linear DNA molecules organized in

organized in a nucleoid chromosomes bounded in a nucleus

Synthesis of RNA and proteins synthesis RNA synthesis occur in nucleus and
RNA and occur in same place proteins synthesis in the cytoplasm
proteins

Chromosome Single Multiple

Ribosomes 70s (50s+20s) 80s (60s+40s)

Metabolic Photosynthetic and respiratory Photosynthetic and respiratory enzymes

activity enzymes are found on plasma are found on chloroplast and
 membrane mitochondria respectively

Cytoskeleton Not Present Present

Cell division mitosis, spindle apparatus replicated DNA pulled by attachment to

absent during cell division plasma membrane. Mitosis, meiosis,
spindle apparatus present and
chromosomes pulled by it

Metabolic Anaerobic (respiration in Aerobic (in presence of oxygen)

activity absence of oxygen) or aerobic

Subsection B: Cell Structure

The unique property of all plant cells is in their TOTIPOTENCY ability.
1. CELL WALL
All plant cells are surrounded and confined by a rigid cell wall. Each cell has usually one nucleus
which is surrounded by cytoplasm. In higher plants the nucleus is enclosed by nuclear
membrane.
Cell wall - the unique physiological/functional properties of cell wall is in its total porosity (i.e.
constituting no barrier to the movement of substances in and out of the cell).
Cell walls of plants are generally thick, strong, porous, rigid and none living structures, which
enclose the cells including the plasma membranes.
Cell wall is secreted by the living matter of cell.
Cell wall is highly permeable to water, solutes and gases.
The cell wall is primarily made up of cellulose and pectin, but some additional materials are
deposited for specific functions. E.g. materials such as lignin (lignification) can be deposited on
secondary walls of the cells of woody plant; Cutin (cutinisation) on exposed surface of cell walls
as in leaf surface; Suberin (suberisation) in the secondary wall of cork cells; Silica in cell wall of
grasses.
Plasmodesmata (singular: plasmodesma) are living cytoplasm strands which connect two
adjacent cells through very fine pores in adjacent cell walls.
This structure marking the outermost boundary of the cell is known as extra cellular matrix
(ECM).
Functions of extra cellular matrix

i. Transport of a variety of materials on either side of the cell

ii. Recognition of a variety of stimuli with the help of receptor proteins and
iii. Cell adhesions (including cell to cell adhesions and attachment to the substratum).

Structure/Structural Component/Component of cell wall

The cell wall of a mature plant cell consists of
i. Primary wall
ii. Secondary wall
iii. Tertiary wall
iv. Middle Lamella
i. Primary wall
- is the first formed wall.
- Primary wall is thin, permeable, elastic (only semi rigid) and capable of growth.
- Primary walls surround growing and dividing plant cells such as meristematic cells,
parenchymatous cells and root hairs.
- Chemical composition of primary wall -It is made up of cellulose micro fibrils running
through a matrix of complex polysaccharides (hemicellulose) and pectic material.
ii. Secondary wall –
- more layers of cell added or formed on the inner side of the primary wall is the secondary
cell wall.
- It is found in mature plant cells
- At certain areas, secondary wall is not formed, these places are called pits.
- Secondary wall is rigid and thicker.
- The cells of sclerenchyma, collenchyma, xylem fibers, tracheids, and sclereids have
secondary deposits of lignified cellulose which provide mechanical strength to the tissue.
- In tracheids of conifers/gymnosperms, secondary wall is divided into three layers termed
as S1, S2, and S3. (S2 is relatively thick).
- Chemical composition of Secondary wall - is same as primary wall. However, it
comprised mostly of cellulose and cross-linking glycans and can also be lignified.
iii. Tertiary wall -
 - It is rarely present and is found on inner side of secondary wall.
- It is made up of cellulose and xylan.

iv. Middle lamella

- It is the first structure that is formed from cell plate between the newly formed daughter
cells at the time of cytokinesis.
- Adjacent cells in plant tissues are held together and separated from one another by
cementing material called middle lamella and also known as intercellular substance.
- It is primarily composed of pectic substance.

Functions of Cell Wall

i. Cell wall provides shape and rigidity to cell
ii. It protects the protoplasm from external injury.

2. CELL MEMBRANE
Cell Membrane (C. Nageli and C. Cramer in1855) or Plasma Membrane
- All living cells are enclosed in cell membrane.
- The unique property of cell membrane is its Semi-permeability (regulates the influx or
inflow and ex-flux or exit of material contents into and out of the cell.
- Cell membrane is a selectively permeable, thin molecular layer termed as plasma
membrane or plasmalemma (J. Q. Plowe in 1931).
- The plasma membrane separates the cell from its surroundings, protects the cell from
changes in the chemical and physical environment, and regulates movements of
molecules into and out of the cell.
- The study of plasma membrane structure is based on the Fluid Mosaic Model.

Structural Components of Cell Membrane

Plasma membrane is composed primarily of two types of molecules
i. Lipids - which are fatty or oily molecules commonly, phospholipids
ii. Proteins
According to Fluid Mosaic model, all cell membranes have a common general structure in
which two layered sheets or bilayer of lipid molecules have proteins embedded in them.
 - The most common lipids in the plasma membrane are the phospholipid, which has a polar
head (hydrophilic, i.e. it can mix with water) and two nonpolar tails (hydrophobic, i.e.
they do not mix well with water).
- In the plasma membrane’s bilayer construction, phospholipid molecules are arranged so
that their hydrophilic heads point outward on either side of the membrane, and their
hydrophobic tails point toward each other in the middle of the membrane.
- To bridge both the hydrophilic and hydrophobic regions of the membrane, integral
proteins are "bound" to the membrane.
- These bridging proteins can form channels through the membrane for a particular kind of
chemical to pass.
- In most cells, the plasma membrane is about 40% lipid and 60% protein, but these
proportions vary greatly, from as little as 20 percent to as much as 75 percent protein
depending on the type of cell.
Notes: structural components of cell membrane include carbohydrates occur only at the outer
surface of the membrane. The molecules of these carbohydrates are covalently linked to
i. the polar heads of some lipid molecules (forming glycolipids) and
ii. most of the proteins exposed at outer surface (forming glycoproteins).
The carbohydrates so bound to membrane components constitute the glycocalyx of cell surface.
Functions of plasma membrane
1. The first function of cell membrane is that it is important in regulating the movement of
materials in and out of the cell.
It can "pump" other substance into the cell against the concentration gradient or pump other
"wastes" etc. out of the cell in a process known as Membrane transport. The difference between
the concentration of a substance in two different areas is known as a concentration gradient.
Membrane transport is of two types
A. Passive transport
- materials flow down the concentration gradient.
- Passive transport does not require an expenditure of metabolic energy
- Examples of passive transport are diffusion, osmosis, facilitated diffusion
a) Diffusion is the movement of molecules down a concentration gradient
Diffusing molecules is said to be in equilibrium across a membrane when
i. Molecules still diffuse from one space to the other; but no net diffusion or mass movement in a
particular direction equals zero (0),
ii. movement of molecules equal in both direction or concentration/diffusion pressures in the two
regions/ spaces are equal.
b) Osmosis is the diffusion of water through a semipermeable membrane.
Two factors that affect semi-permeability of plant membrane and how they affect it are:
i. Molecular Size: which is inversely proportional to the permeability of plant membrane i.e. the
bigger the molecular size, the slower the rate of penetration of the molecules into the membrane
and vice-versa.
ii. Lipid Solubility: which is directly proportional to the plant membrane permeability i.e. the
higher the lipid solubility, the faster the penetration of the molecules into the membrane and vice
versa.
c) Facilitated diffusion is the diffusion of a substance across a membrane.
d) Plasmolysis: occurs when a cell is placed in a hypertonic solution (solution that is more
concentrated than the cell sap) in such a way that water diffuses out of the cell (ex-osmosis
occurs) and turgor pressure of the cell is lost, and the protoplast of the cell shrinks away from the
cell wall. If the cell is left in this state for a long time, it may eventually die.
e) Endocytosis: is the inward folding (invagination) of the plasma membrane to form a pouch
that traps molecules. The continuous invagination of the pouch leads to a formation of a closed
sac that breaks loose from the plasma membrane and sinks into the cell.
f) Exocytosis: is a reversal of endocytosis. A sac inside the cell containing proteins and other
molecules moves toward the outer edge of the cell until it touches the plasma membrane. The
membrane of the sac then joins with the plasma membrane, and the contents of the sac are
released from the cell.
B. Active Transport: Active uptake is the movement of dissolved substances especially mineral
ions into or out of a cell through a plant membrane against concentration gradient from low
concentration to high concentration which involve the expenditure of metabolic energy
- Active transport uses energy (in the form of ATP),
- materials flow against the concentration gradient.
2. The second function of cell/plasma membrane is that it plays a critical role in communication
between cells.
3. CYTOPLASM
- Cytoplasm (Strasburger, 1882) is a homogeneous, mostly clear jelly-like liquid that lies
between the nucleus and cell membrane.
- It consists of cytosol and the cellular organelles.
- Cytosol is composed of water, salts, organic molecules, and the many enzymes necessary
for the cell to catalyze reactions.
(Note- This aqueous part is also called hyaloplasm.
Hyaloplasm either behaves like a gel or liquid depending on the activity phase of the cell;
In a gel state, it is called cytogel; cytogel lines the plasma lemma to form ectoplasm.
In a liquid state, it is called cytosol, also known as endoplasm).
- 80% of the cytoplasm is aqueous and composed of ions and soluble, primarily organic,
macromolecules.
- The 20% of the cytoplasm that is not aqueous is made up of organelles, mitochondria,
chloroplasts, vacuoles, the cytoskeleton, and endoplasmic reticulum.

4. VACUOLE
A vacuole is a large fluid-filled sac in the cytoplasm, bounded by a single membrane called the
tonoplast,
Vacuoles are filled with watery fluid termed as cell sap. The cell sap is acidic. The chemical
composition of cell sap differs markedly from that of the surrounding cytoplasm.
The vacuole contains nutrients, metabolites, pigments and waste products. Pigment anthocyans
are present which is mainly responsible for the colours in flowers.
In most cases mature plant cells have single large central vacuole. So that the plant cytoplasm
lies as a thin layer positioned between the plasma membrane and the tonoplast.
FUNCTIONS OF VACUOLE
In mature plant cells, vacuoles are extremely important in providing structural support
It performs storage functions such as:-
1 ) storage of nutrients, metabolites, pigments and waste products
2) water storage;
3) hydrolytic enzymes;
4) It performs vital functions such as regulation of water/solute concentration (osmoregulation)
and 5) turgor Pressure which drives cell growth.
MECHANISM OF PLANT CELL GROWTH
Osmoregulation:- Most of the water in mature plant cells occurs in the vacuoles.
Water enters the cell sap by osmosis through the differentially permeable tonoplast. Water enters
the cell (cell vacuole) and creates turgor pressure. Turgor pressure drives cell growth. Opening
and closing of stomata is due to changes in turgor pressure of guard cells. The pressure applied
by the vacuole, called turgor, is necessary to maintain the size of the cell. Plant cells don't
increase in size by expanding the cytoplasm, rather they increase the size of their vacuoles.
5. LYSOSOMES
Lysosomes (DE Duve, 1955) are a single membrane bound small vesicular organelles. It consists
of a granulated stroma and a vacuole is located inside it. Lysosomes are found in fungi and root
tips. Lysosomes are little sacs of hydrolyzing enzymes; consisting of acid hydrolases (that are
used by the cell to break down food as well as debris) and the byproducts (used in biosynthetic
activity of cells). These sacs are separated from the cell because its content (the hydrolytic
enzymes) could destroy the cell if mixed with the cytoplasm. Only the waste products or
nutrients leave the lysosome. Lysosomes are involved in the intracellular digestions of particles
scavenged by some types of cell during endocytosis. The enzymes contained in the lysosome are
synthesized by rough endoplasmic reticulum and are transported to golgi body.
Lysosomes are of four types depending upon their function :-
• Primary lysosome ,
• Secondary lysosome,
• Residual bodies,
• Autophagic vacuoles.
Its functions are defence against bacteria and viruses and in destroying old and worn out
organelles. They have been found occasionally to be digesting the whole cell or part of cell
(autolysis or self-destruction); therefore lysosomes are called suicide bags.