Science Notes Class 8th Study Hub

CHAPTER : CELL
Cell:
➢ In the living organisms, Cells are basic structural units.
➢ Cells may be compared to bricks. Bricks are assembled to make a building. Similarly, cells are
assembled to make the body of every organism.
➢ It is the basic structural and functional unit of life. All organisms are made up of cells
➢ Sub cellular structures of cell include organelles, the plasma membrane, and, if present, the nucleus.
➢ Size of the cell is 1 to 100 micrometer.
➢ Cells are produced by the division of pre existing cell. Each cell contains genetic material that is
passed down during reproduction process.
➢ Cells in the living organisms are complex living structures unlike nonliving bricks.
➢ All basic chemical and physiological functions like repairing, growth, excretion movement,
immunity, communication, and digestion - are happen inside of cells.
Discovery of the Cell:

The English scientist Robert Hooke observed slices of cork which is part of bark of the tress, under a
simple magnifying device. He noticed partitioned boxes or compartments in the cork slice. These boxes
looked like a honeycomb. He also noticed that these boxes were separated from the other by a wall or
partition. Hooke named them „cell‟ for each box. Hooke observed as boxes or cells in the cork were
actually dead cells. These boxes appeared like a honeycomb.
• 1650-1700:- Anton Van Leeuwenhoek observed unicellular organisms and some minute
components within the cell like nucleus with the help of his improved microscope.
• 1831:- Robert Brown described the nucleus.
• 1838:- Schleiden and Schwan developed the “Cell Theory” which describes the cell as the basic
structural and functional unit of life.
• 1855:- Virchow showed that all cells are formed from pre-existing cells.
• 1930‟s:- With the development of the electron microscope, the detailed structure of cells
became known.
Types of cell:
a) Prokaryotic Cells: The cells having nuclear material without nuclear membrane are termed
prokaryotic cells. The organisms with these kinds of cells are called prokaryotes (pro: primitive;
karyon: nucleus). Examples: Bacteria and Blue Green Algae.
b) Eukaryotic cells: The cells having well organized nucleus with a nuclear membrane are designated as
eukaryotic cells. All organisms other than bacteria and blue green algae are called Eukaryotes. (Eu :
true; karyon: nucleus).
Variation of Cells:
Organisms Show Variety in Cell Number, Shape and Size:
Millions of living organisms have cells with different shapes and sizes. Their organs also vary in shape, size
and number of cells.
a) Human body has trillions of cells which vary in different size and shapes. Different groups of cells
perform a variety of functions. Organisms made of more than one cell are called multicellular
organisms. An organism with billions of cells Starts life as a single fertilized egg cell. The fertilized
egg cell multiplies by dividing process and the number of cells increases for development.
b) The single-celled organisms are made up of single cell called unicellular organisms. A single celled
organism performs all the necessary functions that multicellular organisms perform.
c) A single-celled organism, like amoeba, captures and digests food, respires, excretes, grows and
reproduces. Similar functions in multi-cellular organisms are carried out by groups of specialized
cells forming different tissues. Tissues, in turn, form organs.
Shape of Cells:
a) Generally, cell‟s shapes are rounding, spherical or elongated. Some types of cells are long and
pointed at both ends. They exhibit spindle shape. Some types of cells are branched like the nerve cell
or a neuron, which receives and transfers messages for helping to control and coordinate the working
of different parts of the body.
b) Components of the cell are enclosed in a membrane. This membrane provides shape to the cells of
plants and animals. Cell wall is an additional covering over the cell membrane in plant cells. It gives
shape and rigidity to these cells.
SPHERICAL RED BLOOD CELLS OF HUMANS, SPINDLE SHAPED MUSCLE CELLS,
LONG BRANCHED NERVE CELL
Size of Cells:
• The cell‟s size in living organisms may be as small as a millionth of a meter (micrometer or
micron) or may be as large as a few centimeters.
• Most of the cells are microscopic in size and are not visible to the naked eye. They need to be enlarged
or magnified by a microscope for seeing.
• The smallest cell is 0.1 to 0.5 micrometer in bacteria. The largest cell measuring 170 mm ×130 mm,
which is the egg of an ostrich.
• The size of the cells has no relation with the size of the body of the animal or plant.
Cell Structure and Function:

• Each organ in the living organisms performs different functions such as digestion, assimilation and
absorption. Similarly, different organs of a plant perform particular/ specialized functions. Example:
roots help in the absorption of water and minerals.
• Each organ is further made up of smaller parts called tissues. A tissue is a group of similar type cells
performing a particular function.
Parts of the Cell:

The basic components of a cell are cell membrane, cytoplasm and nucleus.
1. Cell Membrane: (Fluid Mosaic Model – Singer and Nicolson in
1972)
a. The cytoplasm and nucleus are enclosed within the cell membrane, also called the
plasma membrane.
b. It is living part of the cell, thin, delicate and elastic of about 68nm in thickness.
c. This membrane separates cells from one another and also the cell from the surrounding
medium.
d. It is selectively permeable. It allows the flow of limited substances in and out of the
cell.
e. This gives shape to the cell.
f. It is made up of bilayer of phospholipids and proteins. Small carbohydrate
chains are also attached to outer surface of lipids and proteins.
Cell Wall:-
In addition to the cell membrane, an outer thick layer in cells of plants, called cell wall.
This additional cell wall surrounding the cell membrane is required by the plants for
protection against variations in temperature, high wind speed, atmospheric moisture,
etc. They are exposed to these variations because they cannot move.
2. Nucleus:
a. It is very important component of the living cell. It is generally dense and spherical
organelle and located in the centre of the cell. It can be seen easily with the help of a
microscope. Nucleus is separated from the cytoplasm by a membrane called the
nuclear membrane. This membrane is also porous and allows the movement of
materials between the cytoplasm and the inside of the nucleus.
b. It is consist of nucleolus, thread-like structures called chromosomes. These carry
genes and help in inheritance or transfer of characters from the parents to the offspring.
The chromosomes can be seen only when the cell divides.
c. Genes contains genetic codes which are responsible for the unique physical character
of an animal or a plant.
d. Nucleus acts as control centre of the activities of the cell. The entire content of a living
cell is known as protoplasm. It includes the cytoplasm and the nucleus. It controls all
the metabolic activities of cell.
e. Nucleus is the storehouse of genes. Without nucleus, cell can neither survive nor shows
specialized activities.
3. Cytoplasm:
a. Cytoplasm is the jelly-like substance present between the cell membrane and the
nucleus.
b. Various other components or organelles of cells are present in the cytoplasm. Like
mitochondria, golgi bodies, ribosomes, etc.
Cell Organalles:-
1. Endoplasmic reticulum:-
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) is a network of canals made up of membranes that encloses a

fluid-filled lumen. It is of two types:
a. Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER): It is lined with ribosomes and hence, looks
rough.
• Function of RER: It plays a key role in synthesis of protein as ribosome is
attached to it.
b. Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER): It does not have any ribosomes and hence,
look smooth.
• Function of SER: It plays a key role in synthesis of lipids. 2. Mitochondria:-
Mitochondria are rod-shaped organelles with a double membrane. The outer
membrane is smooth while the inner membrane folds over many times to
form Cristae. Cristae increase the surface area of the inner membrane by
several times. Matrix is the fluid inside the mitochondria.
MITOCHONDRIA
Function of Mitochondria:
Mitochondria act as energy production sites and are hence, known as the Powerhouses of the Cell.
GOLGI BODIES
3. Golgi Bodies:
• Smooth, flattened sac-like structures called Cisternae stack together in parallel rows to
form Golgi bodies. Golgi Cis face receives protein from Endoplasmic reticulum and modifies
packages and stores it.
• It also dispatches proteins in vesicles to various destinations.
Function of Golgi Bodies:

The Golgi apparatus are responsible for the secretion of enzymes, hormones and proteins.
4. Ribosomes:
Ribosomes- Protein Factory of cells

Ribosomes are spherical bodies made up of RNA (Ribonucleic Acid) and protein enzyme. They
do not have membranes and are present separately in cytoplasm.
Function of Ribosome:
Ribosomes are the sites where the protein synthesis takes place.
LYSOSOME – A SINGLE MEMBRANE ORGANELLE

5. Lysosome:-
Lysosomes are sac-like structures surrounded by single-layered membranes. They contain powerful
digestive enzymes that can break down all organic material. It acts as a mini digestive system within
the cell.
Function of Lysosomes:
Lysosomes digest damaged cells and a variety of extra- and intra-cellular material. Since
they remove cell organelles that are worn out or are not functioning properly and may
even digest the entire cells (that are damaged or dead), they are also known as Suicidal
Bags.
6. Vacuoles:-
Vacuoles are organelles enclosed by a membrane and filled with fluid. Plant cells usually have a
large vacuole filled with a liquid called
„cell sap‟. Cell Sap contains dissolved sugar and salts.
Animal cells may or may not have vacuoles. If they do have vacuoles, they are much smaller than the
ones found in plant cells.
Function of Vacuoles in Plant Cells: Vacuoles in plant cells keep the cells firm or turgid. They store
various substances (including waste products of the cell). Function of Vacuoles in Animal Cells:
Vacuoles in animal cells store food, water, sugar, minerals and waste products of the cell. In
Amoeba, vacuoles that contain food particles are also referred to as food vacuoles.
7. Plastids
Plastids are also type of organelles that are found only in Plant Cells.
Types of Plastids
With double-layered membrane, these organelles are found in cytoplasm of the cells. They are of two
types (depending on the colour of the pigment they contain);
a) Leucoplasts: These colorless organelles store starch or other plant nutrients. For Example,
Starch stores in potato cells. Leucoplast are of different types:
• Amyloplast: stores starch

• Elaioplast: stores fat
• Proteinoplast/ Aleuroplast: stores protein
b) Chromoplasts: These contain different-colored pigments. Most important type of

chromoplasts is chloroplast which contains green-coloured pigments called Chlorophyll.
Function of Chloroplast:
Chloroplasts are the sites where photosynthesis takes place. Here, carbon dioxide and water
combine in the presence of energy from the sunlight to produce food. Hence, chloroplasts
help in synthesis of food by green plants.
6CO2 + 6H2O → C6H12O6 + 6O2

(in the presence of chlorophyll + sunlight)
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PLANT CELL AND ANIMAL CELL
PLANT CELL ANIMAL CELL
Cell wall is present. Cell wall is absent.
It contains chloroplast.
It does not contain chloroplast
Vacuoles are larger in size. Vacuoles are smaller in size
Nucleus lies on one side in the peripheral cytoplasm.

Nucleus lies in the centre.
Plant cells are larger in size. Animal cells are smaller in size.
Subunits of Golgi bodies are present Prominent Golgi bodies are present
The stored food is generally Starch. The stored food is generally Glycogen.
Plant cells cannot change their shape. Animal cells can change their shape.
EXERCISE
Q 1: Define a cell?
Ans 1: A cell is the structural & functional unit of all known living organisms. It carries out all the
basic functions of life metabolism, growth & reproduction. Q 2: Who discovered the cell?
Ans 2: An English Scientist ―Robert Hook discovered the cell in 1665.
Q 3: Give three examples of unicellular organisms?
Ans 3: The three unicellular organisms are Amoeba, Euglena and Paramecium.
Q 4: Answer the following Questions?
i. Why cells could not be observed before 17th Century?

ii. Why Cork could not be observed as such by Hooke? iii. Where did Hooke
demonstrate his observations on Cork Slice? iv. Name the outermost layer of an
Animal Cell?
v. Name the layer which is present outside the plasma membrane in Plant Cell?
vi. Where are chromosomes present in a Cell? vii. Name the cell part that has tiny
holes? viii. Name the cell organelles which are found in the plant cell? ix.
Name the cells having branched structure?
x. Which cell can be observed with the unaided eye?
Ans 4:
i. Cells could not be observed before the 17th century as the microscopes were not available
to us before the 17th century.
ii. Cork could not be seen as such by Hooke, as it is a solid structure. He then made thin
slices of cork and observed them under his microscope and concluded that it was made of
box like compartments which he named as cells.
iii. Robert Hooke demonstrated his observation on cork slice at ―Royal Society of London.
iv. The outermost layer of an animal cell is the cell membrane or plasma membrane.
v. Cell wall is present outside the plasma membrane in a plant cell. vi. Chromosomes are located
inside the nucleus of a cell.
vii. Plasma membrane has tiny holes which regulates the entry and exit of certain selected
substances across the cell.
viii. A plant cell has the following cell organelles – Endoplasmic reticulum, ribosomes,
mitochondria, lysosomes, vacuoles, plastids and dictyosomes.
ix. Neuron is an example of a cell having branched structure.

x. Ostrich egg measuring about 170nm in diameter can be observed with the unaided eye.
Q 5: Mention the functions of the following:
a) Cell Membrane
b) Chromosomes
Ans 5:
a) Plasma membrane has the following functions:

i) It provides shape to the cell.
ii) It protects the cell from injuries. iii) Maintain

individuality of a cell.
iv) It allows the entry and exit of selected substances.
b) Chromosomes contain hereditary information of the cell in the form of genes.
Q 6: Why are the following important to a plant cell?
a) Cell Wall
b) Chloroplast
c) Mitochondria
d) Nucleus Ans 6:
a. Cell Wall
• The cell wall maintains the shape of the cell.
• It protects the plant cell against injury.
• It provides mechanical strength to the cell.
• Allows free movement of materials.

b. Chloroplast synthesis food by the process of photosynthesis.
c. Mitochondria releases energy from the stored food in the cell by the process of
respiration. It also provides materials for the synthesis of chlorophyll.
d. Nucleus:
• Nucleus helps in cell division

• It helps in growth & metabolism
• It stores DNA & hereditary information
Q 7: Draw an outline diagram of an Animal Cell. Label the different parts?
Ans7:
Q8: Mention 3 differences between Plant Cell & Animal Cell?
Ans 8:
PLANT CELL ANIMAL CELL
Cell wall is present. Cell wall is absent.
It contains chloroplast. It does not contain

chloroplast
Plant cells are larger in size. Animal cells are smaller in size.
Q9: What features are possessed by both Plant cells & Animal cells?
Ans9: Following are the features are possessed by both Plant cells & Animal cells
a. Both have plasma membrane.

b. Mitochondria provide energy for cellular respiration in both plant cells and animal cells.
c. Nucleus is found in both plants and animal cells that control the function of cell.
Q10: Why are Nerve cells long? Why do these cells have projections?
Ans10: A nerve cell is long and branched because it has to conduct messages from one part of the
body to the brain and spinal cord and back.
Q 11: Why are Mitochondria known as the power house of the cell?
Ans 11: Mitochondria are known as powerhouses of the cell because they contain enzymes for the
total oxidation of food & for release of high amount of energy in the form of ATP
(Adenosine Tri Phosphate) molecules. This energy is then utilized by the body for synthesis
of
new chemical compounds & for mechanical work.
Q12: Which four basic elements constitute more than 90% of protoplasm?
Ans 12: More than 90% of protoplasm is made up of 4 elements – Carbon, Hydrogen, Nitrogen &
Oxygen.
Q 13: Write in brief about the variation in shape & size of cells?
Ans13: The shape of cells differs not only in different organisms but also in different parts of the
same organisms. They may be oval, spherical, discoid, columnar, spindle – shaped etc. The
shape of a cell mainly depends on the function it carries. For example, Some types of cells
are long and pointed at both ends like Muscle Cells. They exhibit spindle shape. Some
types of cells are branched like the nerve cell or a neuron, which receives and transfers
messages for helping to control and coordinate the working of different parts of the
body.
The cells of animals and plants show a great variation in their size. Most cells are
extremely small, so we need a microscope to see them. However, a few are quite large and
can be seen with the naked eye.
E.g. Largest living cell is an Ostrich egg about 170 nm in diameter. The size of a cell
is measured in micrometer or micron and is represented by the symbol μm. One micron is
equal to the one millionth of a meter.
Q13: Name the different cell organelles & the function of these organelles?
Ans 13: The different cell organelles and their functions are:
a) Mitochondria : Mitochondria act as energy production sites and are hence,
known as the Powerhouses of the Cell.
b) Endoplasmic reticulum:
1. It forms a link between the cell and nuclear membrane.
2. It acts as a skeletal frame work of cell and keeps various organelles in
their position.
3. It is the site for protein & lipid synthesis and helps in transport of
substances within the cell.
c) Golgi apparatus:
1. It is involved in repair & synthesis of cell membrane.
2.
It packs material synthesized in the cell & dispatch them across the
plasma membrane.
d) Ribosome: Ribosomes are the sites where the protein synthesis takes place.
Q15: What is meant by protoplasm? How does it differ from Cytoplasm?
Ans15: Protoplasm is the living matter of the cells and made up of cytoplasm and nucleus. However,
cytoplasm is a semi fluid material between the nucleus and plasma membrane.
STUDY HHB AHMAD NAGAR
Chemical Effects of Electric Current
Conductors and insulators

Figure 1 Conductors and Insulators of Electricity
• A conductor is any material or substance that allows
electricity to flow through it.
• An insulator is any substance or
material that prevents the flow of electricity through it.
• Any substance can be called as a conductor of electricity if it allows movement of charges
through it.
• The electrons of the conductors can flow freely (they are delocalized) and hence can take
electric current through them.
• Insulators do not allow the flow of charges through them because their electrons are tightly
packed with their particles.
• Some materials can allow a little flow of electricity through them and are called poor conductors
of electricity.
• Some materials can allow the complete flow of electricity through them and are called good
conductors of electricity.
• Every material may conduct electricity in certain situations. For example, air is a bad conductor
of electricity but in case of thunderstorms and lightning it carries electric charges through it.
Hence, materials are always classifies as good and poor conductors of electricity rather than
conductors and insulators.
Can liquids conduct electricity?

• Not all liquids can conduct electricity. However, some of them can be regarded as good
conductors of electricity while others as poor conductors of electricity.
• Water containing salts and minerals dissolved in it always conduct electricity.
• Distilled water which does not contain any salts cannot conduct electricity.
• Any solution of acids or bases can

also conduct electricity.
Figure 3 Liquids that are Poor and

Good Conductors of
Electricity
How do liquids
conduct electricity?
• Different substances when
mixed in water and electricity is
passed through them can break
apart and form positive and
negative particles or ions in the
water.
• These ions can pass the electric current through them.
• The more is the number of ions in a liquid the better conductor it is of electricity.
• That is why distilled water is a poor conductor of electricity but salt water is a good conductor
of electricity.
• However, many compounds do not form any ions on mixing them with water and therefore they
are poor conductors of electricity such as sugar water, oil and alcohol.
Figure 4 Set up to detect if a liquid can conduct electricity

Why LED bulbs are more suitable for testing the electrical
conductivity of liquids?
Tester
A tester is a piece of electrical equipment used to check the presence of electric current.
It is usually a conductor with a led/bulb to indicate that the current is present in the
circuit.
• The electric current often causes heating effect due to which the filament of the bulb
gets heated up and glows.
• However, some liquids are capable of conducting electricity but they are weak
conductors of electricity. Hence current passes through them but it is not that strong
enough to heat up the filament. As a result, the filament would not light up in the case
of such liquids.
• However, the LED bulbs can detect the flow of even a small amount of electric current
as well. Hence, LED bulbs are suitable for testing the electrical conductivity of liquids.
Electrolysis
The effect in which components of a compound get split due to passing an electric current through it
is called electrolysis.
Figure 5 Electrolysis Process

Electrode
An electrode is a conductor of electricity that can carry electric current into nonmetals and other poor
Electrolyte
A solution that breaks into its ions on passing electricity through it is called an electrolyte.
Electrolytes are used in the process of electroplating.
Anode and Cathode
The positively charged electrode is called anode and the negatively charged electrode is called
cathode.
Anion and Cation
An anion is a negatively charged ion and a cation is a positively charged ion.
Electrolysis of aqueous solution of water

As we know that cathode is a negative terminal and anode is a positive terminal. In this case,
the acid is added in water and it is used as an electrolyte. Then we need to place two inverted
tubes in the container. Electrolyte used in this case is water with little acid. On passing current
it dissociates into ions.
H2O → H+ + OH-
Following reaction takes place

We know that now H+ moves towards cathode and OH- will move towards anode.
1. At Anode: We will notice oxygen gas bubbles at anode.

2. At Cathode: We will notice H2 bubbles at cathode. This indicates that chemical reaction takes
place.
H+ + e- → H2 gas
Applications of Electrolysis
1. It is used for electroplating.

2. It is used for electro refining.
Effects of an electric current

• Heating effect: electric current causes heating of the electrical equipment. For example, the
filament of a bulb gets heated up due to electric current and therefore glows.
• Mechanical effect: electric current can lead to generation of mechanical energy in appliances.
For example, fans and motors work due to this effect.
• Magnetic effect: electric current can give rise to the magnetic field of a substance.
• Chemical effect: electric current can lead to the production of chemical energy or chemical
reactions.
Chemical effects of electric current

We know that when an electric current passes through solution it ionizes and breaks down into
ions. This is because of chemical reactions that take place when an electric current passes
through a solution. Depending on the nature of the solution and the electrodes used, the
following effects can be observed in the solution:
1. metallic deposits on the electrodes
2. change in the colour of the solution
3. a release of gas or production of bubbles in the solution
Applications of chemical effects of electric current Electroplating
• Electroplating is a process in which layer of metal is deposited on another material with the help
of electricity.
• Electroplating is used in many industries for depositing a layer of metal with desired
characteristics on another metal.
• Different metals used for electroplating are Nickel, Copper, Gold Silver, Tin, Brass, Zinc,
Chromium and Platinum.
Process of electroplating
• In order to conduct electroplating right electrodes and electrolytes must be chosen so that metal
can deposit over a material.
• For instance, if we want to deposit copper on a material we need an electrolyte that contains
copper in it. Similarly, if we need gold on a material we need an electrolyte that contains gold in
it.
• Also, we should make sure that the electrode that we are choosing is completely clean.
• The electrodes used are made up of different materials. One of the electrodes is of the same metal
of which the electrolyte solution is. The second electrode needs to be the material on which we
want to coat another metal.
• For instance, in case we want to plate copper upon brass, one electrode should be of Copper and
the other electrode should be of Brass and the electrolyte solution should be any salt which
contains copper in it, for example, copper sulphate solution. Consider the diagram given below
that describes the process of electroplating of copper.
Figure 6 Electroplating of copper on brass

• Out of these two electrodes the copper electrode acts as the anode (positive electrode) and brass
electrode acts as the cathode (negative electrode).
• When electricity is passed through the solution, the copper sulphate breaks down into its ions.
• The copper ions (they have a positive charge) get attracted by the brass electrode while the
sulphur ions being negatively charged move towards the copper electrode.
• As a result, copper starts depositing on the brass electrode.
• The process of electroplating takes some time to complete.
• The amount of time that it will take depends upon the strength of the current that is being passed
through the circuit and also upon the concentration of the electrolyte.
• As these two are increased the speed of the electroplating process also increases.
Applications of electroplating
• Medical equipment is made up of nickel which is harmful to the human body hence to avoid it
from coming in contact with our body a coating of platinum or gold is applied on the surface of
nickel.
• Many kitchen equipments, bath taps, parts of cars etc. are covered with chromium coating.
Chromium is an expensive metal hence the objects are created with the cheaper metal and
chromium coating is provided. Thus, to bring a shining over the objects and prevent them from
corrosion chromium coating is used.
• Jewellery makers often make ornaments of less expensive metals and provide a coating of gold
or silver upon them.
• The tin cans that are used to store food are actually made up of iron and have a coating of tin on
them. Iron can easily react with food and spoil it, however, tin prevents the food from getting
reacted with iron and therefore helps in preventing it from getting spoiled easily.
• Bridges and various parts of automobiles are made up of iron because it provides strength.
However in order to prevent iron from getting rusted a coating of zinc is provided over it. This
method is also called galvanization of iron.
Other applications of Chemical Effect of Electric Current

1. Extracting metals from their ores
Pure metals are extracted from metal ores with the process of electrolysis. Electricity is passed
through the metal ores and they get broken down into an ionic lattice and thus the metal is
obtained separately. For example, metals like aluminium, magnesium, potassium, sodium and
calcium are obtained from their ores in this way.
Figure 8 Extraction of Aluminium

2. Purification of metals
The method of electrolysis is also used to purify a metal by separating it from the impurities.
The impure metal is used as an anode which first dissolves in the electrolyte solution and then
deposits on the cathode in the pure form. The impurities of the metal remain in the electrolyte
solution only. Metals like aluminium, zinc and copper are purified in this way.
Figure 9 Purification of Copper using Electroplating

3. Production of compounds
The electrolysis method is used for the production of some compounds. For example, sodium
hydroxide (caustic soda) is produced by the electrolysis of an aqueous solution (water solution)
of sodium chloride.
4. Decomposition of compounds
The electrolysis method is also used to decompose a compound into its constituents. For
example, water can be decomposed using the process of electrolysis to obtain hydrogen and
oxygen.
Figure 10 Decomposing water to separate hydrogen and oxygen
Exercises
Q1: Fill in the blanks.
(a) Most liquids that conduct electricity are solutions of acids, bases andsalts.
(The solutions of acids, bases or salts are conducting in nature. They allow the current to pass
through.)
(b) The passage of an electric current through a solution causes chemical effects.
(When an electric current passes through a solution, the solution decomposes into its positive
and negative ions. This process of decomposition of the solution is a chemical effect.)
(c) If you pass current through copper sulphate solution, copper gets deposited on the plate
connected to the negative terminal of the battery.
(When an electric current passes through a copper sulphate solution, the solution decomposes
into positively charged copper ions and negatively charged sulphate ions. These positively
charged copper ions get attracted towards the plate which is connected to the negative terminal
of a battery.)
(d) The process of depositing a layer of any desired metal on another material by means of
electricity is calledelectroplating.
Q 2: When the free ends of a tester are dipped into a solution, the magnetic needle shows
deflection. Can you explain the reason?
The deflection in the compass needle shows that current is flowing through the wounded
wire and hence, through the circuit. The circuit is complete since free ends of the tester are
dipped in a solution. The solution is certainly a conducting solution. This is the reason why the
compass needle shows a deflection.
Q 3: Name three liquids, which when tested in the manner shown in Fig. 14.9, may cause the
magnetic needle to deflect.
Liquids like lemon juice, salt water and vegetable oil allow electricity to pass through them.
Hence, these liquids can be used as in the beaker to show the given effect.
Q4: The bulb does not glow in the setup shown in Fig. 14.10. List the
possible reasons. Explain your answer.
The bulb may not glow because of the following reasons:
(i) Liquid in the beaker is non-conducting. In such case, the electric current would not be able to
pass through the liquid. Hence, the circuit is not complete.
(ii) Electric current in the circuit is very weak. This can happen if the material used for making
the circuit is not a good conductor of electricity or the battery does not have sufficient energy to
generate electricity.
Q 5: A tester is used to check the conduction of electricity through two liquids, labelled A
and B. It is found that the bulb of the tester glows brightly for liquid A while it glows very
dimly forliquidB. You would conclude that
(i) liquid A is a better conductor than liquid B. (ii) liquid B is a better conductor than liquid A.
(iii) both liquids are equally conducting.
(iv) conducting properties of liquid cannot be compared in this manner.

Ans:
(i) Liquid A is a better conductor than liquid B.
The amount of current flowing through a conducting solution depends on the conductivity of
the solution. With more conductivity, more current passes through the solution and vice-versa.
Hence, the conductivity of liquid A is more than the conductivity of liquid B.
Q6: Does pure water conduct electricity? If not, what can we do to make it conducting?
No. Pure water does not conduct electricity. This is because pure water is devoid of any salts.
Pure water can conduct electricity when a pinch of common salt is added to it, as salt solution
is conducting in nature.
Q7: In case of a fire, before the firemen use the water hoses, they shut off the main electrical
supply for the area. Explain why they do this.
Water may conduct electricity. If the electrical supply for the area is not shut off and
water is poured over electrical appliances, then electricity may pass through water and harm
the firemen. That is why, in case of a fire, the firemen shut off the main electrical supply for
the area before they use the water hoses.
Q 8: A child staying in a coastal region tests the drinking water and also the seawater with
his tester. He finds that the compass needle deflects more in the case of seawater. Can you
explain the reason?
Sea water contains more dissolved salts than the drinking water. Hence, it is more
conducting than the drinking water. Because of this reason, the compass needle deflects more
in seawater than in the drinking water.
Q 9: Is it safe for the electrician to carry out electrical repairs outdoors during heavy
downpour? Explain.
No. It is not safe to repair electrical appliances outdoors during heavy downpour. This
is because rain water contains dissolved salts. Therefore, rain water can conduct electricity.
The electrician may get electrical shocks while working outdoors during rain.
Q 10: Paheli had heard that rain water is as good as distilled water. So, she collected some
rain water in a clean glass tumbler and tested it using a tester. To her surprise, she found
that the compass needle showed deflection. What could be the reasons?
Rain water contains dissolved salts. This makes it a conducting solution. There are no
dissolved salts present in the distilled water. Hence, rain water can allow electricity to pass
through it while distilled water cannot.
Q11: Prepare a list of objects around you that are electroplated.
Examples of electroplated objects are as follows:
i. Chromium plating is done on different parts of cars, buses and motor cycles to give them
shiny appearance.
ii. A fine layer of gold is deposited on the silver ornaments and they are called gold-plated
ornaments.
ii. Iron used in constructing a building is coated with a layer of zinc. This protects iron from corrosion
and rusting.
Q12: The process that you saw in Activity 14.7 is used for purification of copper. A thin
plate of pure copper and a thick rod of impure copper are used as electrodes. Copper
from impure rod is sought to be transferred to the thin copper plate. Which electrode
should be attached to the positive terminal of the battery and why?
Copper ion is positively charged. It is attracted towards the plate which is connected to
the negative terminal of the battery. As copper ions are transferred to the thin copper plate, this
thin pure copper plate must be connected to the negative terminal of the battery. Consequently,
impure copper rod is connected to the positive terminal of the battery.
“FOOD PRODUCTION AND MANAGEMENT”
Class: 8th (Science) Page No. 1
Question 1:
Ans: Requirements of farming leading to high yield of crops:-

• Preparation of soil • Harvesting
• Sowing • Threshing and winnowing
• Adding manures and • Storage
fertilizers
• Irrigation\removal of weeds (weeding)
Besides it, crop rotation, latest improved tools and advanced agricultural techniques also contribute in high
yield of healthy crops.
Question 2:
What is tilling / ploughing?
Ans: The process of loosening and turning the soil is called tilling or ploughing. It is done by using
agricultural implements called ploughs and tillers.
Advantages:-
• Loose soil holds more water for longer duration.

• It helps roots to penetrate freely and deeper into the soil.
• It helps in mixing of manures and fertilizers properly and easily.
Question 3:
Write a short note on the process of sowing?
Ans: The process of placing seeds into the prepared soil for growing the crops is called ‘Sowing’. Clean,
healthy and disease free seeds are selected for sowing. Seeds are to be sown at the right depths and right
intervals.
There are three methods of sowing the seeds. These are:-
i. Broadcasting iii. Transplanting ii. Seed drilling

i. Broadcasting: - The method in which the seeds are scattered over the ploughed field by hands is
called ‘broadcasting’. The method is not efficient
“FOOD PRODUCTION AND MANAGEMENT”
Class: 8th (Science) Page No. 2
because scattered seeds can be picked up by the birds and cannot ensure the right space and depth.
ii. Seed Drilling: seed drill makes the furrows along the filled and ensures the proper sowing of seeds
at the correct depth and spaces. Thus, is an efficient method of sowing. iii. Transplanting: The process
of transferring the seedlings from the nursery to the main field by hand is called transplanting or
transplantation. It allows proper penetrating of roots in soil and better shoot development.
Question 4:
Difference between; Question 5:
Why are weeds harmful?
i. Fertilizers and Manures Manures
a. Manures are organic compounds obtained

Fertilizers
by the decomposition of plant, animal and
human wastes.
a. Fertilizers are man – made chemical b. These are prepared in the fields.
substances rich in nutrients like N, P ,K.
c. Manures are not much soluble in water
b. These are prepared in thus, are slowly absorbed by the plants.
the factories.
d. Some types of manures are FYM, Green
c. Fertilizers are soluble in water thus, are manure compost.
easily absorbed by the plants.
d. Some types of fertilizers are Importance: It enhances water holding
urea, Potash. capacity of the soil and improves the texture
of the soil.
Importance: Being easily soluble in water
are easily absorbed by the plants and help
farmers to.
Ans. Weeds are the unwanted plants which grow along with crops in the field. Weeds consume the
great amount of nutrients, water, sunlight and even space meant for the crops thus, hinder the better
crop production. Some weeds ae even poisonous and may cause death of human beings and animals.
Therefore, it is necessary to remove them from time to time.
i. Physical Method: Weeds can be removed
Chapter No - 06
Topic: -Food Production and management.
Q1: - Five requirements essential for obtaining good crop production? Ans: - Five requirements
essential for obtaining good crop production are: -
1.Right kind of soil.
2.good quality of seed.
3.Irrigation
4.Protection from weeds and pests
5.Manuring
Q2: -Two types of fertilizers?
Ans: -NPK fertilizers 2. Urea
Q3: -Some chemicals used to protect crops from insects and pests and weeds?
Ans: -Insecticides -Malathion, dimecron.
Pesticides -polythion
Weedicides: -2,4, D (2,4-Dchlorophenoxy acetic acid) ,Simazine.
Q4: - Some animal products?
Ans: -Some animal products are: -
Egg, meat,honey, milk etc
Q5: - Members of a colony of bees?
Ans: -Workers (sterilefemale)

Drones (sterilemale)
Queens (fertilefemale)
Q6: -Give the specific reasons for the following?
a) Grains,pulse, vegetables and fruits should be used in our daily life?

These are the constituents of the balanced diet which is necessary for proper wellbeing of human body.
b) The soil should be loosened before the seeds are sown ?

Ans :-Loosened soil is suitable for the growth of microorganisms living in it.It also allows roots to grow
deeper and freely into the soil.
c) Seeds should be sown at a proper depth in the soil?

Ans: - Seeds should be sown at a proper depth because if they are sown too deep, they will not be able to
germinate and if they are sown at a shallow depth then they will be eaten away by birds and animals.
d) Fruits and vegetables should be washed thoroughly before eating ?

Ans: -Fruits and vegetables should be washed thoroughly because often they have a coating of pesticides
which are harmful if consumed.
e) Grains are dried thoroughly before they are stored?

Ans: -Grains are dried thoroughly before they are stored because moisture and humidity promote the
growth of fungi and moulds on grains. Some of these microorganisms are harmful.
Answer the following questions: -
Q1: -What are the requirements of farming which would lead to high yield of crops?
Ans: -The requirements of farming which would lead to high yield of crops are :-
1. Proper type of soil .

2. Use of manures
3. Irrigation
4. Better varieties of seeds
5. Agricultural tools.
6. Chemicals to prevent disease of the plant crop like use of pesticides, insecticides, andweedicides.
Q2: -What is tilling? How it is done?
Ans: -Tilling or ploughing is the process of loosening and turning the soil. For ploughing various types of ploughs
are used. Plough is used for tilling of soil, adding fertilizers to the crop, removing of weeds, supporting of soil
etc. It is made up of wood and drawn by a pair of bulls. It contains a strong triangular iron strip called plough
share. The main part of the plough is a long log of wood which is called plough shaft. There is a handle on one
end. The other end is attached to a beam which which is hung on the neck of bulls. One pair of bulls and a man
can easily operate the plough.
Q3: -Write a short note on process of sowing?
Ans: -Sowing is the process of putting seeds in the soil. There are two methods of sowing of seeds.
1.The first method is by scattering the seeds in the field by hand. This is known as broadcasting. In developed
countries seeds are not sown by hand .Even when it is broadcast, it is sown by a machine called broadcaster,
which is made up of a long Hopper ( to held the seeds ) and a series of spinning disk which scatter the seeds as
they fall through the bottom of the Hopper at a controlled rate.
2.The second method of sowing is by using seed drill. This method is widely used in India. The simplest seed
drills consist of a vertical tube with a seed bowl. This arrangement is tied to plough and the farmer drops the
seeds into the bowl as plough is often adapted to line sowing. There are number modifications in the seed drill.
The principle in all is the same.
Q4: - What are manures? Discuss their important types?
Ans:-Manures are the organic materials which supply the nutrients that a plant needs in small amounts
Manures add organic matter to the soil.
The important types of manures are farm yard (FYM), green manures and compost.
1. FYM:-it is the most valuable organic matter commonly applied to the soil. This usually consists of
remains of straw, leaves and other materials like the excreta of cattle.
2. Green manure: - The practice of turning or ploughing of green plants into soil for the purpose of
improving physical structure as well as soil fertility is called green manuring. Leguminous crops like cluster
beans, cowpea,horse gram etc are grown as green manure crops.
3. Compost: - It consists of all the cattle shed wastes and all the available refuse. All these are properly
mixed together together and can be used as manure after rottening.
Q5: -What is fertilizer? Explain its importance?
Ans:-Fertilizers are inorganic materials that are used mainly to increase the essential elements in the soil.
For example, nitrogen, phosphorous, potassium fertilizers which are needed by the plants e.g.NPK, urea,
super phosphate etc. Importance of fertilizers: -They are used to increase the essential elements in soil and
make the soil rich in nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium Q6:-What are broadcasting and transplanting?
Ans :-The method of scattering the seeds in the field by hand is known as broadcasting.
Transplanting is a process of taking young plants from nursery beds and transfer them to fields or seedlings
which require spacing, water and mineral for accurate growth.
Q7:-What is difference between manure and fertilizer?
Manure Fertilizer
1.They are organic substances prepared They are mixture of chemical compounds
from the decomposition of plants and rich in nitrogen, phosphorous, potassium
animal wastes. etc
2.They contain mixture of various Chemical fertilizers are nutrients specific
nutrients recycled from biomass wastes that is nitrogenous, phosphate etc
3.They are not in a concentrated form. They are in a concentrated form
4.They are never harmful to soil. They are easy to store and transport.
Q8: -Why are weeds harmful? What is used to remove them?
Ans: -Weeds are unwanted plants which grow in the field along with crop plants. They compete with the
crop plant for nutrients, sunlight and water.
Thus , they reduce the crop yield.
Methods of removal of weeds are: -
1.Tilling: - The process of loosing and turning of the soil is called tilling or ploughing. This is done by using
plough. Tilling helps in uprooting and killing of weeds.
2. Manure removal: -This method removes the weeds by physical methods by uprooting or cutting them close
to the ground. This is done with the help of khurpa or harrow.
3.Chemical method: - In this method, weeds are controlled by using some chemicals called weedicides like 2, 4-
D. The weedicides are sprayed in the field with the sprayers.
Q9: -What are insecticides? Give examples?
Ans :-Insecticides are the chemicals which selectively kill the pest or harmful insects as well as their eggs and
larva but do not affect the plants e.g.malathion, Dimecron etc.
Q10: - How do insecticides protect crops?
Ans: -Insecticides kill the insects like locusts, grasshopper as well as their larvae but the plants are not affected
by them.
Q11: -What are the two main seasons in India for cultivating crops?
Ans: - The two main seasons for the cultivation of crops are: -
a) Rabi season: -November to April.

b) Kharif season:- June to October
Q12: - Name some harvest festivals of India?
Ans: - Some harvest festivals in Indiaare: -

Pongal, Baisakhi, Holi, Diwali , Nabanya and bihu.
Q13: - Name four factors responsible for improvement of the crop ?
Ans: - The four factors responsible for the improvement of the crop are :- a) Plant Breeding
b) Soil improvement
c) Protection from pests and insects
d) Storage.
Q14: - Write a short note on process of harvesting?
Ans:- Harvesting is a process of cutting and collecting the matured crops from the fields.This may be done
either by hand or with a sickle or with machines known as Combine harvesters .
Q15 :-Why does a farmer rotate crops in the fields?
Ans:-If the same crop is grown continuously, soil may be deprived of certain nutrient elements .In order to
prevent this depreciation and in order to maintain the fertility of the soil, two crops are grown alternatively.
E.g. Maize and wheat. This is called crop Rotation.
Q16: -What do you understand by mixed cropping?
Ans: - The practice of cultivating two crops simultaneously to save time and labour. This also helps the products
and waste materials of one crop to be utilized by another crop if choosen properly. This method is known as
mixed cropping e.g. groundnut and cotton are usually grown together as mixed crops.
Q17:-Why are fields sometimes allowed to remain fallow?
Ans:-Some fields are allowed to rest and regenerate for at least a season to support a crop. This is called field
fallow. The growth of humus picks up which in turn promotes the growth of soil microorganisms. During such
undisturbed period, it leads to rich replenishment of nutrients.
Q18: -List the importance of fish in our life?
Ans: - Fish forms the major source of animal protein. The oil obtained from fish can be used for various
purposes.
Q19 :- What is nutrient value of honey ?
Ans:- Honey contains 17 % of water and 78 % sugar with minerals and enzymes which helps in the digestion of
food.
Q20: - How are domesticated animals useful to us?
Ans:- 1. The domesticated animals are used for our own work and food.
2.sThe animals play a significant role in the welfare of mankind.
3. Hens are used for eggs, cows and buffaloes are used for milk.
4. Domesticated dogs are used for our home protection.
Friction
Friction
• Friction is a force that comes into play when two surfaces come in contact with each other.
• The Frictional force or the force of Friction acts in the opposite direction of the motion of the
object.
• The force of Friction opposes the relative motion between the surfaces of two moving objects.
Figure 1 Force of Friction

Factors that can affect Friction
Figure 2 Contact between two surfaces

1. The irregularities of a surface: If we move an object with has an irregular or rough surface on
another surface which is also irregular, the force of Friction will be high in this case and the movement
of the object would be restricted.
2. The regularity of a surface or its smoothness: If the surfaces of either the objects or are smooth,
the force of Friction would be less and the object would move easily over the surface. Even smooth
surfaces have a certain irregularity.
3. If two surfaces are pressed hard: the force of Friction increases between two surfaces if they are
pressed hard and hence the movement of the object becomes restricted. However, if there is no
pressure the object can easily move.
Figure 3 Factors Affecting Friction
Types of Friction
1. Static Friction: The Frictional force that comes into play until an object starts moving is called static
Friction. An object has to overcome the static Friction force in order to start its movement.
2. Sliding Friction: Sliding Friction comes into play whenever an object moves along the surface of
another object. Such a movement is called ‘slide’. Hence, sliding Friction is the force that opposes
the movement or slide of an object.
3. Rolling Friction: When an object is rolling on a surface the force of Friction which acts upon it is
called rolling Friction.
4. Fluid Friction: When an object moves in a fluid, the fluid exerts a fluid Friction upon the object. It
is also called air Friction (when the medium of travel is air) and viscous Friction (when the medium
of travel is water).
Figure4 Typesof Friction

Rolling Friction < Sliding Friction < Static
Friction
Advantagesof FrictionalForce
Frictional force is necessary for various purposes in our daily lives such as:
• It allows us to walk on the earth surface.
• It allows us to write with a pen on a surface or a paper.
• It allows us to fix a nail in the wall.
• A moving object would never be able to come to the state of rest without the Frictional force.
• It would not be possible to drive any automobiles on the road without the Friction force.
• It would not be possible to construct any buildings without the Frictional force.
Figure 5 Advantages of Frictional force Disadvantages of

Frictional Force
• Frictional force results in wear and tear of objects such as the moving parts of a machine, the tyres
of a vehicle, sole of the shoes etc.
• It also results in the production of heat. In the case of machines, the production of heat leads to
wastage of energy.
• The Frictional force also leads to a decrease in the speed of a moving object or some time stops
it.
• It can lead to noise pollution in certain cases. For instance, aircrafts produce loud sound due to
the resistance of the air.
Figure 6 Disadvantages of Frictional force

How can we reduce or increase Friction?
Increasing Friction: Sometimes we need to increase Friction so as to avoid slipping of objects, for
example:
1. The sole of the shoes is grooved so that the Friction between our feet and ground increases and we
can walk safely
2. The tyres are treaded so that they can have a better grip over the ground and allow the smooth
movement of the vehicles.
3. Brake pads are used in bikes to stop them suddenly from moving by increasing the amount of Friction.
4. Kabaddi players rub their hands with soil which helps in increasing the Friction between the hands
and allows them to have an easy grip of the opponent.
5. Gymnasts also apply a coarse substance so that they can have a better grip due to increased Friction
in their hands.
Figure 7 Increasing Friction
Reducing Friction: Sometimes in order to have a smooth movement of an object we need to reduce
Friction. For example,
• The powder is sprinkled over the carrom board to decrease the Friction between the board’s
surface and the striker. In this way, the surface of the carrom board becomes smooth.
• Grease is used in bicycles and other motors or different parts of a machine to reduce Friction and
increase their efficiency.
• Oil is applied on the hinges of the door so that they can move easily.
Figure 8 Decreasing Friction

Applying substances like oil, grease or powder allows in smooth movement as they block the
irregularities of a surface. The substances that can reduce the amount of Friction between different
objects are called lubricants. However, we can never reduce Friction to a level of zero. There are
always some irregularities present on the surface.
Figure 9 Lubricants
How wheels reduce Friction?
• We know that when an object rolls over a surface rolling Friction is produced which resists its
motion on the surface. However, its magnitude is lesser than the static and sliding Friction.
• Wheels are circulating objects that turn around a center point.
• The wheels allow an object to roll over a surface rather than allowing them to slide over the
surface.
• This results in less Friction and hence easy movement of the object.
• Rolling Friction is also used in the parts of machines that are moving continuously.
• In this way, the sliding Friction is removed with the help of rolling Friction and therefore the
adverse effects of Friction such as the production of heat or wear and tear of the mechanical parts
are also reduced.
• For instance, ball bearings are being used in fans and bicycles to reduce Friction.
Figure 10 Ball Bearings
Fluid Friction
Figure 11 Fluid Friction

Air, water and other liquids collectively are called fluids. They also exert a Frictional force on the
object that travels through them. Such a Friction is called fluid friction or drag. The amount of
Frictional force by a fluid on an object depends upon the following:
1. The speed of the object with respect to the fluid.

2. The nature of the fluid, its viscosity or its tendency to resist the flow.
3. The shape of the object.
Fluid Friction comprises Internal and External Friction:
• Fluids comprise of internal Friction that occurs between the molecules of a liquid as they are also
in motion. The viscosity of a liquid, therefore, depends upon the internal Friction.
• An external Friction in fluids is the force exerted by the fluid on the object that flows through it.
As an object travels in a fluid it loses its energy in order to overcome the fluid Friction. Hence,
things that can easily flow in fluids have special shapes.
• For instance, ships and boats have a particular shape that allows them to resist fluid Friction.
• Birds and aeroplanes have a specific shape that allows them to fly in the air.
• Fishes also have a specific shape such as a tail and fins that allow them to swim continuously in
water and even prevent the loss of energy due to fluid Friction.
• Not only this, all the vehicles are designed in a way that they can resist the fluid Friction because
air is present everywhere.
Figure 12 Objects can resist Fluid Friction because of their special Shape
Exercises
1. Answer the following questions:
(i) Why are the worn out tyres discarded?
Ans. When the tyres are worn out their groves disappear due to the constant use. This reduces the
friction between tyres and road. The reduced friction increased the speed of vehicles, resulting
the chances of accidents, that is why worn out tyres are discarded.
(ii) Why do carom coins move faster on carom board when dusted with talcum powder?
Ans. When carom board is, dusted with talcum powder, the friction between carom coins and the
surface of carom board reduces, thus the carom coins move faster on carom board.
(iii) Why is the surface of conveyor belt made rough?
Ans. Conveyor belts are used, in the mechanical machines at railway stations or air ports to carry
passenger’s luggage. The belts are made rough to increase the friction between belt and pulley
so that to slow down the speed of the machine. Due to slow speed, no luggage slides over
another and this makes passengers easy to collect his luggage.
(iv) Why is the sewing machine often oiled?
Ans. Constant use of sewing machine makes the surfaces of its moving parts irregular that increases
the friction resulting its slow speed and more energy wastage. A less viscous oil acts as a
lubricant in the machine that makes the surfaces smooth reducing the friction, less energy usage
but more and faster work. That is why sewing machine is often oiled.
(v) Why do new automobile tyres have deep grooves?
Ans. The tyres with deep groves are the kind of irregular surfaces, since the friction is, caused due to
the interlocking irregularities of two surfaces, the friction between the tyres and the road
increases; this slows down the speed of the vehicle, resulting in the less chances of accidents.
It also helps apply the brakes safely.
(vi) Why does a ball rolling on the ground slowdown?
Ans. When the ball rolls on the ground a part of the ball and the ground surface gets continuously
deformed thereby increasing the rolling friction between the two. The increase in the friction
reduces the speed of ball, since a limiting force is, applied to the ball it slows down after moving
a small distance.
(vii) Why are the boats and aeroplane, given special shape?
Ans. The boats and aeroplane is given a special shape so that friction between water (in case of boat)
or air (in case of aeroplane) is reduced to a large extent. This also offer the least resistance to
the air and water and help them to move or fly with a lot of speed.
(viii) Why do meteors burn on entering into the atmosphere?
Ans. The meteors enter the earth at a very high speed. At such speeds, the friction due to air is
extremely high. Due this high friction, the temperature of the meteor rises to such a high degree
that they catch fire and burn down while entering into the atmosphere.
(ix) Why do painters use sand papers in polishing doors?
Ans. Sand papers are used to make the surfaces smooth. In other words, it helps a painter held the
paint while polishing, with the help of sliding friction.
(x) Why is it easier to tie a knot with cotton string as compared to silk string?
Ans. Cotton string has rough surface while as silk string has smooth surface. While we knot a tie, the
friction between two end surfaces of cotton string increases, this makes it easy to knot a tie
with cotton string as compared to silk string, which has the reduced friction between two
smooth end surfaces.
2. Fill in the blank spaces by choosing words from the list given below:
List: movement, sliding, streamlined, static, opposite
(i) Friction always acts in the direction opposite to the direction of applied force.
(ii) Static friction is a self-adjusting force.
(iii) Friction is very useful as it helps in the movement of the bodies.
(iv) The sliding friction is 10 times the rolling friction.
(v) The boats and aeroplanes are streamlined so as, to reduce fluid friction.
3. Statements given below are incorrect. Write the correct statements.

(i) Sliding friction is slightly more than the limiting friction.
Sliding friction is slightly less than the limiting friction.
(ii) The conveyor belts are made rough in order to decrease friction. The conveyor belts are
made rough to increase friction
(iii) The friction between two surfaces decreases with the increase in the weight of a body.
The friction between two surfaces increases with the increase in the weight of a body
(iv) The friction offered by the wheels is called sliding friction. The friction offered by the
wheels is called Rolling friction
(v) The friction increases with the increases in the area of contact at the two surfaces.
The force due to friction is generally independent of the contact area between the two
surfaces.
LIGHT
What makes things visible?

We can see the world through our eyes or our sense of sight. However, we cannot see anything
without the light, that is, in darkness. When light falls upon or is emitted by an object our eyes
detect that light and hence the object becomes visible to us.
Figure 1 Light makes things Visible

What happens when light falls on a mirror?
• We know that light is a form of energy which is responsible for the sense of sight in the
human eyes. Light can be called as a radiation that is emitted, reflected or absorbed by
different objects.
• A mirror is a glass having a shiny surface. When light falls on a mirror it is reflected back.
Hence a mirror changes the direction of light that falls upon it.
Figure 2 Light falling on a mirror

The laws of reflection What is the
reflection of light?
Figure 3 Reflection of Light

When light strikes a surface and bounces back, it is called reflection.
Incident ray - The ray of light that falls on the surface is called incident ray. Reflected ray -
The ray of the light that gets reflected back from the surface is called reflected ray.
Normal - It is an imaginary line that is drawn perpendicular to the reflecting surface at the
point where the incident ray strikes the surface or at the point of incidence.
The angle of incidence (θi) - It is the angle that the incident ray makes with the normal.
The angle of reflection (θr) - It is the angle that the reflected ray makes with the normal.
For an incident ray, there is always one reflected ray.
First Law of Reflection
The angle of incidence and the angle of reflection are always equal to each other. In other
words, the angle by which a ray of light is incident on a surface will always be equal to the
angle by which it is reflected back from the surface.
The Second Law of Reflection
The incident ray, the reflected ray and normal all lie in the same plane. Formation of the image
by a plane mirror
• Consider the figure given above. Here object AB of height ‘h’ is placed at a distance ‘u’
from the mirror.
• When the rays of light from this object fall on the mirror, the image of the object is formed
inside the mirror.
Figure 4 Formation of Image by Plane Mirror

• Consider the incident rays that fall on the mirror: AP, AO and BO. These incident rays are
reflected back from the mirror as PA, OC and OB.
• The rays PA and OC are diverging rays hence we can extend them behind the mirror to find
the point of intersection that is A’.
• Similarly, the other reflected rays are extended backwards and virtual image A’B’ of height
‘h’ of the object AB is formed on the mirror.
• Characteristics of the image formed by a plane mirror are the following:
o It has the same height as that of the object.
o The distance between the image and the mirror and the object and the mirror is always
equal.
o The image is erect or upright. o The image is laterally inverted. o It is a virtual image
because it is formed by the apparent intersection of diverging rays.
What is lateral inversion?
When an image is formed in a mirror the, the left side of the object appears at the right side of
the image and vice versa. This is called a lateral inversion.
Regular and Diffused reflection
Regular Reflection Diffused Reflection
When parallel rays of light fall on a When parallel rays of light fall upon an smooth surface,
they are reflected irregular surface, they are reflected back back as parallel rays only. This is
into all the directions. This is called called regular reflection. diffused reflection.
It is also called specular reflection. It is also called irregular reflection.
It enables us to view different objects It leads to
the formation of an image. present in our environment.
For example, the image formed by a For example, the reflection of rays of plane mirror. light
through a wall
Illuminated objects - Objects that do not produce light on their own but reflect the light that
falls upon them are called illuminated objects. For example, the moon.
Luminous objects - Objects which can produce light on their own are called luminous objects.
For example, tube light, bulb, the Sun and the Stars.
Reflected light can be reflected again

Multiple reflections can be obtained by placing more than one mirrors at certain angles to each
other which results in reflection of light for multiple times between the reflecting surfaces. This
phenomenon is used in certain scenarios such as:
1. In a Periscope to see hidden objects

2. In a kaleidoscope to see beautiful patterns
3. In a barbershop to see the back of the head of a person getting a haircut
Figure 7 Multiple Reflection of Light What is a

Periscope?
• A Periscope is an instrument that is used to look at objects that are not in the line of sight
of the observer.
• In other words, it is used to see objects that are hidden.
• The Periscope works on the phenomena of multiple reflections of light.
• Inside the periscope, there are two mirrors that are inclined at an angle of 45
• Periscopes are generally used in submarines, tanks and bunkers by the soldiers.
Figure 8 Structure of a Periscope
What is a Kaleidoscope?
Figure 9 Structure of a Kaleidoscope

• It is a device that works on the phenomena of multiple reflections with the help of multiple
mirrors.
• It has a cylindrical structure with three plane mirrors inside it.
• It contains several pieces of beads, broken glass, colourful bangles, pebbles etc.
• The observer can look into the Kaleidoscope from one end and the light enters into the
Kaleidoscope from the other end.
• When the light falls upon these objects in the Kaleidoscope, multiple reflections of these
objects are created in the three Mirrors.
• This results in the formation of beautiful and colourful patterns.
• Since the reflection of light is not always the same the observer never sees a similar pattern
in the kaleidoscope.
Sunlight - white or coloured

• The sun is the biggest source of light on the earth.
• The sunlight is white in colour however this white light often disperses into several colours
which results in different colours of the sky at different times of the day.
• The white light consists of seven colours namely VIBGYOR (violet, indigo, blue, green,
yellow, orange and red).
• This arrangement of seven colours of a white light is called as Spectrum.
• All these colours mixed together and form the white light. However, due to the reflection
of light, the seven colours can split and be seen as separate colours rather than a single white
light.
• This phenomenon of the splitting of light into its constituents is called Dispersion of light.
Figure 11 Dispersion of Light
• Examples of dispersion of light:
• Formation of rainbow due to the dispersion of white light through the water droplets.
• Passing of Sunlight through a prism
• Dispersion of light through the soap Bubbles Dispersion of light on the CDs
The structure and working of the human eye

• Eyes are sensory organs that allow us to see things present in the environment.
• The eyes absorb the light rays and form a visual image and transform this information of
the image to the brain.
• The eye has a spherical structure which is called the eyeballs. The eyeballs are attached in
the eye socket and various muscles are connected to them called the eye muscles. These are
muscles allow the movement of the eyeballs.
• The eyes are protected with eyelids. They prevent an excess of light and dust to enter into
the eyes and therefore save the eyes from any outer objects.
Figure 13 Human Eye
The parts of the human eye
• Cornea - It is a transparent covering present on the outer side of the eyes. It consists of 6
layers. Tear fluid covers cornea and protects the eye.
• Iris - It is a dark coloured muscular structure present in the centre of the cornea. The Iris
consists of a small opening call Pupil through which the light enters into the eye. The Iris
has colourful pigments like grey, blue, black, green, brown etc. The amount of light that
enters the eye is controlled by the Iris. In other words, Iris controls the Pupil.
• Lens - It is like a sphere of liquid present inside the eye. The eye lens is located behind the
Pupil which helps in the formation of an image in the eye.
• Retina- Retina is a layer located behind the lens at the back of the eye. The eye lens focuses
the light that enters into the eye over the retina. The retina consists of different Nerve cells
that perform different tasks. There are sensory cells that detect the light. They then
transform that information into an electrical impulse. These electrical impulses are sent to
the brain via the optic nerve. Two types of vision cells in the retina are:
o Rods or chopsticks - They get activated in darkness or dim-light and the responsible for
light-dark vision.
o Cones - they react to bright light and therefore sense colour in an object.
• Vitreous Chamber - The inner space of the eyeball called the transparent vitreous chamber
consists of a gel-like substance. This substance maintains the right pressure in the eye and
maintains the stability of the eyeball.
• Blind spot - There is a point in the eye located at the junction of the retina and the optic
nerve where no sensory cells are present. This spot is therefore called the blind spot as it
does not support any vision. Persistence of image on the retina
• The image that is formed on the retina persists for 1/16th of a second.
• Therefore, if one tries to move 16 still images per second of a moving object in front of our
eye it appears as if the object is moving. This is how animation films and movies work.
They are a collection of separate pictures which are moved in a sequence.
• However, this movement is so fast, around 24 pictures in a second, that it appears as if they
are moving.
The vision may decrease with age
• Normally a person can see distant and nearby objects through the eyes.
• A person with normal eyes can read most comfortable at a distance of 25cm. However, this
distance can decrease with age.
• Also sometimes people can see far objects clearly but not the objects that are nearby
(farsightedness or hyperopia).
• Similarly, some people can see the nearby objects clearly but not the far objects
(nearsightedness or myopia). Hence they use suitable lenses to correct such defects.
• Sometimes with old age, the lens of the eye can become cloudy or foggy. This condition is
called cataract with results in loss of vision.
• However, this defect can be rectified by removing the old lens from the eye and inserting
an artificial lens at that place.
Defect in Eye Causes
1. Presbyopia solidification of lens fluid
2. Cataract protein structures of lens clubbed together
3. Glaucoma abnormal pressure inside the eye
4. Myopia due to a strong refractive index of the eye
5. Hyperopia due to a weak refractive index of the eye
6. Astigmatism non-uniform curvature of the cornea

How to take care of the eyes?
1. One should go for a regular eye check up.
2. Wear spectacles if the eyesight is found weak.
3. Always study or watch TV in a sufficient light. Excess or insufficient light both can lead to
problems. Insufficient light can cause strain and leads to a headache.
4. Do not look at the sharp source of light like the sun directly. Excess of light can damage the
eyes.
5. If dust enters into the eye one should not rub them and rather wash them straightway.
6. Maintain a normal distance while reading or watching TV.
7. Take a balanced diet to ensure that you get the right nutrients.
What is night blindness?

Night blindness is a defect in the vision in which people cannot view things properly in dim
light or at night. It mainly occurs due to the lack of vitamin A in our body. Hence we should
always take foods that are rich in vitamin A such as broccoli, green vegetables, carrot, milk,
eggs, curd, papaya, mango etc.
How can visually impaired people read and write?

Visual impairment is also known as vision loss.
• A person with vision loss cannot see at all.
• This loss of vision is up to a degree that cannot be corrected using usual means like using
glasses or lenses.
• The people who have no eyesight at all develop the other senses of listening and touching
sharply which allows them to do their day to day activities.
• However, there are certain resources that have been developed to help such people:
Non-Optical Aids
They are used to magnify words ensuring appropriate intensity of

Visual Aids light falls upon the eyes so that the person can
recognize the word.
Tactual Aids (using They include Braille writer Slate and Stylus which allow a person to
sense of touch) read and write.
Auditory Aids (using

sense of They include devices like audio tapes, talking books etc
listening)
They include talking calculators and computers, closed circuit

televisions, audio CDs, that can help visually challenged people in
Electronic Aids
listening and writing.
Optical Aids
Bifocal Lenses
They all are used to rectify the limitations of the eyes.
Contact Lenses
Tinted Lenses
Magnifiers
Telescopic Aids They are used to view the chalkboard and class
demonstrations.
Braille system
• Braille is a tactual aid for visually challenged people that allow them to read and write.
• It was developed by a visually challenged person called Louis Braille. This system was
published by him in 1821 however the present Braille System was adopted in 1932.
• For many common languages including Hindi, Sanskrit, Tamil, Telugu, Mathematics and
scientific notations a Braille code is present.
• In the Braille code, there are 63 Dots or 63 Characters.
• These are arranged in a cell of two vertical rows having three dots each.
• The patterns are embossed on a Braille Sheet that allows a person to read by touching the
pattern. Each character in the Braille system can represent:
1. a letter
2. a combination of letters or a word
3. a grammatical sign
Figure 15 The Braille System for English Alphabets

Eyes of animals have different shapes
1. Crab: Crabs have small eyes but they can look all around with them even behind them.
2. Butterflies: Butterflies have big eyes that consist of thousands of small eyes which allow them
to see in the front and at the back.
3. Night owls (Night Birds): Night owls are able to see things more clearly in the night rather
than day time. This is so because the cornea of their eyes is large with a large pupil which
allows light to enter into the eye at night time. However, their eyes have a large number of rod
cells rather than cones that allow them to see the things at night easily.
4. Kites and Eagles (Day Birds): These birds can see very well during daytime but have
decreased vision at night. This is because they have a large number of cone cells and a few rod
cells.
Exercises
Q1. Suppose you are in a dark room. Can you see objects in the room? Can you see objects
outside the room? Explain.
If we are in a dark room, then it is not possible for us to see objects in the room. However,
objects outside the room are visible to us.
An object becomes visible when light reaches our eye after being reflected from the object. If
there is no light in the room, then the objects inside the room cannot reflect any light. Hence,
we cannot see in a dark room. If there is light present outside the room, then we can see the
objects outside the room.
Q2: Differentiate between regular and diffused reflection. Does diffused reflection mean the
failure of the laws of reflection?
Regular reflection takes place from a smooth or a regular surface. In regular reflection,
all reflected rays are parallel to each other for parallel incident rays. Irregular or diffused
reflection takes place from an irregular surface. In diffused reflection, the reflected rays are not
parallel to each other for parallel incident rays. This happens because of the presence of
irregular microscopic surfaces. Hence, parallel incident rays reflect in different directions.
However, each ray obeys the laws of reflection. Therefore, laws of reflections are not violated
in diffused or irregular reflections.
Q3: Mention against each of the following whether regular or diffused reflection will
take place when a beam of light strikes. Justify your answer in each case.
(a) Polished wooden table (b) Chalk powder
(c) Cardboard surface (d) Marble floor with water spread over it
(e) Mirror (f) Piece of paper
(a) Polished wooden table → Regular reflection: A polished surface is an example of a

smooth surface. A polished wooden table has a smooth surface. Hence, reflections from the
polished table will be regular.
(b) Chalk powder → Diffused reflection:Chalk power spread on a surface is an example of
an irregular surface. It is not smooth. Therefore, diffused reflection will take place from chalk
powder.
(c) Cardboard surface → Diffused reflection: Cardboard surface is also an example of an
irregular surface. Hence, diffused reflection will take place from a cardboard surface.
(d) Marble floor with water spread over it → Regular reflection: Marble floor with water
spread over it is an example of a regular surface. This is because water makes the marble
surface smooth. Hence, regular reflection will take place from this surface.
(e) Mirror → Regular reflection: Mirror has a smooth surface. Therefore, it will give a
regular reflection.
(f) Piece of paper → Diffused reflection: Although a piece of paper may look smooth, but it
has many irregularities on its surface. Due to this reason, it will give a diffused reflection.
Q4: State the laws of reflection.

Laws of reflection:
(i) The angle of reflection is always equal to the angle of incidence.
(ii) The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal to the reflective surface at the point
of incidence all lie in the same plane.
Q5: Describe an activity to show that the incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal at
the point of incidence lie in the same plane.
Place a plane mirror on the table. Take a paper
sheet and make a small hole in its centre. Make sure
that the light in the room is not bright. Hold the sheet
normal to the table. Take another sheet and place it
on the table in contact with the vertical mirror. Draw
a normal line on the second sheet from the mirror.
Now, light a torch on the mirror through the small
hole such that the ray of light falls on the normal at
the bottom of the mirror. When the ray from this hole
is incident on the mirror, it gets reflected in a certain
direction. You can easily observe the incident ray, reflected ray and the normal to the mirror at
the point of incidence on the sheet placed on the table. This shows that the incident ray, the
reflected ray, and the normal to the surface at the point of incidence all lie in the same plane.
Q6: Fill in the blanks in the following.

(a) A person 1 m in front of a plane mirror seems to be 2 m away from his image.
(Object distance and image distance are the same from a plane mirror. The image of a person
1 m in front of a mirror is 1 m back to the mirror. Hence, the image is 1 + 1 = 2 m away from
the person.)
(b) If you touch your left ear with your right hand in front of a plane mirror, it will be
seen in the mirror that your right ear is touched with your left hand.
(This is because of lateral inversion of images formed in a plane mirror.) (c) The size of the
pupil becomes large when you see in dim light. (In dim light, the amount of light entering the
eye is very little. To increase the amount of light, the pupil expands.)
(d) Night birds have less cones than rods in their eyes.
(Night birds can see in the night, but not in the day. They have on their retina a large number of
rod cells and only a few cones.)
Q7: Angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.

(a) Always (b) Sometimes
(c) Under special conditions (d) Never Answer:
(a) The angle of incidence is always equal to the angle of reflection. This is the first law
of reflection.
Q8: Image formed by a plane mirror is

(a) virtual, behind the mirror and enlarged.
(b) virtual, behind the mirror and of the same size as the object.
(c) real at the surface of the mirror and enlarged.
(d) real, behind the mirror and of the same size as the object.
Answer:
(b) Image formed by a plane mirror is virtual, behind the mirror and of the same size as the object.
The image formed by a plane mirror is of the same size as the object. The image is
formed behind the mirror. The image cannot be obtained on a screen. Hence, it is a virtual
image.
Q9: Describe the construction of a kaleidoscope.
Construction of a kaleidoscope: Three rectangular mirror strips of dimensions 15cm × 4cm (l
× b) are joined together to form a prism (fig a). This prism is fixed into a circular cardboard
tube. The circular cardboard tube should be slightly longer that the prism (fig b). This circular
tube is now closed at one end with a cardboard disc. This disc has a hole in it through which
we can see (fig c) .At the other end of the circular tube, a plane glass plate is fixed. It is
important that this glass plate touches the prism mirrors. On this glass plate, several small and
broken pieces of coloured glass are placed. This end is now closed by a round glass plate
allowing enough space for the coloured glass
pieces to move (fig d).
Q10: Draw a labelled sketch of the human eye.
Q11: Gurmit wanted to perform Activity 16.8 using a laser torch. Her teacher advised her
not to do so. Can you explain the basis of the
teacher’s advice?
Laser light is harmful for the human eyes, because its intensity is very high. It can cause
damage to the retina and lead to blindness. Hence, it is advisable not to look at a laser beam
directly.
Q12: Explain how you can take care of your eyes.

To protect our eyes, the given points should be taken into account:
(i) Visit an eye specialist regularly.
(ii) Avoid reading in dim light and very bright light.
(iii) Avoid direct exposure of sunlight to the eye.
(iv) Clean your eyes with cold water quickly if dust particles or small insects enter your
eye. Do not rub your eyes.
(v) Maintain a distance of at least 25 cm between the book and your eyes while reading.
Q13: What is the angle of incidence of a ray if the reflected ray is at an angle of 90° to the
incident ray?
If the reflected ray is at an angle of 90° to the incident ray, then the angle of incidence
is 45 °. According to the law of reflection, the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of
reflection. Therefore, the angle of incidence and the angle of reflection both are = 45°.
Q14: How many images of a candle will be formed if it is placed between two parallel plane
mirrors separated by 40 cm?
Infinite or multiple images of the candle will be formed because of multiple reflections
between the mirrors. When two mirrors are placed parallel to each other, then infinite numbers
of images are formed.
Q15: Two mirrors meet at right angles. A ray of light is incident on one at an angle of 30°
as shown in Fig. Draw the reflected ray from the
second mirror.
The first law of reflection is used to obtain the path of reflected light. It can be observed
that the given ray of light will reflect from the second mirror at an angle 60°.
Q16: Yasir stands at A just on the side of a plane mirror as shown in Fig. 16.20. Can he
see himself in the mirror? Also can he see the image of objects situated at P, Q and
R?
A plane mirror forms a virtual image behind the mirror. The
image is as far behind the mirror as the object is in front of it. A cannot
see his image because the length of the mirror is too short on his side.
However, he can see the objects placed at points P and Q, but cannot see
the object placed at point R (as shown in the given figure).
Q17:
(a) Find out the position of the image of an object situated at A in
the plane mirror (Fig. 16.21).
(b) Can Saba at B see this image?
(c) Can Yasir at C see this image?
(d) When Saba moves from B to C, where does the image of A move?
Answers:
(a) Image of the object placed at A is formed behind the mirror. The distance of the image from
the mirror is equal to the distance of A from the mirror. Image
of A is shown in the given figure.
(b) Yes Saba at B can see this image.

(c) Yes. Yasir at C can see this image.
(d) Image of the object at A will not move. It will remain at the same position when Saba moves
from B to C.
MATERIALS: METALS AND NON-METALS
➢ Elements have been broadly divided into two main groups depending on their
properties:-
METALS NON METALS
These elements have 1, 2, or 3 valence These elements have 4, 5, or 7 valence

electrons. electrons.
They always tend to lose electrons. They always tend to gain electrons
They have positive valances They have negative valences
➢ Another class of elements which show the properties of both metals and non-metals is
called Metalloids. All elements are arranged in the periodic table according to their
properties.
INTRODUCTION TO METALS
Those materials which possess the characteristic of being hard, shiny, malleable, fusible,
ductile, etc. are termed as metals. Few examples of metals are iron, gold, silver,
aluminium, copper, etc.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF METALS
These are the properties which we come to know by just touching, seeing, colour, etc.
1. Malleable: It is that property of metals which allows them to be beaten into the thin
sheets. Due to presence of this property, the shape of iron nail and aluminium wire
can be changed on beating. For example: The silver foils used for decorating sweets and
the aluminium foil used for wrapping food. Malleable metals are aluminium and copper.
Highly malleable metals are gold and silver.
2. Conductivity: It is that property of metals which allows the current and heat to pass
through them easily. For Example- Metals like iron rod, nail, copper wire, etc. are good
3. Ductility: It is that property of metals which allows them to be drawn into the wires.
4. Lustrous: It is that property of metals which makes them shine and their structures
are capable of reflecting incident light.
5. Hardness: Due to the ductility and malleability properties, metals are very strong. For
Example: Iron metal is very hard & strong, so it is used in the construction of Bridges,
Railway Lines, Machines etc,.
6. Solid at room temperature: Most of the metals are solid (particles are tightly and
very closely packed) at room temperature. There are few exceptions like Mercury and
Gallium are the metals which are found in liquid state at room temperature.
7. High Melting and boiling point: Most of the metals have high melting and boiling
points. The metals which are solid in nature always have high melting and boiling
points because they are closely packed and have high attraction. There are few
exceptions like Sodium, potassium, Mercury, and Gallium have low melting and boiling
points.
8. High tensile strength: The metals which can bear the strain are termed as the high
tensile strength metals. There are few exceptions like Zinc, Arsenic, and Antimony have
low tensile strength.
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF METALS

1. Reaction of Metals with Oxygen: Generally, when metals are reacted with oxygen,
they will form metallic oxides. These metallic oxides are basic in nature.
Example: Rusting of Iron. Following is the reaction to express it.
4Fe + 3O2 + 3H2O → Fe2O3 + 2Fe(OH)3
Example: Corrosion of Copper. Following is the reaction to express it.
2Cu + H2O + CO2 + O2 → Cu (OH)2 (Copper Hydroxide) + CuCO3 (Copper Carbonate)
2. Reaction of Metals with Water:

➢ Some metals react vigorously with water like in case of sodium. It is stored in
kerosene oil.
➢ Some metals react with water to form metal oxides and metal hydroxides.
Hydrogen gas is released in this reaction.
➢ On the other hand, some metals react very slowly with water like in case of iron.
For example:
2Na + 2H2O →2NaOH + H2
1 Sodium + Water → Sodium hydroxide + Hydrogen
2Mg+ 2H2O→ 2Mg(OH)2+ H2
2 Magnesium + Water → Magnesium Hydroxide + Hydrogen
2Ca + 2H2O → 2Ca(OH)2 + H2

3 Calcium + Water→ Calcium Hydroxide + Hydrogen
3. Reaction of Metals with Dilute Acids: Generally, a metal reacts with acids to form
salts and releases hydrogen gas
For Example:
2Na+ 2HCl→ 2NaCl (Sodium Chloride) + H 2
Mg+ H2SO4→ MgSO4 ( Magnesium Sulphate) + H2
Ca+ 2HNO3→ Ca(NO3)2 ( Calcium Nitrate) + H2
4. Reaction of metals with metals salt solution: Metals react with salt solution of
different metals. More reactive metals displace less reactive metals from their salt
solution. Such reactions are called Displacement reactions.
Example : When zinc is reacted with copper sulphate solution, then copper will be
displaced by zinc as zinc is more reactive than copper. The blue colour of copper sulphate
disappears and a powdery red mass of copper is deposited at the bottom of the beaker.
The reaction-
Copper Sulphate (CuSO4) + Zinc (Zn) → Zinc Sulphate (ZnSO4) + Copper (Cu)
REACTIVITY SERIES OF METALS

The arranging if metals in the decreasing order of their reactivity is called reactivity
series of metals.
The five important uses of metals are as follows –
I. Lead is used in X-ray machines.

II. Iron is used in construction.
III. Mercury is used in thermometers.
IV. Gold and silver are used in making jewellery. V. Aluminium foil is used for
packing food.
INTRODUCTION TO NON-METALS
Those materials which do not possess the characteristics of metals are termed as
nonmetal. Materials like coal and sulphur are soft and dull in appearance. They break
down into powdery mass on tapping with hammer. They are non-sonorous and are poor
conductors of heat and electricity. Few examples of non metals are sulphur, carbon, oxygen
etc.
The important physical properties of non-metals are discussed below:
Physical Properties of Non-Metals

1 Non-Malleable: Non-metals are generally brittle and hence cannot
be beaten into sheets or drawn into wires. In other words, non-
metals are non-malleable and non-ductile. Where stress is applied
on non-metals, they shatter into pieces.For example: Sulphur and
phosphorous. These non-metals are in the form of powder and cannot
be beaten.
2 Non-Ductile: Non metals are non-ductile because they cannot be
melted and drawn into thin wires. They are brittle in nature.
3 Poor conductors of heat and electricity: Non-metals are generally
bad conductors of heat and electricity as they do not have free
electrons. Carbon (graphite) is an exception. Graphite is an allotrope
of carbon as it is a good conductor of electricity due to its special
crystalline arrangement. It is used in making electrodes.
4 Non-sonorous: Non-metals which do not make any sound when hit
with an object are known as non-sonorous. For example:
Phosphorous.
5 Non-Lustrous: These are the non-metals which are in the form of
powder and gas. Hence, they cannot be polished and do not have any
lusture. Non-metals are generally non-lustrous and dull. Carbon
(graphite) and iodine are exceptions. They are lustrous, as their
surface possesses a shine.
6 Softness: Non-metals are generally soft. Due to non-ductile and
non-malleability properties, non metals are not strong at all.
However, carbon (diamond) is an exception. Diamond is very hard.
In fact, diamond is the hardest natural substance known.
7 Solid, Liquid or Gas at room temperature: Non-metals may exist
in solid, liquid or gaseous state at room temperature. For example,
carbon, sulphur and phosphorus are solid at room temperature.
Nitrogen and oxygen are gaseous non-metals. Bromine is a non-
metal which is liquid at room temperature.
8 Low Melting and boiling point: Non-metals are loosely packed and
therefore, less heat is required to melt or boil them. Hence, non-
metals possess low melting and boiling points, except graphite.
Carbon (graphite) is a non-metal but possesses high melting point.
9 Low Tensile Strength: Non-metals cannot bear the strain. Thus,
they have low tensile strength. They are not strong and get easily
broken.
Chemical Properties of Non-Metals

1. Reaction with oxygen: Oxides of non-metals are formed when non-metals react
with oxygen. The oxides of non-metals are acidic in nature and turn blue litmus to
red or neutral.
Example:
C + O2 → CO2
(
carbon dioxide, which is an acidic oxide )
CO2 + H2O → H2 CO3
(Carbonic Acid )
When sulphur reacts with oxygen, we get sulphur

dioxide.
S+O2 →SO2
When sulphur dioxide reacts with water it forms

sulphurous acid.
SO2+H2O→H2SO3
2. Reaction with water: Non-metals do not react with water but are usually very
reactive in air, which is why some of them are stored in water. For example, one of
the highly reactive non-metals is phosphorus and it catches fire when exposed to air
that is why it is stored in water to prevent its contact with atmospheric oxygen.
Non metal + H2O → No reaction

(non-metals do not displace or reduce hydrogen).
3. Reaction with acids: None of the non-metals are known to react with acids.
Non Metal+ H2SO4 → No reaction
4. Reaction with bases: The reaction between non-metals and bases is a very
complex one. Reaction of chlorine with bases like sodium hydroxide gives
products like sodium hypochlorite as well as water.
The five important uses of non metals are:

I. Sulphur is used in vulcanization of rubber, which makes rubber sufficiently
hard to produce tyres.
II. Phosphorus is used in making phosphatic fertilizers.
III. Graphite is used in making lead of pencils.
IV. Hydrogen can be used as a fuel that will be a non polluting option for fuel. V.
Chlorine is added to water for purification purpose.
EXERCISE
Q1 Which of the following can be beaten into thin sheets?
a)Zinc b)Phosphorus c)Sulphur d)Oxygen
Ans. a) Zinc
Q2 Which of the following statements is correct?
a) All metals are ductile. b) All non-metals are ductile.
c) Generally, metals are ductile. d) Some non-metals are ductile.
Ans. c) Generally, metals are ductile.
Q3 Fill in the blanks:

a) Phosphorus is a very reactive non-metal.
b) Metals are good conductors of heat and electricity.
c) Iron is more reactive than copper.
d) Metals react with acids to produce hydrogen gas.
Q4 Mark ‘T’ if the statement is true and ‘F’ if it is false.
a) Generally, non-metals react with acids. (F)
b) Sodium is very reactive metal. (T)
c) Copper displaces zinc from zinc sulphate solution. (F)
d) Coal can be drawn into wires. (F)
Some properties are listed in the following table. Distinguish between metals
Q5 and non- metals on the basis of these properties
Properties Metals Non-metals
I. Appearance II.
Hardness
III. Malleability
IV. Ductility
V. Heat Conduction
VI. Conduction of Electricity
Answer:
Properties Metals Non-metals
I. Appearance Shiny Dull

II. Hardness Hard Soft
III. Malleability Malleable Non Malleable
IV. Ductility Ductile Non Ductile
V. Heat Conduction Good Conductors Bad Conductors
VI. Conduction of Electricity Good Conductors Bad Conductors
Q6 Give reasons for the following.
a) Aluminium foils are used to wrap food items.
Answer: Aluminium is highly malleable metal and it is very easy to make
aluminium foil in comparison to other metals
b) Immersion rods for heating liquids are made up of metallic Substances.
Answer: Immersion rods are made up of metallic substances because metals
are good conductors of heat and electricity.
c) Copper cannot displace zinc from its salt solution.
Answer: Copper cannot displace zinc from its solution because zinc is more
reactive than copper.
d) Sodium and potassium are stored in kerosene.
Answer: Sodium and potassium metals are very reactive because they react
with oxygen and water easily. A lot of heat is produced in the reaction, so
sodium and potassium are always stored in kerosene.
Q7 Can you store lemon pickle in aluminium utensils? Explain.
Answer: No, this is because lemon juice contains acid which can react with aluminium
and make it harmful for human consumption.
Q8Match the substances given in Column A with their uses given in Column B:
A
B
Gold Thermometer
Iron Electric wire
Aluminium Wrapping food
Carbon Jewellery
Copper Machinery
Mercury Fuel
Answer:
A B
Gold Jewellery
Iron Machinery
Aluminium Wrapping food
Carbon Fuel
Copper Electric wire
Mercury Thermometers
Q9 What happens when

a) Dilute sulphuric acid is poured on a copper plate?
b) Iron nails are placed in copper sulphate solution?
Answer:
a) Copper sulphate is formed and hydrogen gas is liberated:
Copper + Sulphuric Acid →Copper Sulphate + Hydrogen (gas)
b) Brown coating is deposited on the iron nails. This is because of displacement of
copper from copper sulphate solution by iron.
Iron + Copper Sulphate (solution)→Iron Sulphate(solution)+Copper.
Q10 Sarish took a piece of burning charcoal and collected the gas evolved in a
test tube.
i) How will she find the nature of the gas?
ii) Write down word equations of all the reactions taking place in this
process.
Answer:
i. She will bring a wet litmus paper in contact with the gas. If the gas turns wet blue
litmus paper into red, the gas will be acidic.
ii. Carbon + Oxygen→Carbon Dioxide.
Carbon dioxide + Water→Carbonic Acid.
Q11 One day Reeta went to a jeweller’s shop with her mother. Her mother gave old
gold jewellery to the goldsmith to polish. Next day when they brought the
jewellery back, they found that there was a slight loss in its weight. Can you
suggest a reason for the loss in weight?
Answer: The jeweller dip the jewellery in the solution of acid, which reacted with the outer
covering of metals. Thus there is a net loss of weight in the metal of the ornament.
Q12 Why is phosphorus stored in water?
Answer: Phosphorus is a very reactive non-metal. It catches fire if exposed to air so, in
order to prevent contact of phosphorus with atmospheric oxygen, it is stored in water.
Q13 Why sodium metal is stored in kerosene?
Answer: Sodium metal is very reactive. It reacts vigorously with oxygen and water. A lot
of heat is generated in the reaction. It is therefore, stored in kerosene.
Microorganisms: Friend and Foe
INTRODUCTION:
• Microorganisms are too small and are not visible to the unaided eye.
• They are found in air, soil, water and in the bodies of plants and animals.
• Microorganisms play an important role in our lives. Some of them are beneficial in many ways whereas
some others are harmful and cause diseases. Some microorganisms can fix nitrogen from air into soil
and increase the soil fertility.
Bacteria: These are single-celled organisms with a rigid cell wall. They can only be seen under a
microscope which enlarges images from 100 to 1000 times.
Fungi: These are non-green plants and hence, cannot make their own food. They either live as parasites
(deriving nutrition from host organisms, or grow on the organic matter (such as bread mould).
Algae : These are simple plant- like organisms which are usually aquatic in nature. They contain a cell
wall and chlorophyll and can make their own food by photosynthesis. Algae can be unicellular or
multicellular. Some of the common examples are diatoms, Chlamydomonas, and seaweed.
Protozoa: Protozoa are unicellular are organisms. Some of them live independently while others live as
parasites. Many of the parasitic protozoan cause diseases in plants, domestic animals, and human beings.
Example of some protozoan are Amoeba, Plasmodium and Paramecium
MIND MAPS
Diseases caused by
Microorganisms
(in plants) (in animals) (in human beings)

Bactria: Citrus Bacteria: Anthrax
Canker Virus: Foot andmouth Bacteria: Cholera, Typhoid,
Fungi: Rust of disease inCattle Tuberculosis
Wheat
Virus: Yellow Protozoa: Malaria
Vein Virus: Hepatitis A, chicken
Mosaicof
Bhindi(Okra) pox, Polio, Measles
Fungi: Food poisoning,
Ringworm
EXPLANATION
Microorganisms:
Organisms that are so small that they can only be seen through a microscope are called
microorganisms or microbes.
The study of microorganisms is known as microbiology.
There are four major types of microorganisms:
Viruses:
• Viruses are also microscopic.
• They reproduce only inside the cells of the host organism, which may be a bacterium, plant or animal.
• Viruses can only be seen with an electron microscope.
• A virus is like a nonliving thing outside the body of other organisms. Therefore, it is a borderline
between a living and a nonliving thing.
Types of Viruses
Where do Microorganisms Live?

Microbes can survive in all kinds of environments – from icy cold climates to hot springs (any kind of
temperature); and deserts to marshy lands (any humidity level). Some live independently while others live
as parasites – inside the bodies of other organisms (including animals and human beings).
Microorganisms and Us:

Some of Microorganisms are beneficial in many ways while some others are harmful and cause
diseases.
Friendly Microorganisms:
Microorganisms are used for various purposes.
• Some microorganisms are used in the production of curd, bread and cake.
• Microorganisms have been used for the production of alcohol since ages.
• They are also used in cleaning up of the environment as composers. For example, the organic wastes
(vegetable peels, remains of animals, faeces, etc.) are broken down into harmless and usable substances
by bacteria.
• In agriculture fields, microorganisms are used to increase soil fertility by fixing nitrogen.
Commercial Use of Microorganisms:
• Microorganisms are used for large scale production of alcohol, wine and acetic acid (Vinegar).
• For commercial production of alcohol and wine, yeast is grown on natural sugars present in grains like
barley, wheat, rice, crushed fruit juices, etc.
Medicinal Use of Microorganisms:

• Whenever we fall ill the doctor may give us some antibiotic tablets, capsules or injections like
penicillin. The source of these medicines is microorganisms.
• These medicines produced from Bactria and fungi kill or stop the growth of the disease-causing
microorganisms. Such medicines are called antibiotics.
• Streptomycin, tetracycline and erythromycin are some of the commonly known antibiotics.
• The antibiotics are made by growing specific microorganisms and are used to cure a variety of diseases.
Antibiotics should be taken only on the advice of a qualified doctor.
• Antibiotics are even added with the feed of livestock and poultry for checking microbial infection in
animals.
• Microorganisms are also used to control many plant diseases.
Vaccine:
• When a disease-carrying microbe enters our body, the antibodies produced by our body fight with the
invader. If microbes enter again, the body also remembers that how to fight with the microbes.
• If dead or weakened microbes are introduced in a healthy body, the body fights and kills them by
producing suitable antibodies.
• The antibodies remain in the body for protecting from the disease-causing microbes. This is how a
vaccine works.
• Several diseases like cholera, tuberculosis, smallpox and hepatitis can be prevented by vaccination.
Increasing Soil Fertility:

Some bacteria and blue green algae are able to increase the fertility of soil by fixing nitrogen from the
atmosphere to enrich soil with nitrogen. These microbes are commonly called biological nitrogen fixers.
Cleaning the Environment:

Some microorganisms decompose the organic waste and dead plants and animals into simple substances
and clean up the environment.
Harmful Microorganisms:
Microorganisms are harmful in many ways:
• In human beings, plants and animals, some of the microorganisms cause diseases. Such disease-causing
microorganisms are called pathogens.
• Food, clothing and leather are spoiled due to some harmful microorganisms.
Disease-causing Microorganisms in Humans:
• Pathogens enter our body through the different way like air when we breathe, the water when we drink
or the food when we eat. They can also get transmitted by direct contact with an infected person or
carried through an animal.
• Microbial diseases such as cholera, common cold, chicken pox and tuberculosis that can spread from an
infected person to a healthy person through air, water, food or physical contact are called communicable
diseases.
• There are some insects and animals which act as carriers of disease causing microbes.
For example housefly is one such carrier that sits on the garbage and animal excreta. Pathogens stick to
their bodies. When these flies sit on uncovered food, they transfer the pathogens. Whoever eats the
contaminated food is likely to get sick. So, it is advisable to always keep the food covered. Some more
examples of carrier microbes are the female Anopheles mosquito, which carries the parasite of malaria.
Female Aedes mosquito acts as carrier of dengue virus.
• All mosquitoes breed in water. So, one should not let water collect anywhere like in coolers, tyres,
flower pots etc. By keeping the surroundings clean and dry we can prevent mosquitoes from breeding.
Common Diseases and their Modes of Transmission

Types of diseases
There are two types of diseases:
➢ Communicable
➢ Non Communicable
Communicable Disease
Microbial diseases that can spread from an infected person to a healthy person through air, water, food
or physical contact are called communicable diseases. Examples of such diseases include cholera,
common cold, chicken pox and tuberculosis.
Non-Communicable Disease
The diseases that do not spread through sick to a healthy person are called non – communicable
diseases. We can also say that the non-communicable diseases are those which cannot be transferred
from one person to another person. For example: Lung Cancer or liver damage.
Preventing the spread of Communicable diseases:
Some simple methods of limiting the spread of communicable diseases are:
✓ To keep the infected person separated from others and to advice him/ her to keep a handkerchief on the nose
and mouth while sneezing.
✓ To keep our environment or surrounding clean.
✓ Never let garbage collect in the neighbourhood.
✓ Timely vaccination against diseases.
✓ To prevent mosquitoes from breeding, we should not allow water to collect anywhere in our
neighbourhood.
Diseases Caused by Microorganisms in Animals

Anthrax: A dangerous disease that affects human and cattle caused by a bacterium called Bacillus
Anthracis.
Foot and mouth disease in Cattle: It is caused by a virus called Foot-and-mouth-disease Virus (FMDV).
Diseases Caused by Microorganisms in Plants
Microorganisms can cause diseases in plants and reduce crop yield. Some of the plants in which they
cause diseases are:
The plants can be protected by using chemicals that kill these microbes.
Common Diseases in Plants caused by Microbes
Citrus Canker is caused by Bacteria and spreads through Air.
Rust of Wheat is caused by Fungi and spreads through Air or Seeds.
Yellow Vein Mosaic of Okra (Bhindi) is caused by Virus and spreads through Insects.
Food Poisoning:
Food poisoning in humans could be due to the consumption of food spoilt by some microorganisms.
Microorganisms that grow on our food sometimes produce toxic substances and make the food
poisonous causing serious illness and even death. So, it is very important that we preserve food to
prevent it from being spoilt by the microorganisms.
Food Preservation:
Microorganisms spoil our food. Spoiled food emits bad smell and has a bad taste and changed colour.
Some common methods to preserve food are as follows:
a. Chemical Method:
❖ Preservatives like Salts and edible oils are the common chemicals generally used to check the growth of
microorganisms.
❖ We add salt or acid preservatives to pickles to prevent the attack of microbes. Sodium benzoate and
sodium metabisulphite are common preservatives which are used in the jams and squashes to check
their spoilage.
b. Preservation by Common Salt:
❖ To preserve meat and fish for ages, common salt is used. Meat and fish are covered with dry salt to
check the growth of bacteria. ❖ Salting is also used to preserve amla, raw mangoes, tamarind, etc.
c. Preservation by Sugar:
❖ Sugar is used for preserving jams, jellies and squashes.
❖ It reduces the moisture content which inhibits the growth of bacteria which spoil food.
d. Preservation by Oil and Vinegar:

❖ Oil and vinegar are used to prevent spoilage of pickles because bacteria cannot live in such an
environment. ❖ Vegetables, fruits, fish and meat are often preserved by this method.
e. Heat and Cold Treatments:

❖ Boiling of milk kills many microorganisms, after that it can be stored or used.
❖ We keep our food in the refrigerator. Low temperature inhibits the growth of microbes.
❖ Pasteurized milk can be consumed without boiling as it is free from harmful microbes. The milk is
heated to about 70 0C for 15 to 30 seconds and then suddenly chilled and stored. By doing so, it
prevents the growth of microbes. This process was discovered by Louis Pasteur. It is called
pasteurisation.
f. Storage and Packing:

❖ Dry fruits and even vegetables are sold in sealed air tight packets to prevent the attack of microbes.
Nitrogen Fixation
Nitrogen constitutes 78% of our atmosphere. In living organisms, it is found in:
• Proteins,
• Nucleic Acids, Chlorophyll, and Vitamins.
Atmospheric nitrogen cannot be used directly by the plants and animals. It gets fixed by either lightning
or natural nitrogen fixers.
Nitrogen Cycle
Nitrogen Cycle is a biogeochemical process which transforms the inert nitrogen present
in the atmosphere to a more usable form for living organisms.”
It involves five steps :-

1. Nitrogen fixation
2. Nitrogen assimilation
3. Ammonification
4. Nitrification
5. Denitrification
❖ Bacteria and blue green algae present in the soil fix nitrogen from the atmosphere and then convert it
into compounds of nitrogen.(Nitrogen fixation)
❖ After this, usable compounds can be utilised by plants from the soil through their root system. These
compounds are then used for the synthesis of plant proteins and other compounds. Animals feeding on
plants get these proteins and other nitrogen compounds.(Nitrogen assimilation)
❖ When plants and animals die, bacteria and fungi present in the soil convert their remains into ammonia
(Ammonification).
❖ The process of conversion of ammonia into nitrates that are to be used by plants again is called
Nitrification. Certain other bacteria convert some part of them to nitrogen gas which goes back into the
atmosphere (Denitrification). As a result, the percentage of nitrogen in the atmosphere remains more or
less constant.
QUESTION-ANSWERS
Q1. Fill in the blanks:

(a) Microorganisms can be seen with the help of a microscope.
(b) Blue green algae fix nitrogen directly from air to enhance fertility of soil.
(c) Alcohol is produced with the help of yeast.
(d) Cholera is caused by bacteria.
Q2. Tick the correct answer:

(a) Yeast is used in the production of
(ii) alcohol
(b) The following is an antibiotic
(ii) streptomycin
(c) Carrier of malaria-causing protozoan is
(i) female Anopheles mosquito
(d) The most common carrier of communicable diseases is
(ii) housefly
(e)The bread or idli dough rises because of
(iii) growth of yeast cells
(f) The process of conversion of sugar into alcohol is called
(iii) fermentation
Q3. Match the organisms in Column I with their action in Column II.
Column I Column II
(i) Bacteria (e) Causing cholera
(ii)Rhizobium (a) Fixing nitrogen
(iii) Lactobacillus (b) Setting of curd
(iv)Yeast (c) Baking of bread
(v) A protozoan (d) Causing malaria
(vi) A virus (f) Causing AIDS
Q4. Can microorganisms be seen with the naked eye? If not, how can they be seen?
Micro-organisms are very small in size. They are so small that they cannot be seen with naked
eyes. A microscope has to be used to see these organisms. Therefore, they are called
microorganisms.
Q5: What are the major groups of microorganisms?

There are five major groups of micro-organisms:
(i) Bacteria − They are single celled disease-causing micro-organisms. They can be spiral or rod-
shaped.
(ii) Fungi − They are mostly multicellular disease-causing microbes. Bread moulds are common
examples of fungi.
(iii)Protozoa − They mainly include organisms such as Amoeba, Plasmodium, etc. They can be
unicellular or multicellular.
(iv) Virus −Viruses are disease-causing microbes that reproduce only inside the host organism.
(v) Algae − They include multicellular, photosynthetic organisms such as Spirogyra,
Chlamydomonas, etc.
Q6: Name the microorganisms which can fix atmospheric nitrogen in the soil.
Bacteria such as Rhizobium and certain blue-green algae present in the soil can fix atmospheric
nitrogen and convert it into usable nitrogenous compounds. These nitrogenous compounds can be easily
utilized by plants for the synthesis of plant proteins and other compounds.
Q7: Write 10 lines on the usefulness of microorganisms in our lives.

Micro-organisms are very useful to us. They help us in following ways:-
• Micro-organisms help us in food sector. They are used for curdling of milk, preparation of bread, cake,
etc.
• They are used to produce alcohol at large scale.
• They are also used to produce wine.
• Yeast is used in bakeries.
• They are also used as preservatives for food items.
• They are used to make different medicines, especially the antibiotics.
• Micro-organisms are used to prepare vaccines for various diseases.
• They are useful for agricultural sector, as they enhance the fertility of soil by fixing nitrogen.
• They work as natural cleaners, as they decompose the dead bodies of plants and animals.
• Micro-organisms prepare manures by decomposing dead bodies of plants and animals.
Q8: Write a short paragraph on the harms caused by microorganisms.

Harmful effects of micro-organisms: Micro-organisms cause diseases in animals. For example,
in humans, bacteria cause diseases such as tuberculosis, cholera, typhoid, etc. In cattle, the foot and mouth
disease is caused by a virus. Also, several microbes cause diseases in plants. For example, the productivity
of wheat, orange, apple, etc. is reduced due to microbial diseases in plants. Certain microbes, on entering
into our body, produce toxic substances. This leads to food poisoning. Some micro-organisms such as
fungus spoil our food. For example, bread when left unused under moist conditions gets spoilt by fungus,
producing a white cotton-like growth on the bread.
Q9: What are antibiotics? What precautions must be taken while taking antibiotics?
Antibiotics are medicines produced by certain micro-organisms to kill other disease-causing
micro-organisms. These medicines are commonly obtained from bacteria and fungi. Streptomycin,
tetracycline, penicillin, etc. are common antibiotics.
Precautions to be taken while using antibiotics:
a) Antibiotics should be taken under the supervision of a well qualified doctor.
b) Course (intake) of antibiotics should be completed as per the prescription given by the doctor.
c) Antibiotics should be taken in the right amount and at the right time. A wrong dose of antibiotics makes
the drug ineffective. Also, excessive consumption of drugs may kill the useful bacteria present in our
body.
Pollution of Air and Water
Pollution: Pollution is the introduction of harmful or poisonous substances into environment that
may cause adverse effects.
Now we will discuss the different types of pollution:
1. Air Pollution: It is the contamination of air, which takes place due to unwanted
substances which causes harmful effects on
both biotic and abiotic components.
Smoke From Factories

Smoke From Volcanic Eruptions The things
which are responsible for contamination of air
are called
air pollutants. These pollutants
may result from natural causes like smoke or dust from forest fires or volcanic eruptions and from
man-made causes like burning of fuels, smoke from factories etc. Effects of Air Pollution:
1. Many problems related to respiratory system might be caused due to air pollution.
2. Oxygen carrying capacity of blood reduces because of improper burning of vehicle fuels;
As the vehicles emit high levels of pollutants like carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, nitrogen
oxides and smoke into atmosphere.
Air pollution due to automobiles 3. Smog: It is comprises of smoke and fog. It contains oxides
of nitrogen and causes problems in breathing, cough, etc. Also, there are visibility problems
in affected areas.
Effect of smog
4. Sulphur dioxide resulting from burning of fuels such as coals might result in
respiratory problems.
5. Electronic devices like refrigerators, air conditioners, etc. emit
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs).
CFCs damage the ozone layer present in the atmosphere. And the ozone layer is responsible for
protecting us from harmful ultraviolet rays of the sun.
Depletion of Ozone layer due to CFCs Acid Rain:
Gases like Sulphur and nitrogen react with the water vapour present in the environment to form
sulphuric acid and nitric acid. The acids drop down with rain water, making the rain acidic. This
is called acid rain. Acid rain can be harmful for living beings and also for non-living things. Acid
rain corrodes the outer surface of buildings. This has caused the TajMahal becoming pale. The
Acid rain has corroded the marble of this monument. And this phenomenon is called “Marble
cancer”.
Greenhouse Effect:
It is the trapping of radiations inside the earth’s atmosphere. Along with other gases, CO 2
also gets trapped in the atmosphere which is responsible for Greenhouse Effect.
Because of human activities the amount of CO2 level has increased in the atmosphere which
traps heat and does not allow heat to escape into space. As a result, the average temperature of
the earth’s atmosphere is gradually increasing. This is called global warming.
Effect of Global Warming:

1. Global warming can cause sea levels to rise dramatically. In coastal areas have
already been flooded.
2. Global warming could result in wide ranging effects on rainfall

patterns, agriculture, forests, plants and animals.
Key points to Prevent Air Pollution:
1. Trees take up carbon dioxide and release oxygen. So, planting more number of trees will
reduce the amount of carbon dioxide responsible for Greenhouse Effect.
2. We should use CNG; instead of petrol and diesel in automobiles.
3. Avoid unnecessary usage of vehicles.

4. Try using public transport more.
Public Transportation
5. Location of factories and industries must be in remote areas to avoid problems resulting from
air pollution.
6. Natural resources like solar energy, tidal energy, etc. should be used.
2. Water Pollution:
The addition of undesirable and unwanted material in water which makes water harmful for biotic
and abiotic components is called water pollution.
The things which pollute the water are known as water pollutants. Example includes washing of
clothes, industrial waste from factories, etc.
Potable Water: The water which is convenient for consumption is known as potable water.
How is Water Purified?

Various physical and chemical method in the sewage treatment plants and municipal bodies help
to clean water before discharging it into water bodies and house holds. We can also construct the
a water filter with simple, everyday materials.
1. Take a plastic bottle and cut it into 2 halves at the centre. 2. Use the upper half as a funnel by
putting it upside down in the lower half.
3. Make layers in it with paper napkin or a fine cloth followed by, cotton, sand and then gravel.
4. Now pour dirty water through the filter and observe the filtered water.
Effects of Water Pollution:
1. River Ganga is one of the ten most endangered rivers in the world. Large quantities of garbage,
untreated sewage, dead bodies, and many other harmful things are discharged into the river. All
these have resulted into adverse conditions for the aquatic animals residing in the Ganga.
Effect of Pollution on Ganga

2. The harmful chemicals like arsenic, lead, etc. discharged by various industries have lead
to many bad effects like impure water, acidity changes in water, etc.
3. The usage of pesticides and weedicides in the field gets mixed with water bodies during
rainfall. Indeed, this water seeps into ground and has polluted ground water too.
4. Various diseases like cholera, diarrhea, jaundice, etc. results from water pollution.
5. Bacteria present in the faeces of mammals indicate the quality of water. If such fecal
contaminated water is consumed then it can cause many infections.
Key points to Prevent Water Pollution:
1. Some plans can be implemented for polluted rivers like Ganga Action Plan was launched in
1985 with the aim of reducing pollution levels in river.
2. Industries must treat the waste before discharging them into waters.
3. At household level, candle type filter can be used. Moreover, water must be boiled for
drinking as it kills the germs inside the water.
4. Chemical process like chlorination can be used for treating water.

5. Laws for industrial units should be strictly implemented to stop the throwing of wastes in
water.
6. Proper sewage treatment plan must be implemented.

7. The idea of reduce, reuse and recycle should be incorporated for prevention of water
pollution.
3 R's for Prevention of Water pollution:
Each year, human beings generate millions of tons of wastes in form of garbage, refuse, or trash.
It is the wastage that we produce in our homes and communities.
These wastages are thrown out the water bodies, rivers and make the water contaminated. Each
of us can make a difference by reducing, reusing, and recycling materials at home and
throughout our communities and encouraging our neighbours to do the same.
1. Reduce: Waste prevention reduces the generation of waste in the first place. So we should
not create wastage by reducing the uses of goods.
(i) While brushing your teeth, leaving the tap running may waste several litres of water. A tap
that drips once every second wastes a few thousand litres of water every year. So we should
reduce the water uses for brushing teeth.
(ii) Purchasing durable, long-lasting goods.
(iii) Reduce the use of non biodegradable materials like things made of plastic, disposals,
polythene etc.
2. Reuse: We can reuse the things in our daily routine work so that it will reduce the amount of
wastage.
(i) Reusing water used for washing and for other household tasks. For example,water used for
washing vegetables may be used to water plants in the garden.
(ii) Refill bottles, Reuse boxes.
(iii) Reuse the cotton or jute bag instead of polythene carry bag.
(iv) Use empty jars into containers for leftover food.
3. Recycle: Recycling prevents the
generation of many greenhouse gases and
water pollutants, and saves energy.
(i) Materials made of plastic, paper,
glass and metal should be recycled to
make new items.
(ii) Using recycle material generates less
solid wastage.
We should realise our responsibility and start using environment-friendly processes for survival
of our planet is in danger.
Exercise Questions
1. What are the different ways in which water gets contaminated?
Soln:
The different ways in which the water gets contaminated are:
i) Industrial waste: The harmful chemical wastes gets released by the industries into water
sources .
ii) Sewage waste: kitchen, laundry and toilets release the waste materials and this pollutes
water.
iii) Agricultural chemicals: Excessive amount of pesticides and fertilizers are used by the
farmers for enhancing crop production. Rains and floods carry these harmful chemicals to water
bodies which results in pollute water pollution.
2. At an individual level, how can you help reduce air pollution?
Soln:
The following are the steps we can take for reduction of air pollution:
i) We should avoid the usage of personal cars and opt for public transport as much as possible. ii)
We should properly dispose of the garbage and not burn it. iii) For shorter distances, avoid
vehicles.
iv) We should control the number of emissions from household chimneys and vehicles.
v) We should replace our vehicle fuel, diesel and petrol by LPG and CNG.
3. Clear, transparent water is always fit for drinking. Comment.
Soln:
No, we don’t agree to the statement that clean water is always fit for drinking because water might
appear clean but it may contain some disease-causing microorganisms and several other dissolved
impurities. Hence, we advise purifying the water by boiling or by any purifying system before
drinking it.
4. You are a member of the municipal body of your town. Make a list of measures that
would help your town to ensure the supply of clean water to all its residents.
Soln:
The following are the measures taken by us to ensure the supply of clean water to our town
resident:
a) We clean the area around the water pipes.
b) The main water source has to be built in a clean surrounding and should be maintained
properly.
c) Chemical methods such as chlorination must be used for purifying water.
5. Explain the differences between pure air and polluted air.
Soln:
The composition of pure air contains 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen and 0.03% carbon dioxide.
Besides these, there are some other gases like methane, argon, ozone and water vapors’. The air
is said to be polluted when the composition of air is altered by the addition of harmful substances
or gases such as sulphur dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide and particulate matter.
6. Explain circumstances leading to acid rain. How does acid rain affect us?
Soln:
Sulphur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide are the type of pollutants, which are released into the
atmosphere by the burning of fossil fuels like diesel and coal. These pollutants react with the water
vapours present in the atmosphere to form nitric acid and sulphuric acid respectively. By
precipitation, these acids come down and form the acid rain.
Effects caused by the acid rain: a) It
destroys the crops.
b) Harmful for the building especially to those made of white marble like the TajMahal.
7. Which of the following is not a greenhouse gas?
(a) Carbon dioxide
(b) Sulphur dioxide
(c) Methane
(d) Nitrogen
Soln:
Answer is (d) Nitrogen
8. Describe the ‘Green House Effect’ in your own words. Soln:

The greenhouse effect is the cause of global warming, i.e. overall increase in the temperature of
the Earth. The greenhouse gases cause the greenhouse effect. Examples of greenhouses gases
include methane, CO2 and water vapour. When solar radiation reaches the Earth, some radiations
are absorbed by the Earth and then released back to the atmosphere. Greenhouse gases present
into the atmosphere trap these radiations and do not allow the heat to leave. This helps our planet
in keeping warm and thus helps in human survival. However, an indiscriminate increase in level
of greenhouse gases, it can lead to an excessive increase in the Earth’s temperature leading to
global warming.
9. Prepare a brief speech on global warming. You have to deliver the speech in your class.
Soln:
The increase in the average temperature of the Earth’s surface is known as Global warming. It
occurs due to the increased concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. The greenhouse
gases include methane, CO2, and water vapour. These gases trap the solar radiations released back
by the earth, which results in keeping our planet warm and helps in human survival. However, an
increase in these gases can lead to an increase in the earth temperature resulting in global warming.
10. Describe the threat to the beauty of the TajMahal.
Soln:
The major threat to the TajMahal is the acid rain. When the acid rain falls on the Taj, which is
completely made of marble, they react with marble to form a powder like substance which is then
washed away by the rain. This phenomenon is known as marble cancer. In addition, the soot
particles emitted from the Mathura oil refinery located near Agra is leading to the yellowing of
TajMahal marble.
11. Why does the increased level of nutrients in the water affect the survival of aquatic
organisms?
Soln:
An increase in the level of nutrients in water body leads to an excessive increase in the population
of algae in the water body. When these algae die, they serve as food for decomposers. A lot of
oxygen is utilized in this process, consequently leading to a decrease in the level of oxygen
dissolved in the water body. This in-turn causes fishes and aquatic organisms to die.
REACHING THE AGE OF ADOLESCENCE
Adolescence: Adolescence is that period of life when many changes start taking place in the body; which
results in reproductive maturity. It usually begins at around age of 10 years and is seen till 18 or 19 years
of age.
Adolescents are also called as teenagers as teen age period is also covered up in adolescence.
Teenage: The number of years during adolescence span is counted as ‘teen’, e.g. thirteen, fourteen and
fifteen. Hence, this duration is also termed as teenage.
Puberty: The process of transformations taking place during adolescence period is known as puberty. The
onset of puberty points out the starting of adolescence. And the end of adolescence or puberty informs
about the completion of reproductive maturity.
The Various Changes taking place during puberty
1. IncreaSe in Height:
(i) It is the most visible change noticed during the puberty.
(ii) In the beginning, it is observed that the girls grow faster than boys, but, on reaching 18 years of age,
both gain their maximum height. Also, the rate of growth in height differs individually.
(iii) During these years, it is really significant to eat nutritious food for better development of bones,
muscles and other parts of the body.
2. Change in Body Shape:
(i) During puberty, boys will start having broad shoulders and wider chests while in case of girls the
region below the waist becomes broader.
(ii) Moreover, the muscles of boys will grow more prominently than in the girls.
3. Change in Voice
(i) During puberty, it is being noticed that voice of boys starts cracking and their voice box or larynx
starts to grow.
(ii) Adam’s apple: The increase in the size of voice box in boys is seen as a prominent protrusion in the
neck. This protrusion is called Adam’s apple.
Moreover, girls will usually have a high pitched voice while the boys will have deeper voice.
4. IncreaSed Activity of Sweat and SebaceOUS GlandS:
The Sweat glands present starts operating and produces more sweat. And the Sebaceous glands or oil
glands increased function results in pimples or acne.
5. Development of Sex OrganS:
(i) Growth of sex organs takes place and are found to be more active. In males, the testes start to produce
male gametes, called sperms. And in females, the ovaries start developing and releases one mature
ovum once in 28 days.
(ii) In males, the size of the penis increases with respect to ages. On the other hand, development of
breasts is observed in females.
6. Reaching Mental, IntellectUAl and Emotional MatURITY:
(i) Brain becomes more active and so more learning take place.
(ii) Mental and intellectual maturity is seen. Secondary Sexual Characters:
These are the characters that distinguish a male from a female.
1. In males, growth of hair is seen on face and body. And hair growth is seen in the under the arms
and in the region above the thighs or pubic region in females.
2. Shoulders get broad and chest gets widened in males. The waist gets wide and hips get narrow in
females.
3. The development of breasts takes place in females.
4. Mood swings are seen in males as well as females. Mental and emotional maturity is attained by
both sexes. Brain gets more active and has capability of learning more.
HormoneS:
Hormones are the chemical substances secreted by endocrine glands for proper functioning taking place
during adolescence in the human body.
In males, at the beginning of puberty, the hormone or testosterone begins to get released by the testes. And
this results in some changes in boys like the growth of facial hair, deep voice and hair on chest.
In females, ovaries start to produce the female hormone or estrogen which results in breasts development
on reaching puberty. Also, milk secreting glands or mammary glands development takes place inside the
breasts.
The production of these hormones is under the control of another hormone secreted from an endocrine
gland called pituitary gland. The testes and ovaries secrete sex hormones. These sex hormones are
controlled by the hormones secreted from the pituitary gland. The pituitary secretes many hormones, one
of which makes ova mature in the ovaries and sperms form in the testes.
Humans Reproductive Phase:

The reproductive stage starts with the beginning of puberty and it is observed in boys and girls at near
about same age. But, reproductive phase in males remain much longer in comparison with females. In
women, the reproductive phase starts at puberty (10 to 12 years of age) and lasts till about 50 years of age.
While in males, the reproductive phase lasts even above 60 years of age.
MenStRUAtion:
In females, each month one egg is set free by either of the ovaries. The uterus forms a thickening to support
a foetus to keep it ready in case of pregnancy. If fertilization of egg does not take place, then egg and
thickening in uterus are removed in small parts. As a result, bleeding in the vagina takes place for some
days. This bleeding through vagina at the end of menstrual cycle, is known as menstruation.
The sequence of events starting from the release of an egg and till egg gets removed is called menstrual
cycle. A menstrual cycle normally comprise of 28 to 30 days.
Menarche: It is the first menstrual bleeding in a girl’s life. And it indicates the beginning of puberty in a
girl.
Menopause: It is the ending of menstrual cycle. And it is observed at around 45 – 50 years of age.
Menopause indicates the end of reproductive phase.
HormoneS Other Than Sex HormoneS: Sex hormones are not the only hormones responsible for
changes during adolescence. There are few other hormones that act in the background.
1. Thyroxine: It is released by the thyroid glands and is present in the front part of the neck. In case
of improper secretion of thyroxine, it leads to swelling of the throat, a disease called goitre.
2. InSULin: It is hormone, which is responsible for

controlling the sugar level in our body. And this hormone is
secreted by the pancreas. If insulin is not secreted properly,
then blood sugar level might increase and can result into a
condition called diabetes.
3. Adrenaline: It is released from a pair of adrenal glands at

the top of kidneys. Adrenaline is called as "fight-flight
hormone". It is the hormone of emergency. It also helps in
balancing the salt level in the blood.
Sex Determination
Will it be a Boy or Girl?
Gender of a child is dependent on the combination of chromosomes taking place in the zygote. In human
beings, normally a cell has 46 chromosomes, i.e. 23 pairs of chromosomes. Out of these 46 chromosomes,
22 pairs are identical. But chromosomes in the 23rd pair may be same or different.
There are two kinds of chromosomes in 23rd pair. They are known as X and Y chromosomes. The last
pair (i.e. 23rd) in a male has XY combination, while in case of female it has XX combination.
1. Birth of girl will take place when a sperm with X chromosome fertilizes the egg.
2. Birth of boy will take place when a sperm with Y chromosome fertilizes the egg.
Role of HormoneS in Completing the Life HIStory of InSectS and FrogS:

The life span of insects can be categorized into four stages: Egg, Larva, Pupa and Adult.
MetamorphOSIS: It is the change of insect from larva to an adult.

Hormones in insects control the metamorphosis under the action of thyroxine hormone produced by
thyroid.
Reproductive Health:
1. Balanced Diet: During adolescence there is need of proper balanced diet. Proper amount of
carbohydrates, protein, fat, vitamins and minerals must be included in food.
2. PeRSONal Hygiene: Many physical and psychological changes are observed during adolescence. If
good hygiene is not undertaken, it may result into skin diseases. And Girls need special attention
during menstrual period.
3. PhySical ExeRCISe: Physical exercise not only helps in making a strong body but also helps in
proper energy utilization.
4. Say ‘NO’ to DRUGS: During teen age, anyone might get affected by the negative energies
surrounding him. At such times, falling for drugs can ruin your life.
5. HIV (HUMan ImmUNodeficiency VIRUS): AIDS (Acquired
Immunodeficiency Disease) is caused due to this virus. It is incurable disease as yet no medicine can
cure it. It might spread due to sexual contact, because of infected needles and from an infected mother
to her unborn child. . Hence, prevention is the only way to keep away from this dangerous disease.
Reaching the Age of Adolescence
Question 1: What is the term used for secretions of endocrine glands responsible for changes
taking place in the body?
Ans: Hormones are chemical substances which are secreted by endocrine glands. They are responsible for
changes taking place in the body.
Question 2:Define adolescence.

Ans: Adolescence is the time period between the beginning of puberty and adulthood. During this period,
the body undergoes several changes alongside reproductive maturity. It begins around the age of
11 and lasts till 18 or 19 years of age. The period of adolescence may vary from person to person.
Question 3:What is menstruation? Explain.

Ans: Menstruation is the process of the shedding of the uterine lining on a regular monthly basis. It begins
at puberty and is the reproductive cycle of the female body. Every month, the uterus prepares itself
to receive a fertilized egg. Therefore, the inner lining of the uterus becomes thick and is supplied
with blood to nourish the embryo. If the egg is not fertilized, then the lining of the uterus breaks
down and gets released in the form of blood through the vagina. This lasts for about two to eight
days. This cycle occurs every month and is known as the menstrual cycle.
Question 4: List changes in the body that take place at puberty.

Ans: Changes at puberty: (i) Sudden increase in height and weight. (ii) Broadening of shoulders and
widening of chest in boys. In girls, the region below waist becomes wider.(iii)In boys, under the
influence of hormones, the larynx becomes prominent, the vocal cords become longer and thicker.
These changes cause the voice to become hoarse.(iv) Appearance of hair in areas such as
underarms, face, hands, and legs.(v) Appearance of acne as a result of excessive secretion of oil
from skin.(iv)Testis grows and starts producing sperms in males, whereas in females, the ovary
enlarges and starts producing matured eggs.
Question 5: Prepare a table having two columns depicting names of endocrine glands and
hormones secreted by them.
Endocrine gland Hormones
Testis Testosterone
Ovary Oestrogen
Thyroid Thyroxin
Adrenal Adrenalin
Pancreas Insulin
Pituitary Growth hormone
Question 6: What are sex hormones? Why are they named so? State their function.
Ans: Sex hormones are chemical substances produced by sex organs. For example, testosterone is the male
sex hormone produced by the testis, and oestrogen is the female sex hormone produced by the
ovary. These hormones affect the sexual features of an organism. Hence, they are known as sex
hormones.
Functions of sex hormones:
Testosterone: This hormone brings about secondary sex characters in boys such as the growth of a beard,
the voice becoming hoarse, development of reproductive organs, etc.
Oestrogen: This hormone is responsible for the development of secondary sexual characters in females
such as the enlargement of breasts, development of female reproductive organs, etc.
Question 7: Choose the correct option.
(a) Adolescents should be careful about what they eat, because (i)
proper diet develops their brains.
(ii) proper diet is needed for the rapid growth taking place in their body.
(iii) adolescents feel hungry all the time.

(iv) taste buds are well developed in teenagers.
(b) Reproductive age in women starts when their (i) menstruation

starts.
(ii) breasts start developing.
(iii) body weight increases.
(iv) height increases.

(c) The right meal for adolescents consists of (i) chips, noodles,
coke.
(ii) chapatti, dal, vegetables.
(iii) rice, noodles and burger.

(iv) vegetable cutlets, chips and lemon drink.
Ans:
(a) (ii) Adolescents should be careful about what they eat, because proper diet is needed for the rapid
growth taking place in their body.
(b) (i) Reproductive age in women starts when their menstruation starts.
(c) (ii) The right meal for adolescents consists of chapatti, dal, vegetables.
Question 8: Write notes on − (a) Adam’s

apple.
(b) Secondary sexual characters.

(c) Sex determination in the unborn baby.
Ans: (a) Adam’s apple:
In human males, the larynx grows larger during puberty and can be seen as a protruding part of the throat.
This protrusion is known as the Adam’s apple. In boys, under the influence of sex hormones, the larynx
becomes prominent. As a result, the vocal cords become longer and thicker, causing the voice to become
hoarse. However, in females, the larynx is of a small size and is hardly visible. Therefore, girls have a
high pitched voice, while the voice of boys is low pitched.
(b) Secondary sexual characters are those features that help in distinguishing the male and the
female body from each other. They are physical or behavioural characteristics that appear in humans at
the time of puberty.
Secondary sexual characters in boys:
(i) Appearance of moustache and beard.
(ii) Appearance of chest hair.

(iii) Growth of hair in genital area and other parts of the skin. Secondary sexual character in girls:
(i) Increase in breast size and darkening of the skin of nipples present at the tip of the breasts.
(ii) Growth of hair in genital area and other body parts.
(c) Sex determination in an unborn baby:

The sex of a baby is determined by the type of male gamete that fuses with the female gamete.
All human beings have 23 pairs of chromosomes in their nuclei. Out of these 23 pairs, the last pair is
known as the sex chromosome.
The human males have 23 pairs of chromosomes including XY sex chromosomes. Therefore, the male
gamete has 22 chromosomes and either an X or Y sex chromosome.
Male gametes can be of two types: 22+X or 22+Y
Females have 23 pairs of chromosomes including XX sex chromosomes. Therefore, their gametes can
only have 22 chromosomes and one X sex chromosome.
Type of female gametes: 22+X
Thus, as the mother provides only X chromosome, the sex of the baby is determined by the type of male
gamete (X or Y) that fuses with the X chromosome of the female.
Question 10: The table below shows the data on likely heights of boys and girls as they grow in age.
Draw graphs showing height and age for both boys and girls on the same graph paper. What
conclusions can be drawn from these graphs?
Age
(Years) Height (cm)
Boys Girls
0 53 53
4 96 92
8 114 110
12 129 133
16 150 150
20 173 165
Ans: The graph depicts the relation between the age and height of both boys and girls. During puberty,
there is a sudden increase in height of both boys and girls. On the basis of the above graph, it can
be observed that during the age of 4-8 years, girls have less height as compared to boys. However,
as soon as girls reach 12-13 years, their height shows a sudden increase and becomes more than
boys. In later years, growth in both sexes becomes stable. Growth during puberty is under the
control of hormones.
Reproduction in Animals
Introduction to Reproduction
• Reproduction is the process of giving rise to an offspring.

• Reproduction is essential for the continuation of a species. There are two
modes of reproduction:
1. Sexual reproduction and

2. Asexual reproduction
Asexual reproduction
The type of reproduction in which only a single parent is involved is called asexual reproduction.
• There is no mixing of genetic information.

• Eg: buds in Hydra
Sexual reproduction
The type of reproduction, which involves two parents to give rise to an offspring is called as sexual
reproduction.
• The males and females have different reproductive parts or organs.

• These organs produce the male and female gametes, which fuse together to form the offspring.
• Genetic information from both parents is inherited.
• Eg: humans
Asexual Reproduction in Animals

This type of reproduction involves only one parent. It takes place in microscopic animals like Amoeba
and small animals like the hydra.
Budding in Hydra
• Just like yeast, reproduction in hydra takes place through the process called Budding.
• The Hydra possesses different bulges on itself called Buds.
• These buds develop into individual Hydra. Each Hydra can possess a different number of buds.
Figure 8: Budding in Hydra
Binary Fission in Amoeba

• The Amoeba divides itself into two individuals and the reproduction takes place in this way. It is
called Binary Fission.
• Amoeba consists of only one cell.
• As it reproduces the nucleus of the Amoeba divides itself and forms two different nuclei.
• Then the division of the body of the Amoeba takes place and each part receives one nucleus.
• In this way, two Amoebas are produced from a single parent.
Figure 9: Binary fission in Amoeba

Fragmentation and Regeneration
In some organisms, the parent organism divides itself into different fragments where each fragment then
regenerates and develops into a new organism. This type of asexual reproduction takes place in Planaria
and Starfish. Although, starfishes are capable of sexual reproduction as well but many times they also
reproduce asexually with the process of fragmentation.
Figure 11: Fragmentation and Regeneration in Planaria
Sexual Reproduction in Humans

Sexual reproduction requires the involvement of two individuals, typically one male and one female.
Human reproduction is a common example of sexual reproduction. Both male and female have special
reproductive organs for this purpose known as male reproductive organs and female reproductive
organs respectively. Special cells called gametes are produced by reproductive organs. The male
gametes are called Sperms and female gametes are called Eggs.
Male Reproductive System

The male reproductive system provides the sperm (male gametes) for fertilization. The male reproductive
organs include the following:
Penis
It is a cylinder-shaped organ containing a small opening at its top. It secretes semen which contains the
male gametes or sperms.
Scrotum
It is a sac-like structure present behind the penis. The testicles or testes are present in this organ. It
provides them the right temperature so that they can produce sperms.
Figure 1: Male reproductive organs
Testes
Most males have a pair of testis (testes) or testicles. The testes consist of coiled tube-like structures that
produce sperms. The testes also generate the male sex hormone or the testosterone that causes puberty in
males.
Urethra
It is a tube-like structure that allows the flow of semen that contains sperms outside the body. The urethra
and penis both are also a part of the male urinary system.
Vas Deferens
It is a tube that carries the sperms from the testicles to the urethra.
Prostate Gland
It a gland located under the urinary bladder. It secretes prostate fluid which makes the one third content
of semen. This fluid contains some enzymes, zinc and citric acid.
Seminal Vesicles
They have a pouch-like structure. They are located above the prostate gland and connect with the vas
deferens. They also secrete a fluid that provides nourishment to the sperms.
Male Sex Hormone or Testosterone

The testes produce testosterone and the pituitary gland controls how much testosterone will be produced.
This hormone is responsible for the development of male sex organs and development of secondary
sexual characters in males during puberty such as deepening of voice and growth of facial and body hair.
The Sperm Cell
Figure 2: Sperm Cell
The testes secrete millions of sperm cells together. A sperm comprises of a single cell and has a specific
structure with three main parts as given below:
Head: It consists of the nucleus which contains the DNA information of the cell. Middle Part: It is
packed with cell organelles called Mitochondria. The mitochondria are responsible for producing energy
in the cell. Hence, sperm uses this energy to move. Tail: It allows the sperm cell to travel at a fast pace.
Female Reproductive System
Figure 3: Female Reproductive Organs

The female reproductive system provides the eggs (female gametes) for fertilization. The female
reproductive organs are:
1. Ovaries
The female reproductive system comprises of a pair of ovaries. These are the main female sex organs and
are responsible for the production of female gametes called Eggs or Ova (ovum – singular) and female
hormones. The ova or female eggs also consist of a single cell.
Estrogen and Progesterone
These are hormones or chemical substances produced by the ovaries. These hormones are responsible for
the development of the female reproductive organs and the secondary sexual characteristics in women
such as development of breasts and body hair.
Figure 4: Ovum or Female Egg
2. Oviduct or Fallopian Tubes

These are two funnel-shaped structures that extent from the superior right and left corners of the uterus
to the edge of the ovaries. The ovaries release one egg every month into the oviducts. The oviducts consist
of cilia that carry the ovum from the oviduct to uterus.
3. Uterus
It is an inverted pear-shaped organ that allows the development of the fertilized egg into a human baby.
The uterus connects with an opening called Cervix that connects it to the vagina. 4. Vagina
It is a muscular tube-like structure that connects with the cervix. It acts as the receptor of the penis and
allows the movement of sperms to the fallopian tubes and uterus. It also allows delivery of the foetus
during the birth of the child.
Fertilization
• Firstly, reproduction in animals begins when the sperm fuses with an ovum. This process is called
Fertilization.
• The nuclei of the sperm and egg combine together and form a single nucleus.
• As a result, the zygote is formed.
• Since the zygote is formed with the fusion of male and female gametes the new individual possesses
the characteristics of both the parents.
Figure 4: Fertilization and Zygote
Fertilization can be of two types:

Internal fertilization External fertilization
The fertilization process takes place inside The fertilization process takes place outside the female body
the body of the females.
Less number of eggs are produced by such A large number of eggs are produced by females as there are
high chances of the such females as the chances of survival of survival of the offspring. the offspring are
very low.
For Example, Aquatic animals like fishes

For Example, Cows, Human beings and and amphibians like frogs undergo external hens undergo internal
fertilization. fertilization.
Based on the way how the organisms give birth to their offspring, they are classified into two
categories:
Viviparous Oviparous
These are the organisms that give birth to their young These are the organisms that reproduce
ones directly. by laying eggs.
For Example, Fishes, Reptiles

For Example, Human beings, Dogs, Cattle, Cats
Amphibians
Development of the Embryo

• The zygote formed after the fertilization process divides itself in a repeated manner and forms a ball
of cells. This process is called Cell division.
• These cells then form different groups and each group then starts developing into different tissues and
organs. This process is called Cell differentiation or Cell maturation and this developing structure
is called an Embryo.
• The embryo embeds itself into the uterus wall by Placenta and continues to develop and grow. This
is called Implantation.
• Soon the body parts such as hands, legs, feet, eyes and ears start developing.
• The embryo whose parts can be identified individually is called a Foetus. The foetus then
completely develops and takes birth as a baby.
The period between fertilization and the birth of the baby is called Gestation. The women expecting the
baby is termed as pregnant. The gestation period is normally 40 weeks or around 9 months.
How is an embryo different from a zygote?
Zygote Embryo
A zygote consists of a single cell. An embryo consists of more than one cell.
It is formed as the fertilization process occurs. It is formed after the fertilization process.
It has no well-defined organs or tissues. The body parts and tissues are well defined in an embryo.
External Fertilization in Frogs and Toads

• The frogs and toads reproduce by laying eggs in a slow stream or ponds.
• The female frogs first lay hundreds of eggs together in the water.
• These eggs are not covered with any hard shell instead there is a jelly-like substance that guards them
all and holds them together.
• As the female frogs lay their eggs, the male frogs deposit the sperms over them.
• This results in external fertilization when the sperms come in contact with the eggs in the water.
• Though the eggs are large in numbers only a few of them manage to survive.
• There are several factors which may hinder the fertilization process such as exposing to water
movement, rainfall, winds and other animals.
Internal Fertilization in Hens
• Hens reproduce by laying eggs.
• After the formation of the zygote, it keeps on dividing itself and then travels through the oviduct.
• In this process, different layers are formed over the egg that then turns into a hard shell or covering
of the egg.
• When this hard shell is formed the hen lays the egg.
• Then it takes almost 3 weeks for the embryo to develop into a chick.
• In this time period, the hen often sits over the egg to provide it with warmth.
Turning into adults from young ones

• As individuals are born they continue to grow until they turn into adults.
• The young ones may or may not look like the same when they become adults. For instance, in the
case of frogs and silkworms, the adults and young ones are completely different.
Figure 6: Life cycle of a frog What is

metamorphosis?
• The process in which the young ones undergo drastic changes as they develop into an adult is called
Metamorphosis.
• Human beings do not undergo metamorphosis. This is because their body parts remain the same from
the childhood to adulthood.
Figure 7: Metamorphosis in Silk moth Cloning

Cloning is the production of an exact copy of a cell, any other living part or a complete organism. For
example, production of Dolly Sheep by Ian Wilmutand his colleagues in Edinburgh, Scotland. Cloning
is an artificial method invented by man to produce organisms without sexual or asexual reproduction.
Chapter 9 Exercise Questions
1. Explain the importance of reproduction in organisms. Importance of reproduction in organisms

are as follows
• Reproduction is termed to be a biological process in which organisms give birth to their off
springs.
• It helps in maintaining the continuity of a particular race and helps in increasing the population of
the species.
• Reproduction is meant for the survival of all living things.
2. Describe the process of fertilisation in human beings.
• Fertilization is defined as the process in which there is a fusion of male gamete and female gamete.
• The male gametes or sperms are released from the male reproductive organ called the penis
• The sperms released to enter the female body through the vagina.
• From the vagina, sperms travel through the fallopian tubes where they meet the eggs.
• From there on, the process of fertilization takes place in the fallopian tube.
• The male gamete cell (sperm) and female gamete cell (egg) fuse together to form a zygote.
• The zygote divides rapidly to form a group of cells called morula, which becomes the embryo
after approximately five days. The foetus is present for about eight weeks after the fertilization.
3. Choose the most appropriate answer.
(a) Internal fertilisation occurs (i) in
female body.
(ii) outside female body.
(iii) in male body.
(iv) outside male body.
(b) A tadpole develops into an adult frog by the process of
(i) fertilisation
(ii) metamorphosis
(iii) embedding
(iv) budding
(c) The number of nuclei present in a zygote is
(i) none
(ii) one
(iii) two (iv) four
a) (i) in female body.
b) (ii) metamorphosis
c) (iii) two
4. Indicate whether the following statements are True (T) or False (F).
(a) Oviparous animals give birth to young ones. ( )
(b) Each sperm is a single cell. ( )
(c) External fertilisation takes place in frog. ( )
(d) A new human individual develops from a cell called gamete. ( )
(e) Egg laid after fertilisation is made up of a single cell. ( )
(f) Amoeba reproduces by budding. ( )
(g) Fertilisation is necessary even in asexual reproduction. ( )
(h) Binary fission is a method of asexual reproduction. ( )
(i) A zygote is formed as a result of fertilisation. ( ) (j) An embryo is made up of a single cell. (
) a) False
b) True
c) True
d) False
e) True
f) False
g) False
h) True
i) True
j) False
5. Give two differences between a zygote and a foetus.
Zygote:
• It is the earliest stage of development

• It is formed by the fusion of male and female gametes It is a single cell
• The zygote divides several times to form an embryo
• The zygote normally lasts a week and then develop into its next stage.
Foetus
• It is the last developmental stage of an organism

• The stage of the embryo that shows all the main recognizable body parts of a mature organism.
• The foetus stage occurs after the embryo stage.
• Foetus mainly undergoes internal development.
6. Define asexual reproduction. Describe two methods of asexual reproduction in animals.
In this type of reproduction, the offspring arises from a single organism without the fusion of male and
female gametes. It never changes the number of chromosomes.
Binary fission in amoeba
• It is a kind of asexual reproduction in which one cell divides into two halves.
• It is a unicellular organism that has a cell membrane, cell wall and cytoplasm.
• The division of the cell can take place on any plane.
• In this process, the nucleus of the amoeba first divides to form two daughter nuclei by the process
called Karyokinesis.
• Finally, the division of the body into two halves having a nucleus respectively takes place.
Budding in hydra
• Organisms such as hydra, use regenerative cells for reproduction in the process of budding.
• The first step is the formation of buds, and it develops as a small outgrowth on the parent’s body.
• As the bud enlarges, it receives the characteristics of the parent organism.
• Once it is developed, it may be detached from the parent body and develop into a new individual.
• In some rare cases, the buds may not be detached forming interconnected buds. There are also
methods like fragmentation, multiple fission etc.
7. In which female reproductive organ does the embryo get embedded?
• In the female reproductive organ, the embryo gets attached to the uterus.
• Once it gets attached, there occurs the formation of body parts like legs, hands, eyes etc.
• The embryo is then called a foetus.
8. What is metamorphosis? Give examples.
• It is defined as the process in which an animal’s body structure abruptly changes through cell
growth and differentiation.
• It is a biological process.
• Examples of this kind are frog and insects. The life cycle of a frog:
The tadpole emerging from the egg will have gills, tail etc.
They can swim easily in water.
It undergoes abrupt changes and develops into a mature frog.
9. Differentiate between internal fertilisation and external fertilisation.

Fertilization, in general, is defined as the fusion of a male and a female gamete.
Internal fertilization
It occurs inside the female body.
There are high chances of survival of the offspring.
Internal fertilization protects the fertilized egg or embryo from harsh environments.
Examples are cow, humans, dogs, monkeys etc.
External fertilization
It occurs outside the female body. There are low chances of survival of the offspring.
Most aquatic animals use this type of fertilization and the advantage of external fertilization is that it
produces a large number of offspring due to external hazards. qExamples are fish, frog, organisms etc.
10. Complete the crossword puzzle using the hints given below.
Across
1. The process of the fusion of the gametes.
6. The type of fertilisation in hen.

7. The term used for bulges observed on the sides of the body of hydra.
8. Eggs are produced here.
Down
2. Sperms are produced in these male reproductive organs.

3. Another term for in vitro fertilisation.
4. These animals lay eggs.
5. A type of fission in amoeba
Across
1) Fertilization
6) Internal
7) Buds
8) Ovary
Down
2) Testis
3) Zygote
4) Oviparous
5) Binary
Some Natural Phenomena
• A Natural Phenomenon is anything that occurs on its own in nature without any kind of
human intervention.
• For example, the weather of a place, fog, storms, winds, tides, volcanic eruptions and
cyclones all can be categorized as natural phenomena.
• Some natural phenomena can be destructive such as cyclones, thunderstorms, lightning

and earthquakes.
• However, there are some ways with which we can protect and prepare ourselves from
these natural disasters.
Lightning
• Lightning is an electric discharge or an electric spark that occurs in nature on a major
scale. It is caused by the accumulation of charges in the clouds.
• It can be deadly and cause the destruction of life and property.
• In ancient times people were unaware of the cause of lightning and hence they were
scared of it. Nowadays, scientists have evolved some precautions that can help us
prepare and protect ourselves from this natural phenomenon.
The sparks that Greeks knew about

• The Greeks were already aware of the electric charges from 600 BC. They knew that
when Amber (a type of resin or synthetic polymer) and fur are rubbed together, then
amber can attract light objects like hair.
• Similarly, woollen clothes or polyester clothes also attract hair and can produce a little
spark or crackling sound when they are taken off from the body. This is because of
electric charges.
• Benjamin Franklin was an American scientist who in 1752 discovered and proved that
lightning and spark produced from these clothes are all same things.
What are electric charges?
Figure 3 Electric Charges

• We know that every atom comprises of subatomic particles such as electrons, protons
and neutrons.
• All these particles share a common property that they carry electric charges.
• Electrons have a negative charge on them while protons have a positive charge.
• We know that atoms carry a balanced charge however these charges may sometimes
become out of order.
• An object will be called electrically neutral if it is carrying a balanced proportion of

positive and negative charges.
• An object is called a charged object if there is an imbalance of electrons and protons in

it.
Charging by rubbing
• When we rub two objects with each other they get charged due to a transfer of electrons
between them.
• For example, if we rub a rubber balloon with animal fur, the balloon is made up of rubber
attracts the electrons from the animal fur.
• This results in rubber having an excess of electrons while fur having a shortage of
electrons.
• In the same way, if we rub a plastic comb with dry hair the comb acquires some charge.
Types of charges and their interaction
Figure 4 Charged objects
• We know that charged objects may have a shortage or excess of electrons.
• Objects having an excess of electrons are called negatively charged while an object
having a shortage of electrons are called positively charged.
• For instance, when a glass rod is rubbed with silk cloth it becomes positively charged
while the silk cloth becomes negatively charged.
• These charged objects are now capable of attracting other charged and uncharged
objects.
• Objects having the same kind of charges repel each other while objects with different
kind of charges attract each other.
Figure 5 Interaction between Charges What

is an electrostatic force?
The force of attraction or repulsion experienced by charged objects is called electrostatic
force.
Figure 6 Electrostatic Force What

is a static electric charge?
Static charge or static electricity is an electric charge which does not move. Static charges
are a result when two objects are rubbed with each other. When two surfaces come in
contact with each other repeatedly it results in the transfer of electrons from one material
to another. The strength of an electric charge depends upon different factors such as:
1. The temperature and humidity
2. Properties of the surface such as its material
In opposite to static charge, there is an electric current. The electric current results when
the charges flow or move from one point to another. This electric current results in glowing
of bulb or working of all the electrical appliances.
of charges
Charges can transfer from one object to another with the help of conduction and induction:
• Conduction: when a charged object comes in contact with a conductor it results in the
transfer of charges through the conductor.
• Induction: When a charged object is brought near a neutral object, it results in shifting
in the position of the electrons in the other object.
• The process of induction does not involve any physical contact between the charged
and uncharged object while the process of conduction requires a physical contact
between them.
How the transfer of electric charges leads to conservation of charge?

The net charge on a neutral object is zero. However, when an object receives some
electrons from another object, the net negative charge on the first object is equal to the net
positive charge of the second object. In this way, charges are conserved during transfer of
charges.
Figure 11 (a) Amber and Cloth both have net zero charge (b) Amber
and Cloth are rubbed together (C) Amber and Cloth together have net
zero
charge What
is an electroscope?
It is a device which can test if an object is charged or not. Abraham Bennet developed a
gold leaf electroscope in 1787.
Structure of an electroscope
• Generally, gold and silver are used to construct an electroscope because they are good
conductors of electricity. Otherwise, copper and aluminium can also be used.
• It consists of a glass jar having a vertical brass rod.
• The rod is inserted into the jar through the cork.
• The brass rod has a brass disc or horizontal rod attached to it.
• From the other end, two leaves of gold are suspended.
Figure 12 Electroscope
Working of an electroscope
When a charged object touches the brass disc, electric charges get transferred from the
brass rod to the gold leaves. As a result, the gold leaves move away from each other
depicting the presence of charges.
Figure 13 Working of an electroscope
Discharging and Earthing

• When a charged object loses its charges it is said to be discharged.
• When a charged object transfers its charges to the earth it is called earthing. Generally,
every building is provided with earthing to protect it from electrical shocks due to leakage
of electric current.
Figure 14 How Earthing Protects us form Shock
Figure 15 How Can we get a Shock Without

Earthing
Story of Lightning
Figure 16 Lightning
1. During a thunderstorm, the hot air moves upwards while the raindrops fall downloads.
2. This leads to a separation of charges in the atmosphere.
3. As a result, negative charges get accumulated in the lower ages of the clouds while positive
charges accumulate at the upper edges.
4. The ground is accumulated with a positive charge all over.
5. These charges begin to multiply due to the increase in winds and rainfall.
6. Although the air is a poor conductor of electricity due to heavy charges it is unable to restrict
the electric flow after some time.
7. The negative charges and positive charges meet which results in the production of electric
sparks in the form of a streak of light accompanied by a sound.
8. The streak is called lightning and the whole phenomenon is called electric discharge. This
electric discharge can occur between two or more clouds.
Why does lightning strikes tall buildings easily?

We know that lightning occurs as a streak of charges that fall toward the ground. Tall
buildings and tall trees can easily conduct the charge towards the ground. The air gap
between these buildings and lightning is short hence they are more susceptible to lightning.
That does not mean that short objects would not be affected by lightning.
Lightning safety
One should not stay at an open place during lightning and thunderstorm. Hence as soon as
we hear any alert about lightning or thunderstorm, we should rush to a safe place such as
a house or a building. If somebody is there in a car or bus, they should stay inside and keep
all the doors and windows closed. One should read inside the safe place until the storm
lasts.
Do's and don'ts for lightning safety

Outdoor Safety
1. One should not stay in an open place such as an open vehicle like a motorbike, tractor, or
open fields, elevated places, or tall trees.
2. One should not carry an umbrella during the storm.
3. If a person is around a forest they should hide under short trees.
4. One should not get near to any poles on metal objects.
5. One should squat low on the ground instead of laying down.
Figure 17 Lightning Safety

Indoor Safety
1. Lightning is an electric discharge hence one should stay away from electrical wires
telephone, cables and metal pipes during a thunderstorm.
2. One may use a cordless phone or a mobile phone in an emergency.
3. One should not come in contact with the running water hence one should avoid bathing.
4. One should unplug all the electrical appliances in the house, for example TV, computers or
music systems. Electrical lights do not cause any harm and hence can be kept on.
Figure 18 Lightning Safety Using

a lightning conductor
• In order to protect buildings from lightning, a lightning conductor device is used.
• When the building is being constructed a metallic rod having height more than the
building is placed in the walls of the building.
• One end of the rod is in the air while the other end is buried inside the Earth.
• This rod is a conductor and hence during lightning it allows the flow of electric charges
to the ground.
Figure 19 Lightning Conductor Working
of a lightning conductor
• The lightning conductor rod consists of pointed ends which are made up of copper wire.
• These copper wires are brought down along the building and are attached to a metallic
plate in the ground.
• If lightning hits the building the copper wires carry these charges quickly to the ground.
Earthquakes
• Some natural phenomena such as thunderstorms and cyclones can be predicted by
meteorologists. However, there are certain natural phenomena that are uncertain and
cannot be predicted accurately. One of them is an earthquake.
• Earthquake is a natural phenomenon that occurs as shaking or trembling of the Earth's

surface.
• It occurs or lasts for a very short span of time.
• The main cause of earthquake is disturbances inside the crust of the earth.
• Deep inside the earth, earthquakes occur all the time however they are not noticeable
on the earth’s surface. Sometimes major earthquakes occur on the earth surface which
can be destructive.
• Earthquakes can lead to:
o Loss of life
o Loss of property such as buildings, dams and bridges o Floods
o Landslides o Tsunamis
Figure 20 Destruction due to Earthquake

Cause of an earthquake
Earth’s surface is divided into several layers the crust, mantle, inner core and outer core.
Figure 21 Layers of Earth Surface
The outermost layer of the Earth is divided into several plates. These plates are always
moving.
As they move past each other or collide, disturbances are caused in the earth's crust. These
disturbances are called earthquakes or tremors.
Figure 22 Plates on Earth's Surface
Figure 23 Movement of India's Earth Plates

Other causes of an earthquake can be:
1. Volcanic eruptions
2. When a meteor hits the Earth surface
3. The nuclear explosion under the Earth surface
Although the causes of an earthquake are clear the scientists cannot predict when the
earthquake would occur.
What are seismic zones?

The movement of plates causes an earthquake. Hence the earthquakes are most likely to
occur on their boundaries. The areas that lie on the boundaries of these plates are called
weak zones, seismic zones or fault zones.
Figure 24 Seismic Zones in India
What is the Richter scale?

• A scale which is used to determine the magnitude or strength of an earthquake is called
the Richter scale.
• Destructive earthquakes have a Richter scale magnitude of more than 7.
• A Richter scale is not a linear scale, that is, a magnitude of Richter scale 6 does not
imply that it is one and a half times more destructive than an earthquake with a
magnitude of 4.
• It rather means that an earthquake of a magnitude of 6 is 100 times more powerful than
an earthquake with a magnitude of 4.
Figure 25 Richter Scale and its
interpretation What are seismic waves?
The earthquakes produce waves on the earth surface which are called seismic waves.
These waves travel in all the directions on the Earth's surface.
What is Focus of an earthquake?

The focus of an earthquake is a point inside the earth’s surface where the earthquake
originates. It is also called hypocenter.
What is an Epicentre?
The epicentre is a region on the earth’s surface that lies just above the focus of the
earthquake is called epicentre. The earthquake does not originate from the epicentre.
Figure 26 Map of Earthquake

What is a seismograph?
• A seismograph is an instrument which can record the seismic waves.
• It contains a metal rod or a pendulum which can vibrate as the earthquake occurs.
• The metal rod is attached to a pen which records the waves on the paper.
• Scientists study these waves and then construct a map of the earthquake.
• This also helps them in determining the power of the earthquake.
Figure 27 Seismograph
Protection against an Earthquake

The buildings located in the seismic zones should be constructed in a way that they can
handle major tremors. The following measures should be taken by people to make the
houses of buildings quake-safe:
• People should always consult architects and engineers before constructing a new
building.
• The roofs of the building should be kept light.
• Timber or mud should be used in the construction of buildings rather than heavy
materials. The shelf and cupboard should be fixed to the walls so that they do not
fall off easily.
• Things such as photo frames, geysers, clocks and other wall hangings should be placed
in a place that does not harm anybody if they fall off.
• Buildings should have firefighting equipment as earthquakes may cause fires.

Figure 28 How buildings can be made Quake-
Safe How can people protect themselves from an earthquake?
Indoors safety measures
1. One should hide under a table until the earthquake stops.
2. One should not stay close to heavy and tall objects.
3. If one is in bed they should cover their head with a pillow instead of getting up.
Outdoor safety measures
1. One should find a place which has no tall buildings around or even trees.
2. If a person is inside a car or a bus they should drive slowly to a clear place and be inside
until the earthquake stops.
Figure 29 Protection against an Earthquake
TEXTBOOK QUESTIONS
Question 1: Which of the following cannot be charged easily by friction? (a) A plastic scale
(b) A copper rod
(c) An inflated balloon
(d) A woollen cloth
Ans: (b) A copper rod

Only non-conducting materials can be easily charged by friction. Copper is a highly conducting
materials. Therefore, a copper rod cannot be charged easily by friction.
Question 2: When a glass rod is rubbed with a piece of silk cloth the rod (a) and the cloth
both acquire positive charge.
(b) becomes positively charged while the cloth has a negative charge. (c) and the cloth
both acquire negative charge.
(d) becomes negatively charged while the cloth has a positive charge.
Ans: (b) The rod becomes positively charged, while the cloth has a negative charge.
When an object is charged by rubbing it against another object, the two objects get
oppositely charged. By convention, it is considered that the charged acquired by the glass rod is
positive and charged acquired by the cloth is negative. Therefore, the rod becomes positively
charged and the cloth becomes negatively charged.
Question 3: Write T against true and F against false in the following statements.
(a) False, Like charges repel each other. It is the unlike charges that attract each other.
(b) True, A charged glass rod has positive charges on its surface while a charged plastic straw
has negative charges on its surface. Since unlike charges attract each other, a charged glass rod
attracts a charged plastic straw.
(c) False, During a lightning, the lightning conductor conducts all the atmospheric charges to
the Earth directly, leaving the building safe. Hence, lightning conductors protect a building from
lightning.
(d) False, Although the causes of earthquakes is known, but no instrument could be invented
to detect it till now. Hence, earthquakes cannot be predicted in advance.
Question 4: Sometimes, a crackling sound is heard while taking off a sweater during winters.
Explain.
When a sweater is taken off, the woollen sweater gets charged because of the friction
between the sweater and the body. Hence, one can hear a crackling sound during the given process.
Question 5: Explain why a charged body loses its charge if we touch it with our hand.
When we touch a charged object, our body conducts its charges to the earth. That is why a
charged body loses its charge, if we touch it with our hand. This phenomenon is known as electric
discharge.
Question 6: Name the scale on which the destructive energy of an earthquake is measured.
An earthquake measures 3 on this scale. Would it be recorded by a seismograph? Is it likely
to cause much damage?
The destructive energy of an earthquake is measured by the Richter scale. This scale has
the readings from 1 to 10.
The reading of magnitude 3 on the Richter scale would be recorded by a seismograph.
If the Richter scale gives a reading of magnitude 3, then the earthquake is not likely to cause much
damage. Generally, earthquake of magnitudes higher than 5 is considered destructive in nature.
Question 7: Suggest three measures to protect ourselves from lightning.

Protective measures against lightning are as follows:
(i) Stay in a completely closed place. If you are moving in a car, then remain there until the
lightning is over. Close the windows of the car immediately.
(ii) Do not touch any electrical wires, telephone cables, metal pipes, etc.
(iii) Do not bath in running water. This may cause an electric shock.
Question 8: Explain why a charged balloon is repelled by another charged balloon whereas
an uncharged balloon is attracted by another charged balloon?
The nature of charges present on the surface of charged balloons are similar. Since like
charges repel each other, two charged balloons repel each other. When a charged body is brought
near an uncharged body, the uncharged body acquires charges on its surface caused by the
induction of charges. The charges are of opposite nature in relation to the charged body. Since
unlike charges attract each other, a charged body always attracts an uncharged body. Hence, an
uncharged balloon is attracted by another charged balloon.
Question 9:Describe with the help of a diagram an instrument which can be used to detect a
charged body.
An electroscope can be used to detect whether a body is charged or not. The following
figure shows a simple electroscope.
It consists of a metal rod. At one end of the rod, two leaves of aluminium foil are fixed and at the
other end, there is a metal disc. The leaves of aluminium foil are placed inside a conical flask and
the flask is corked to isolate the leaves from air.
When the metal disc is touched with a charged body, the aluminium strips move away from
each other. This happens because some of the charges of the body are transferred to the strips
through the metal rod. This method of charging a body is called charging by conduction. The
nature of charges on both the leaves and the charged body are the similar. Hence, both the leaves
of the aluminium foil will move away from each other. If the body was not charged, then the leaves
of the foil would remain as they were before. They would not repel each other.
Question 10: List three states in India where earthquakes are more likely to strike.
The three states in India where earthquakes are more likely to strike are Jammu and
Kashmir, Gujarat, and Assam.
Question 11: Suppose you are outside your home and an earthquake strikes. What
precaution would you take to protect yourself?
Ans: Some of the precautions are as follows:
(i) Try to find an open field away from tall buildings, installations, tall trees, and
electric wires and poles.
(ii) If travelling in a bus or a car, then do not come out when an earthquake strikes. Ask
the driver to drive in an open field.
Class 8th Coal and Petroleum Science
Q1: What are the advantages of using CNG and LPG as fuels?
The advantages of using compressed natural gas (CNG) and liquified petroleum
gas (LPG) as fuels are:
(i) They can be burnt directly.
(ii) They can be transported easily through pipe lines.
(iii) They are clean fuels and do not give smoke when burnt.
(iv) They give a lot of heat energy when burnt.
Q2: Name the petroleum product used for surfacing of roads.
Bitumen, a petroleum product, is used for surfacing roads.
Q3: Describe how coal is formed from dead vegetation. What is this process called?
Millions of years ago, dense forests got buried under the soil due to natural
processes like storms, floods, and earthquakes. These got compressed as more and more
soil got deposited over them. When they got buried deep in the soil, they were exposed to
very high pressure and temperature. Under these conditions, these slowly got converted
into coal. This process of formation of coal from dead vegetation is called carbonization.
Q4: Fill in the banks.
(a) Fossil fuels are coal, petroleum and natural gas.
(b) Process of separation of different constituents from petroleum is called refining.
(c) Least polluting fuel for vehicles is compressed natural gas (CNG).
Q5: Tick True/False against the following statements.
(a) Fossil fuels can be made in the laboratory. (F)
(b) CNG is more polluting fuel than petrol. (F)
(c) Coke is almost pure form of carbon. (T)
(d) Coal tar is a mixture of various substances. (T)
(e) Kerosene is not a fossil fuel. (F)
1|Page Mr. Muzamil Shah

Class 8th Coal and Petroleum Science
Q6: Explain why fossil fuels are exhaustible natural resources.
Fossil fuels require millions of years to form from the dead vegetation and animals that
get buried deep inside the Earth. They require high temperature and pressure for their formation,
which cannot be provided in the laboratory. Thus, fossils are limited. Therefore, the use of fossil
fuels at this rate will lead to their exhaustion.
Q7: Describe characteristics and uses of coke.
Characteristics of coke are:
(i) Tough
(ii) Porous
(iii) Black in colour
Uses of coke:
(i) In manufacture of steel.
(ii) In the extraction of metals (as a reducing agent).
Q8: Explain the process of formation of petroleum.
Petroleum was formed from dead organisms that got buried in the sea millions of years
ago. These dead bodies got covered with layers of sand and clay. Lack of air, high temperature,
and high pressure transformed these dead organisms into petroleum and natural gas.
Q9: The following Table shows the total power shortage in India from 1991 − 1997.
Show the data in the form of a graph. Plot shortage percentage for the years on the
Y-axis and the year on the X-axis.
2|Page Mr. Muzamil Shah

Chapter 15 – Stars and the Solar System:
Q1O: What are exhaustible natural resources? Give examples.
The resources which are limited in nature and can be exhausted by human activities are called
exhaustible natural resources. Examples: Forests, coal, petroleum, natural gas, minerals, etc.
Q11: What are inexhaustible natural resources? Give examples.
The resources which are present in unlimited quantity in nature and are not likely to be
exhausted are called inexhaustible natural resources. Examples: sunlight, air, wind, etc.
Q12: Why is natural gas called a clean fuel?
Natural gas is called a clean fuel because it does not produce any toxic gas or smoke on burning
and is less polluting.
Q13: What are the uses of coal?
 Coal is used as a fuel to cook food.
 It is also used in thermal power plants to produce electricity.
 It is also used as fuel in various industries.
 Coal is processed to get some useful products by a process called destructive distillation.
Q1. Fill in the blanks by choosing correct words from the following list: (Meteorite,
Pluto, moon, planets, universe, core, comet, constellation)
(i) The branch of science which deals with the study of Universe is called
astronomy.
(ii) The unburnt part of the meteor which reaches the earth is called
Meteorite.
(iii) The heavenly bodies which revolves around the sun are called Planets.
(iv) The heavenly bodies which revolves around the planets are called Moons.
(v) The orbit of Pluto is not in the same plane as that of the other planets.
(vi) A heavenly body with long tail, moving around the sun in an elliptical path is
called Comet.
(vii) In the Core of the sun, hydrogen gas fuses with the liberation of the energy.
(viii) A group of stars which resembles an animal or some other known object is
called Constellation.
Page 3
Q2. Statements given below are incorrect. Write correct statements.
(i) Halley‟s comet visits our solar system after 26 years.

Ans. Halley‟s comet visits our solar system after 76 years
(ii) Helium gas contains most of the atmosphere of the sun and the stars. Ans.
Helium gas constitutes most hydrogen gas.
(iii) Pole Star is nearest to our solar system.
Ans. Pole Star is a part of constellation.
(iv) Astronomers have divided the sky into 68 constellations.
Ans. Astronomers have divided the sky into 88 constellations.
(v) Meteors on burning leave behind gold, dust and light. Ans.
Meteors after burning disappear.
(vi) The orbit of Neptune is different from the orbits of the other planets in the solar
system.
Ans. The orbit of Pluto is different from the orbits of the other planets in the solar
system.
(vii) Mars is the second planet nearest to the sun. Ans.
Venus is the second planet nearest to the sun.
(viii) Moon revolves around the earth in 21 ½ days.
Ans. Moon revolves around the earth in 27 days 7 hours 43 min 11.5 seconds.
Q3. Answer the following questions:
(i) What is universe? Name six different kinds of heavenly bodies found in the
universe.
Ans. The universe is the vast unimaginable space composing many heavenly bodies
such as, planets, stars, sun, constellations, comets, meteors etc.
(ii) With reference to the average distance of the sun, state:
(a) The serial number of the planet earth. Ans.
The serial number of planet earth is 3.
(b) The average distance of the earth from the sun.
Ans. The average distance of the earth from the sun is 149,600,000
kilometers.
(c) The time in which sunlight reaches the earth.
Page 4
Ans. Sunlight takes 8 minutes to reach the earth.
(iii) (a) Name the natural satellite of the earth.

Ans. Moon is the natural satellite of the earth.
(b) In how many days does the satellite complete one revolution around the earth.
Ans. Moon is the satellite of the earth. It completes one revolution in 27 days 7 hours
43 min 11.5 seconds.
(c) In how many days does the satellite rotate around its own axis. Ans.
Moon takes 27 days to rotate on its own axis.
(d) How does the gravity of this satellite compare with the earth. Ans.
The gravitational pull of moon is one-sixth that of the earth.
(e) State the maximum temperature on the day side and minimum
temperature on the night side of this satellite.
Ans. On the day side of the moon, the temperature as high as 110oC and on night side
of the moon the temperature could be as low as –150oC.
(iv) What do you understand by the following terms?
(a) New moon
Ans. After the completion of one revolution around the earth the moon comes in
between the sun and the earth and is not visible at that time, hence we see darkness,
this is called the new moon day. It is formed before the crescent.
(b) Full moon.
Ans. When the earth comes in between the moon and the sun, the moon appears to be
full with bright light, this is called full moon day. It appears on the fifteenth day from
the new moon day.
(v) (a) Define solar system.

Ans. The sun along with the eight planets and their moons constitute the solar
system.
(b) Name all the planets in the solar system in the order of their distance from the
sun.
Ans. Following are the names of the planets as per their distance from the sun:
1. Mercury 2. Venus 3. Earth 4. Mars 5. Jupiter 6. Saturn 7. Uranus 8.
Neptune
Page 5
Earlier Pluto was the ninth planet, which is now said to be vanished from the solar
system.
(vi) (a) How many moons Mars have?
Ans. Mars have 2 moons.
(b) Write the names of these moons.
Ans. Phobos and Deimos are the two moons of the Mars.
(vii) What is comet? Why does a comet develop a tail while approaching the sun?
Ans. The bright „Star like‟ object with a long tail approaching the sun in a highly
elliptical orbit is called Comet. It is a small icy celestial body. The nucleus of comet
consists of solid frozen ice, gas and dust. When the comet approaches the sun, the
particles with in the nucleus get deflected due to heat radiations of the sun and it
increases when it reaches close to the sun giving rise to a tail like structure.
(viii) What is star? What makes the star give about vast amount of energy?
Ans. A star is a giant ball of hydrogen gas with a bright light and heat. Due to the
fusion of hydrogen gas, a heavier gas, i.e., Helium, is formed which lubricates a
huge amount of heat and energy. So this is due to the fusion of hydrogen gas that the
star gives about a vast amount of energy.
(ix) (a) How are meteors different from stars?
Ans. Differences between meteors and stars are as under: Ans.
Differences between meteors and stars are as under:
Meteors
1. Consists of rocks metals and dust

2. Produces heat and light energy due to the friction of earth‟s atmosphere.
3. Meteors are very small pieces of rocks.
Stars
4. Meteors last for few seconds.
1. Consists of hydrogen and helium.
2. Produces heat and light energy due to fusion and hydrogen.
3. Stars are extremely big.
Page 6
4. Stars last for billions of years.
(b) How are meteors different from meteorites?
Ans. Meteors are shooting stars that produce heat and light energy due to the friction
of earth‟s atmosphere.
The unburnt piece of a meteor, which reaches the surface of earth is called meteorite.
Its size is from size of small pebbles to several tons of rock and metal.
Additional Text Book Questions:
Q1. What are celestial bodies? Name any three celestial bodies.
Ans. Celestial bodies are the heavenly bodies found in the universe. Moon, planets,
sun, stars, meteors, comets etc. some celestial bodies.
Q2. Why do you classify the sun as star?
Ans. Stars emit heat and light due to the fusion of hydrogen. Sun also emits a huge
amount of light and energy due to the fusion of hydrogen and the formation of helium
gas. Hence sun is called a star.
Q3. Why do the stars appear like point objects?
Ans. The stars appear like point objects because they are very far away from us i.e.,
earth, on which we live. It is only the sun which appears bigger to us because it is
nearest to earth.
Q4. What is a constellation? How does a constellation differ from a star?
Ans. A group of stars which forms a recognizable pattern or shape is called a

constellation. A star is a giant ball of hot gases like hydrogen or helium, while as
constellation is a group of stars.
Q5. Name a star which appears stationary from the earth. In which constellation is it
situated?
Ans. Pole star appears stationary from the earth. It is situated in Ursa Minor
constellation.
Q6. What is “a light minute”? How many light minutes is the earthy from the sun?
Express this distance in kilometres.
Ans. The distance travelled by the light at a speed of 300,000km/s in one minute (60
seconds) is called a light minute.
Page 7
1 light minute = 300,000 km/s x 1 minute
= 300,000 km/s x 60s
= 1800000 km = 18 x 106 km
Q7. How much time is involved from one new moon to another new moon as seen
from the surface of the earth?
Ans. 29 ½ days of time is involved from one new moon to another new moon.
Q8. In how much time does the moon complete one rotation about its own axis?
Ans. Moon completes one rotation about its own axis in 27 days.
Q1. What is a planet? How many planets revolve around the sun?
Ans. A solid heavenly body which revolves around the sun in well-defined orbit is
called Planet. Recent studies say that there are eight planets revolving around the
sun.
Q2. Name the planet which:
(i). Is nearest to the sun?

Ans. Mercury is nearest to the sun.
(ii). Is Farthest from the sun?

Ans. Neptune is the farthest planet from the sun.
(iii). Supports life?

Ans. Earth supports life.
Q3. Name the planets which:
Page 8
(i). Revolves around the sun from east to west?

Ans. Earth is the planet which revolves around the sun from east to west.
(ii). Intersects the orbit of another planet?

Ans. Pluto intersects the orbit of Neptune.
Q4. Name one planet that was predicted before its discovery? Ans. Pluto
was predicted as a planet before its discovery.
Q5. Name the planet having:
(i). Largest number of moons?

Ans. Saturn has the largest number of moons. It has 30 moons or satellites.
(ii). A system of number of rings?

Ans. Saturn has a system of number of rings.
Q6. What is the solar system? Name all the planets of solar system in the
increasing order of distance from the sun?
Ans. The sun along with eight planets, three plutons, and their moons
constitute Solar System. Following are names of planets of the solar system:
1. Mercury, 2. Venus, 3. Earth, 4. Mars, 5. Jupiter, 6. Saturn, 7. Uranus, 8.
Neptune
Plutons are:
1. Pluto, 2. Charon, 3. 2003 UB313
Page 9
Class: 8th
Chapter: sound
SOUND: It is a form of energy which causes sensation of hearing in our ears.it helps
us to communicate with each other.
PRODUCTION OF SOUND: Sound is produced due to vibration of objects which is
caused by the nature of materials. Vibration is a kind of rapid to and fro motion
of an object. For example; when we vibrate a tightly stretched string, it vibrates at
its central position and produces sound.
SOUND PRODUCED BY HUMANS: The sound in the humans Is produced by voice
box or larynx. The larynx has two vocal cords which are stretched across the voice
box, such that, a passage of air remains between the cords. When we speak, the
air passes through the opening and cords start vibrating to produce sound.
The frequency of sound produced by men is lower than the frequency of sound of
women and children because women have shorter vocal cords than men.
Children have very short vocal cords.
SOUND NEEDS A MEDIUM TO PROPAGATE: - The travelling of sound is called
propagation of sound. Sound is propagated by the to and fro motion of particles of
the medium .a medium is necessary for the propagation of sound.
The matter or substance through which sound is transmitted is called a medium.
Medium can be solid, liquid or gas. Sound cannot travel through vacuum.
The speed of sound is different in different mediums depending on temperature,
nature of the material and the physical state of substance.
Substance (20 Speed of sound

degree Celsius) (meter /sec)
Class: 8th
Chapter: sound
Air 343
Water 1482
Sea water at 3.5 % 1522

salinity
Aluminum 6420
WAVE:-It is a disturbance that transfers energy through matter .It is produced in

the medium .Sound is the form of energy that travels in the form of waves.
Waves can be of two types:-
1. Electromagnetic Wave
2. Mechanical waves.
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES:- are those waves which can travel through solids,
liquids , gases and vacuum as well.
For example, all radiations, visible and non-visible rays ,light,heat,etc.
MECHANICAL WAVE:- are those waves which need medium to travel. Thy
cannot travel through vacuum. The speed of mechanical waves is slower as
compared to electromagnetic waves.
For example, water waves, string sound, etc. Mechanical waves
can be of two types.
TRANSVERSE WAVES: - In this wave, particles of the medium vibrate up
Class: 8th
Chapter: sound
and down at right angles to the direction in which a wave is moving. These waves
are produced only in solids and liquids. For example, string waves, water waves,
etc.
LONGITUDINAL WAVES:- In this wave particles of the medium vibrate back and
forth in the same direction in which the wave is moving.
Medium can be solid, liquid or gas. Therefore, sound waves are longitudinal waves.
For example, sound, spring waves, etc.
A longitudinal wave appears to move in the back and forth motion which causes
compressions and rarefactions. Sound propagates through a compressible
medium through which it travels. Sound waves travel faster in solids and slower
in gases.
CHARACTERISTICS OF SOUND WAVES:-
WAVE LENGTH:-The minimum distance in which a sound wave repeats itself is

called its wavelength. S.I unit of wavelength is meter.
In a sound wave wavelength is the combined length of a compression and an
adjacent rarefaction.
OR
Wavelength is the distance between the centers of two consecutive compressions

or rarefactions.
AMPLITUDE: - The maximum displacement of the particles from its mean
position to any of its extreme positions is called amplitude
TIME PERIOD: - The time required to produce one complete wave is known as its
time period. S.I unit is second.
FREQUENCY: - The number of complete waves produced in one second is called
frequency of the wave. S.I unit of frequency is hertz or Hz.
f=1/T
VELOCITY OF WAVE (SPEED OF WAVE):- The distance travelled by a wave in one

second is called velocity of a wave. S.I unit of velocity of wave is m/s.
PROPERTIES OF SOUND: - A sound has three characteristic properties by which it
can be recognized. These are loudness, pitch and quality. Two musical sounds
may differ from one another in one or more of these properties.
Class: 8th
Chapter: sound
LOUDNESS:- Sound can be loud or soft depending upon its volume. Soft sounds
have lesser volume than loud sound.
The loudness of sound depends on the amplitude of vibrations of the vibrating
object. Greater the amplitude, louder the sound. The loudness of sound is
measured in decibels (dB).
Sound Loudness (dB)
Normal breathing 10
Whispering 20 - 30
Normal conversation 60
Busy street 70
Noisy factory 100
Rocket engine 160 – 180
Loud music 110
Above 140 dB, sound hurts.
PITCH: - Pitch is the characteristic of sound by which we can distinguish between

different sounds of the same loudness. Pitch of sound is directly proportional to
its frequency. Sound of higher frequency is called shrill sound and sound of lower
frequency is called flat sound.
Shrillness or flatness of a sound is known as pitch. For example, a women’s voice
generally has a higher pitch then a man’s sound. Therefore, a women’s voice is
shrill and a man’s voice is flat.
QUALITY:- Quality or timber is that characteristic of sound which enables us to
distinguish between the sound produced by different sound producing objects
even if they are of same loudness and pitch. The quality of sound produced is
different because they produce sound waves of different shapes. For example,
tuning fork.
PERCEPTION OF SOUND:- Sound is perceived by the ears. The human ear has
three main parts.
1. Outer ear.
2. Middle ear.
Class: 8th
Chapter: sound
3. Inner ear.
OUTER EAR: - The outer part of ear is called pinna and it is attached to about 2-3
cm long passage called ear canal. At the end of the ear canal,a thin elastic and
circular membrane called ear drum is stretched tightly. The sound waves pass
through ear canal to vibrate ear drum.
MIDDLE EAR: - It has three small delicate bones called hammer, anvil and stirrup
which are interlinked together and attached to the ear drum and the inner ear.
These bones receive vibration through the ear drum and pass them to the inner
ear.
INNER EAR: - The inner part of ear has a coiled tube called cochlea. One end of
the cochlea is connected to middle part of ear through the elastic membrane
over the oval window and the other end is connected to auditory nerve which
goes to the brain. Cochlea is filled with the liquid which contains nerve cells
sensitive to sound.
When the inner ear receives vibration from middle ear, liquid in cochlea begins to
vibrate setting electrical impulses in the nerve cells present in it. These impulses
are carried by auditory nerve to the brain. The brain interprets the impulses and
we can hear the sound.
AUDIBLE AND INAUDIBLE SOUND:-The range of audible frequencies of sound for
human hearing is 20 hertz to 20000 hertz.
INFRASONIC SOUNDS:-The sounds having too low frequencies of less than 20hertz
which cannot be heard by human ear are called infra sonic sounds .Rhinoceros can
produce and hear infra sonic sounds .
ULTRASONIC SOUNDS:-The sounds having too high frequencies of more than
20000 hertz which cannot be heard by human ear are called ultrasonic sounds.
Bats can produce and hear ultrasonic sounds .Dogs, Monkeys, Deer and leopards
can also hear ultrasonic sounds.
NOISE:-The unpleasant sound around us is called noise. Noise is
Class: 8th
Chapter: sound
produced by the irregular vibrations of the sound producing sources
.for example:-Running of mixer and grinder, burning of crackers, Blowing of horns
etc.
MUSIC:- The sound which is pleasant to hear is called music .It is produced by the
regular vibrations of the sound producing source
.Examples:-Sound produced by sitar ,violin , Guitar, flute, piano etc . If
however musical sounds becomes too loud it would become noise. MUSICAL
INSTRUMENTS:-
STRINGED MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS:-these produce musical sound by the
vibration of stretched strings or wire. Frequency of sound is varied by varying the
length of the vibrating wire. For example: guitar, sitar, violin etc.
WIND MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS: these produce musical sound by the vibrations of
air columns inside them. The pitch of sound can be changed by changing the
length of air column. For example; Flute,shehnai, etc.
MEMBRANE TYPE MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS; These produce sound by the
vibration of thin stretched membrane. The loudness and pitch of the sound can
be changed by striking the skin harder or by stretching the skin lighter. For
example table, drum, dholak etc.
PLAY TYPE MUSICAL INSTRUMENT; These produce musical sound by the vibration
of thick plates. For example bell ,noot {matka} etc.
NOISE POLLUTION: The presence of loud ,un wanted and disturbing sounds in our
environment is called noise pollution. Some of the major sources of noise pollution
in the environment around us are as follows:-
Sound of vehicles , bursting of crackers, machines in factories, take off

,landing and flying of aeroplanes, some kitchen appliances and playing of loud
speakers at marriages .
HARMFULEFFECTS OF NOISE POLLLUTION
The presence of excessive noise in the surroundings may cause many health
related problems.th various harms of noise pollution are as follows:
 It reduces the hearing power of our ears
 Lack of sleep,
 Irritability.
Class: 8th
Chapter: sound
 Loss of concentration
 Hypertension
 Headache
MEASURES TO CONTROL NOISE POLLUTION
Some methods to control noise pollution are:
 Noise making factories and airports should be shifted away from

residential areas of cities.
 More trees should be planted along the roads and around

buildings to act as noise buffers.
Good quality silencers should be used in the engine of vehicles
 T.V.,music systems , loud speakers, should be run at low volumes.
 Use of horns should be minimized.
 Bursting of crackers should be avoided.
Question answers
Q1: Choose the correct answer.

Sound can travel through
(d) Sound can travel through solids, liquids, and gases.
Sound requires a medium to travel through. Solid, liquid and gas provide the
medium for sound. Hence, sound can travel through solids, liquids and gases.
Q 2: Which of the following voices is likely to have minimum frequency?

(c) A man
The voice of an adult man is of lower pitch in comparison to the voices of a
baby boy, a baby girl and a woman. Since frequency of a sound is directly
proportional to its pitch, man’s voice is of minimum frequency in comparison to a
boy, a girl, or a woman’s voice.
Class: 8th
Chapter: sound
Q3: (a) True (b) False (c) False (d) True (e) False (f) False (g) True
Q4: (a) Time taken by an object to complete one oscillation is called time period.
(b) Loudness is determined by the amplitude of vibration.

(c) The unit of frequency is hertz (Hz).
(d) Unwanted sound is called noise.
(e) Shrillness of a sound is determined by the frequency of vibration. (Shrillness is
also called pitch of the sound. Pitch is directly proportional to the frequency of
vibration. Hence, shrillness is determined by the frequency of vibration.)
Q5: A pendulum oscillates 40 times in 4 seconds. Find its time period and
frequency.
Frequency of oscillations is defined as the number of oscillations of a
vibrating body per second. It is given by
The time required to complete one oscillation is known as time period. It is given
by the inverse of the frequency.
Time period
Q 6: The sound from a mosquito is produced when it vibrates its wings at an

average rate of 500 vibrations per second. What is the time period of the
vibration?
The time required to complete one oscillation is known as time period. It is given
by the inverse of the frequency.
Time period
Frequency of oscillations = 500 Hz Time
period
Class: 8th
Chapter: sound
Q7: Identify the part which vibrates to produce sound in the following
instruments.
(a) Dholak (b) Sitar (c) Flute
Answer
(a) Dholak is a musical instrument. It consists of a stretched membrane
called its head. When the head is beaten gently, the stretched membrane sets into
vibration. Since sound is produced when an object vibrates, the dholakproduces a
sound.
(b) Sitaris a musical instrument. It consists of stretched strings.
When a string is plucked, it sets into vibration. Since sound is produced when an
object vibrates, the sitarproduces a sound.
(c) Fluteis a hollow pipe. When air is blown over its mouth, the air inside the
pipe is set into vibration. As a result, a pleasant sound is produced.
Q8: What is the difference between noise and music? Can music become
noise sometimes?
Answer
The sound that is pleasing to the ear is called music. For example, the sound
produced by violins, pianos, flutes, pungs,etc.
The sound that is unpleasing to the ear is called noise. Some
examples of noise are as follows:
(i) Sound produced by horns of buses and trucks
(ii) Sound of electrical generators
(iii) Sound of a gun shot
(iv) Sound produced by jackhammers
Yes. Music can become noise when played at high volumes.
Class: 8th
Chapter: sound
Q9: List sources of noise pollution in your surroundings.

Answer
Some sources of noise pollution are as follows:
(i) Televisions and transistors running at high volumes
(ii) Loudspeakers and crackers
(iii) Horns of buses, cars and trucks
(iv) Home appliances such as mixer, desert cooler, etc.
Q10: Explain in what way noise pollution is harmful to humans. Answer

Noise pollution can lead to a number of health-related problems. Some of them
are as follows:
(i) Hearing loss
(ii) Insomnia; inability to sleep
(iii) Hypertension
(iv) Severe headache
(v) Stress
Q 11:Your parents are going to buy a house. They have been offered one on the
roadside and another three lanes away from the roadside. Which house would
you suggest your parents should buy? Explain your answer. There will be more
noise in the house which is along the roadside.
This is because noise produced by transportation vehicles may cause trouble to the
residents. The intensity of noise decreases with the distance between the source
and the listener. Hence, it is better to take the house that is three lanes away from
the roadside.
Q12: Sketch larynx and explain its function in your own words.
8th CONSERVATION OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS Science
Larynx is a part of the throat. It is responsible for production of
sound. A sketch of a human larynx is shown in the following figure.
Larynx moves when we swallow something. Inside the larynx, there are two
vocal cords. There is a small gap between them. This small gap allows air to
pass through. When we speak, air is forced into this small gap by the lungs.
This prompts vocal cords to vibrate. Since vibrating objects produce sound,
sound is produced due to the vibration of vocal cords.
Q13: Lightning and thunder take place in the sky at the same time and at the same
distance from us. Lightning is seen earlier and thunder is heard later. Can
you explain?
Answer
The speed of sound is less than the speed of light. Hence, light reaches
us before the sound during a lightning, which is accompanied by thundering.
 Biodiversity: Occurrence of innumerable number of different types of organisms and the

whole range of their varieties (biotypes) adapted to different climates, environments and
areas.
 Wildlife sanctuary, national park and bio-sphere reserve are names given to the areas meant
for conservation and preservation of forest and wild animals. Biodiversity refers to the variety
of living organisms in a specific area.
 Plants and animals of a particular area are known as the flora and fauna of that area.
 Endemic species are found only in a particular area.
 Endangered species are those which are facing the danger of extinction.
 Red Data Book contains a record of endangered species.
 Migration is the phenomenon of movement of a species from its own habitat to some other
20
habitat for a particular time period every year for a specific purpose like breeding.
 We should save, reuse and recycle paper to save trees, energy and water.
 Reforestation is the restocking of destroyed forests by planting new trees.
 Flora: Different types of plants belonging to an area. Example: Silver ferns, sal, teak, mango,
etc.
 Fauna: All animals found in an area. Example: dog, frog, insects, bull, jackal, etc.
 Endemic Species: Species of plants and animals found exclusively in a particular area. These
are not naturally found anywhere else.
 Extinct Species: Species of plants and animals which have already been lost. Example: Dodo,
Indian cheetah, Pink-headed duck, etc.
 Threatened Species: Species that is liable to become extinct if it is not allowed to realise its
full biotic potential by removed the cause of threat.
Type of Threatened Species:
(i) Endangered Species: A species of animal or plant that is seriously at risk of extinction. Example:
Indian rhinoceros, Asiatic lion, Asiatic wild ass, etc
(ii) Vulnerable Species: A vulnerable species is a species of animals or plants which are likely to
become endangered unless something changes. Example: Chinkara deer and black buck, golden
langur, etc
(iii) Rare Species: Species whose population are originally small and scattered in the world.
 National Parks: Protective areas reserved exclusively for the betterment of the wildlife. These
are established at the approval of legislature.
 Example: Hazaribagh National Park in Jharkhand, Desert National Park in Rajasthan, etc.
 Sanctuaries: Hunting prohibited areas set up by government are known as sanctuaries. These
are only for the protection of wild animals. Example: Jaldapara in Madarihat (West Bengal),
Keoladeo Ghana in Bharatpur (Rajasthan)
 Migration: The regular, periodic, two way movements of birds and some animals from their
place of residence to some other place along well defined routes. It is linked to seasonal
factors, breeding, shortage of foods, etc. The Bharatpur bird sanctuary is known for the
migratory birds.
21
Q1: Fill in the blanks:
(a) A place where animals are protected in their natural habitat is called a sanctuary.
(b) Species found only in a particular area are known as endemic.
(c) Migratory birds fly to far away places because of climatic changes.
Q2: Differentiate between the following.
(a)
Wildlife sanctuary Biosphere reserve
It is an area within which animals are protected from It is a large protected area constructed for
possible dangers such as hunting. Their habitat is the conservation of biodiversity.
also conserved in this area.
It provides protection and suitable living conditions It helps in the conservation of various life
to wild animals. forms such as plants, animals, and micro-
organisms.
Pachmarhi sanctuary is a wildlife sanctuary. Pachmarhi biosphere reserve is a popular

biosphere reserve.
(b)
Zoo Wild life sanctuary
It is a facility in which animals It is an area within which animals are protected from possible
are kept for public exhibition. dangers such as hunting. Their habitat is also conserved in
this area.
It is an artificial habitat. It conserves the natural habitat of animals.
(c)
Endangered species Extinct species
It is a population of species that is on the verge It is a population of species that no longer

of becoming extinct. exists. Hence, it is extinct.
Blue whale, tiger, leopard, etc. are examples of Dodo, passenger pigeon, etc. are examples of
endangered species. extinct species.
(d)
Flora Fauna
It refers to all living plants in a particular It refers to all animals living in a particular area.
area.
Sal, teak, mango, etc. form the flora of Leopard, wolf, wild dog, etc. form the fauna of
Pachmarhi biosphere reserve. Pachmarhi biosphere reserve.
Q3: Discuss the effects of deforestation on the following.
(a) Wild animals
(b) Environment
(c) Villages (Rural areas)
(d) Cities (Urban areas)
(e) Earth
(f) The next generation
(a) Effects of deforestation on wild animals:
Deforestation is the removal of trees or other vegetation from an area for industrial,
agricultural, or other purposes. Trees and other vegetation form the habitat of many animals.
Hence, if the habitat of wild animals is destroyed, then their numbers would automatically
decline.
(b) Effects of deforestation on the environment:
Plants absorb CO2 from the atmosphere to perform photosynthesis. If plants are destroyed,
then the level of CO2 in the atmosphere will rise. As a result, CO2 will trap more heat
radiations, thereby adding to global warming. An increase in the temperature of the Earth will
disturb the natural water cycle. As a result, there will be a change in the rainfall pattern. This
could lead to floods or droughts.
(c) Effects of deforestation on villages:
Roots of plants hold soil particles together. In the absence of plants, the top layer of the soil
will be easily removed by the action of high speed winds or water flow. Thus, deforestation
increases the chances of soil erosion. As a result, soil loses humus and become less fertile.
5
Hence, a fertile land, which is a source of living for farmers in villages, gets converted into a
desert.
(d) Effects of deforestation on cities:
Deforestation in cities can increase the risk of many natural calamities such as floods and
droughts in that area. Also, it can lead to global warming due to an increase in the level of CO 2 in
the atmosphere as a result of vehicular and industrial pollution. This increase in temperature can
disturb the natural water cycle of an area
(e) Effects of deforestation on the Earth:
As a result of deforestation, chances of desertification, droughts, floods, etc. increase.

Deforestation can also increase the level of CO 2 in the Earth. It will lead to an increase in
temperature i.e., global warming. As a result, the entire natural water cycle will get disrupted.
This again increases the risk of natural calamities.
(f) Effects of deforestation on the next generation:
Deforestation is slowly changing our environmental conditions. It is responsible for global

warming, soil erosion, greenhouse effect, drought, floods, and many other global problems. As a
result, the next generation will have to face severe consequences of deforestation.
Q 4: What will happen if:
(a) We go on cutting trees.
If we go on cutting trees, the natural habitat of many animals will get completely
destroyed. As a result, the biodiversity of many areas will be severely affected. Also, there will
be an increase in the temperature of the Earth as a result of global warming, which can disturb
the natural water cycle. As a result, there will be a change in the rainfall pattern. This could lead
to floods or droughts. This will also increase the risk of soil erosion, desertification, and natural
calamities.
(b) The habitat of an animal is disturbed.
The habitat of an animal provides it with necessities such as shelter, food, and protection.
If the habitat of an animal is disturbed, then it will be forced to go to other places in search of
food and shelter. The animal could get killed by other animals in this process.
(c) The top layer of soil is exposed.
If the top layer of soil is exposed, then it will gradually expose the lower layer of soil,
which is hard and rocky in nature. This type of soil is less fertile as it contains less humus.
Continued soil erosion will make the land barren or infertile.
6
Q5: Answer in brief:
(a) Why should we conserve biodiversity?
Biodiversity refers to the number and variety of various life forms such as plants,
animals, and micro-organisms in an area. Plants and animals depend on each other for
survival. This means that the destruction of either of the two will affect the life of the other.
Hence, we need to conserve biodiversity to maintain the balance of nature.
(b) Protected forests are also not completely safe for wild animals. Why?
Protected forests are not completely safe for wild animals because people who live near
or adjacent to forests use resources from forests to fulfil their own requirements. In this
process, wild animals are killed and sold for lucrative amounts of money.
(c) Some tribals depend on the jungle. How?
Tribals gather food, fodder, and fallen branches of trees from forests. Hence, they depend
on forests for their daily requirements.
(d) What are the causes and consequences of deforestation?
Causes of deforestation:
(i) Forests are cleared for accommodating expanding urban areas and for fulfilling their
ever-increasing requirements.
(ii) Forests are destroyed to clear land for crops and cattle grazing.
(iii) Trees are cut down to be used for firewood.
Consequences of deforestation:
(i) Soil erosion

(ii) Loss of biodiversity
(iii) Floods and droughts
(iv) Climate change due to global warming
(v) Disruption of water cycle
(e) What is Red Data Book?
Red Data Book is a source book that maintains an international list of all endangered animal
and plant species. This book is maintained by IUCN (International Union for Conservation of
Nature and Natural resources).
(f) What do you understand by the term migration?
Migration refers to the movement of an organism or a group of organisms from its natural
habitat to another place at a particular time every year. Organisms migrate from one place to
another to avoid inhabitable climatic conditions or for breeding.
7
Q6: In order to meet the ever-increasing demand in factories and for shelter, trees are
being continually cut. Is it justified to cut trees for such projects? Discuss and prepare a
brief report.
No. It is not at all justified to cut trees to meet the ever increasing demands of human
population. Forests are the habitat of several organisms including wild animals. They provide us
with good quality air as they give out O2 and absorb the harmful CO2 gas from the atmosphere.
In the process, they prevent the excessive heating of the atmosphere. They prevent soil erosion
and natural calamities such as floods and droughts. They increase the fertility of the soil and help
conserve biodiversity. The cutting of forests to meet the demands of growing human population
will lead to global warming, soil erosion, greenhouse effect, droughts, floods, and many more
problems. The destruction of forests will disturb the balance of nature. Hence, forests must be
conserved.
Q7: How can you contribute to the maintenance of green wealth of your locality? Make a
list of actions to be taken by you.
I can help in maintaining the green wealth of my locality by taking care of the plants and
trees growing in or around my locality. I can plant more and more trees. I can also encourage the
people in my locality to plant more trees by informing them about the importance of growing
trees. I can make young children aware of the effects that deforestation has on our environment
and on our planet. I can also ask them to water the plants daily, which will take very little of their
time. I believe planting new trees is as important as taking care of the existing trees.
Q8: Explain how deforestation leads to reduced rainfall.
Deforestation is the removal of trees or other vegetation from an area for industrial,
agricultural, or other purposes. Plants or trees absorb CO2 from the atmosphere. If plants are
destroyed, then the level of CO2 in the atmosphere will rise. The high levels of CO2 in the
atmosphere will trap more heat radiations, leading to global warming. This increase in
temperature of the Earth will disturb the natural water cycle. As a result of disruption in the
water cycle, there will be a change in the rainfall pattern. The reduced amount of rainwater can
cause droughts.
Q9: Find out about national parks in your state. Identify and show their location on the
outline map of India.
8
One of the national parks located near Delhi is the Corbett National Park.
Q10: Why should paper be saved? Prepare a list of ways by which you can save paper.
Paper should be saved because it takes around seventeen full grown trees to make one
tonne of paper. Trees, as we know, are important to maintain a balance of nature. Therefore, in
order to save trees and prevent the impact of their loss on living organisms, we need to save
paper.
Ways by which paper can be saved:
(i) Collect used paper and recycle it.
(ii) Use both sides of a paper for writing.
(iii) Spread awareness about the importance of paper.
(iv) Use paper intelligently.
Q11: Complete the world puzzle.
Down
1. ENDANGERED
2. RED DATA BOOK
5. DESERTS
Across
1. EXTINCT
9
3. ENDEMIC
4. BIODIVERSITY
10
CLASS 8TH FORCE AND PRESSURE PHYSICS
Force:
Force is a push or a pull. To apply a force over an object interaction between object and
source of force is necessary. Whenever force act two object are involved. One which
applied force, the other which receive force.
Examples: To kick ball we need to push it, to pick the book we need to pull it, to hit the
ball we need to push it and to lift the box we need to push it. Force is a vector quantity. It
is represented by an arrow.
Units of force: In S.I system, force is measured in Newton‟s
Represented by letter “N” while as in C.G.S system its values are represented in dynes.
Effects of force:-
Some of the common effects of force are :-
A force may move a body at rest. For example, when we kick a

football kept on the ground with our foot, the football moves. The
force applied by our foot moves the ball.
A force may stop a moving body. For example, when a player

catches a moving cricket ball, the force applied by player‟s hands
stops the moving ball.
A force can change the speed of a body. For example, when a ball is
dropped from a certain height, the speed of the ball goes on increasing
due to gravitational pull of the Earth on the ball, in the downward
direction. Thus force applied by the Earth in the direction of motion of
the ball increases the speed of the ball.
Page 1
A force may change the direction of a moving body. For example, when a moving cricket
ball is hit by a bat, the cricket ball moves in a different direction. The force applied by the
bat changes the direction of the moving cricket ball.
A force may change the size and shape of a body. For

example, When you blow a metal rod with a hammer, the
dimension changes.
Types of Force:
1. Contact Force:
For contact force, interaction between objects is necessary. Force

that comes into action after the interaction between objects is called
contact force. Contact force works on the point of contact. Example;
pushing a car, hitting the ball, kicking a ball, etc. Muscular force,
friction force are types of contact force.
Muscular force:
Force due to the action of muscles is called muscular force. We can

say force resulting because of action of muscle is called muscular
force.
Muscular force is applied only after interaction with the object.
Examples: When we push the object like school bag or lift the bucket of water we use the
muscular force. Animals also use of muscular force to carry out their task.
Page 2
The Friction Force:
forces of friction arises between the surfaces of two objects

The force of friction always acts on all moving object and its direction is always opposite
to the direction of motion .Force of friction comes into action only after interaction
between two objects, thus, it is a type of contact force. Examples:
Due to force of friction between the surface of the ball and the ground that brings the
moving ball to rest. When we stop pedalling a bicycle, it gradually slow down and finally
comes to s stop due to force of friction.
Non- Contacting Force:
Force due to without interaction between two objects is called non-contact force. For
example; a magnet can pull an iron nail from a distance.
Magnetic force, Electrostatic force and Gravitational force are examples of non-contact
force.
Magnetic Force:
A magnet can exert a force on another magnet without being in contact with it.
The force exerted by a magnet is an example of a non-contact force.
Example: Opposite pole of two magnets attract each other and same pole repel each
other.
Page 3
Electrostatic Force:
When a charged body exert a force on another charged or uncharged body is called
electrostatic force.
A charged body attracts an uncharged body .A positively charged body attracts a

negatively charged body and repels a positively charged body without coming in contact,
thus it is a non-contact force.
Gravitational Force:
Gravitation force is exerted by earth, moon, sun and other planets to others.
Earth and other planets attract all objects towards them. Since, earth attracts all objects
even without coming in contact, thus gravitational force is a non-contact force.
Example: When we release an object from a height, it falls over the ground because of
gravitational attraction of earth.
Page 4
Pressure:
The force acting on per unit area of a surface is called pressure. We can say force per unit
area is called pressure.
Pressure = Force / Area
From above formula, we can say that with same applied force, Pressure is indirectly
proportional to the area, thus pressure decreases with increase in area and increases with
decrease in area.
Example:
When we cut an apple, we need to use the sharp edge of the knife instead of blunt knife
because the sharp edge of knife has small surface area and we need to exert less force
with high pressure to cut the apple.
When we put a nail into a wooden board, the pointed end of the nail is kept at the front.
The pointed end of the nail has very small surface area and this enables us to apply a
greater pressure with the applied force.
Pressure exerted by Liquid

It is defined as pressure exerted by fluids.
Properties of Fluid Pressure
There are different properties of fluid pressure which are as follows:
1. Pressure increases with an increase in depth. Like if we take a container filled with
water. Suppose A is placed at the bottom and B is placed at the top of container.
As per this property, the point A has high pressure.
2. Pressure decreases with height. Like the one person who stands on plane
experiences high pressure with respect to the one who stands on the top of a hill.
Thus we can say that pressure decreases with depth.
Page 5
3. Pressure applied at any point is equally transmitted in all directions. Like we see
water coming out from leaking pipes and taps flows in all directions. In case of a
bath shower and fountain, water comes out tiny holes and flows in all directions.
Pressure decreases with height

While climbing the hills, the pressure decreases with height. That is why we always carry
oxygen cylinder with us while climbing. This cylinder is helpful in proper respiration.
Pressure applied at any point is equally transmitted in all directions
Like a flask which is filled with water. This flask has multiple holes. When we push the
piston (placed at the top of flask), by doing this we are giving force per unit area
(pressure). Due to this pressure applied, water flows equally in all direction.
Pressure increase with increase in depth

Let us take an example. Suppose there is a flask filled with water. Also suppose, there is
a point A which is at the bottom of the flask and another point B which is placed at the
top of the flask. The point A experiences high pressure with respect to the point B.
Atmospheric Pressure:
Our atmosphere is made of different types of gases. Since gases exert pressure, thus
Pressure exerted by air (present in atmosphere) is called atmospheric pressure.
The weight of air in a column of the height of the atmosphere and area 10 cm × 10 cm is
as large as 1000 kg. The reason we are not crushed under this weight is that the pressure
inside our bodies is also equal to the atmospheric pressure and cancels the pressure from
outside.A pressed rubber sucker on a plane surface does not come off because of
atmospheric pressure.
Page 6
Force and Pressure (Science)
Question 1:
Give two examples each of situations in which you push or pull to change the state of
motion of objects.
Two examples of push force are as follows:
A heavy box at rest is pushed to move it from one room to another. This changes
the state of motion of the box.
A player pushes a football using his foot. This changes the state of motion of the ball.
Two examples of pull force are as follows:
Rope is pulled to draw water from a well. This changes the state of motion of
the water bucket.
A drawer is pulled to open it. This changes the state of motion of the drawer.
Question 2:
Give two examples of situations in which applied force causes a change in the shape of
an object.
Two examples of forces that cause a change in the shape of an object are as
follows:
Squeezing of a plastic bottle changes the shape of the bottle.
Deformation of clay by pressing it between the hands.
Page 7
Question 3:
Fill in the blanks in the following statements.
To draw water from a well we have to pull at the rope.
A charged body attracts an uncharged body towards it.
To move a loaded trolley we have to either push or pull it.
The north pole of a magnet repels the north pole of another magnet.
Question 4:
An archer stretches her bow while taking aim at the target. She then releases the
arrow, which begins to move towards the target. Based on this information fill up
the gaps in the following statements using the following terms.
muscular, contact, non-contact, gravity, friction, shape, attraction
To stretch the bow, the archer applies a force that causes a change in its shape
.
The force applied by the archer to stretch the bow is an example of muscular force.
The type of force responsible for a change in the state of motion of the arrow is an
example of a contact force.
While the arrow moves towards its target, the forces acting on it are due to
gravity and that
due to friction of air.
Question 5:
Page 8
In the following situations identify the agent exerting the force and the object on
which it acts. State the effect of the force in each case.
Squeezing a piece of lemon between the fingers to extract its juice.
Ans: In squeezing a piece of lemon, we make use of muscular force to extract its
juice. This muscular force acts on the lemon. As a result, the shape of the lemon gets
changed.
Taking out paste from a toothpaste tube.
Ans: We use our muscular force to take out paste from a toothpaste tube. The
muscular force acts on the toothpaste tube. As a result, the shape of the tube gets
changed.
A load suspended from a spring while its other end is on a hook fixed to a wall.
Ans: Here, the suspended load exerts a force on the spring and pushes the spring
downwards. As a result, the spring gets stretched. Hence, its shape gets changed.
An athlete making a high jump to clear the bar at a certain height.
Ans: An athlete pushes the ground with his feet. His feet exert a muscular force on
the ground. This allows him to jump over the bar. As a result, his state of motion gets
changed.
Question 6:
A blacksmith hammers a hot piece of iron while making a tool. How does the force due
to hammering affect the piece of iron?
Page 9
When a blacksmith hammers a hot piece of iron, he uses his muscular force.
This muscular force changes the shape of the iron so that it can be given a desired
shape.
Question 7:
An inflated balloon was pressed against a wall after it has been rubbed with a piece of
synthetic cloth. It was found that the balloon sticks to the wall. What force might be
responsible for the attraction between the balloon and the wall?
On rubbing an inflated balloon with a piece of synthetic cloth, it becomes charged.

A charged body attracts an uncharged body. When this charged balloon is pressed
against a wall, it sticks to the wall. The force acting between the charged balloon and the
wall is the electrostatic force.
Question 8:
Name the forces acting on a plastic bucket containing water held above ground level
in your hand. Discuss why the forces acting on the bucket do not bring a change in its
state of motion.
We make use of muscular force to hold a bucket of water above the ground.
This muscular force acts against the force of gravity that pulls the bucket towards the
ground. The two forces are equal in magnitude but opposite in direction. Therefore,
the net force on the bucket is zero. Hence, there is no change in its state of motion.
Question 9:
A rocket has been fired upwards to launch a satellite in its orbit. Name the two forces
acting on the rocket immediately after leaving the launching pad.
The two forces acting on the rocket are the force of gravity, which pulls
the rocket towards the ground, and the force of friction due to earth‟s
atmosphere, which opposes its motion.
Page 10
Question 10:
When we press the bulb of a dropper with its nozzle kept in water, air in the dropper is
seen to escape in the form of bubbles. Once we release the pressure on the bulb, water
gets filled in the dropper. The rise of water in the dropper is due to
(d) The rise of water in the dropper is due to atmospheric pressure.
The rise of water in a dropper is due to atmospheric pressure. When all the air escapes
from the nozzle, the atmospheric pressure, which is acting on the water, forces the
water to fill the nozzle of the dropper.
Page 11
Combustion and Flame
What is Combustion?
Combustion is a chemical process in which a substance reacts with oxygen and generates
heat in the process.
Burning of a substance in presence of air is also known as Combustion.
Example :- Carbon + Oxygen → Carbon Dioxide + Heat and Light
C + O2 → CO2 + Heat
Therefore, burning substances undergo Oxidation. So, Combustion is oxidation with
evolution of heat and light.
Combustible substances are those substances that undergo combustion. It means that
these substances give off heat and sometimes light (as a flame or glow) when they react
with oxygen. Example ; wood, paper, kerosene, diesel etc
Materials which do not burn readily are called Non-Combustible materials. Example ;
glass, ceramics, some metals etc
Inflammable substances are substances which have low ignition temperature and catch
fire easily. They burn with a flame. For example; petrol, LPG etc.
Why do we say that food is fuel for our body?
When we eat food, it gets broken down in simpler substances which react with oxygen and
generate energy (or heat). Hence, food is referred to as ‘fuel’ for our body.
Conditions necessary for the Combustion to take place are:

1. Combustion requires fuel.
Combustion only takes place when there is a fuel which produces heat and light when it
catches fire.
2. Combustion requires air.

Presence of Oxygen is necessary for combustion to take place.
We can prove it with the help of the following experiment:
A candle keeps burning in open air. However, when we cover it with a glass or a jar, it only
burns until the oxygen inside it is consumed. Once the oxygen is exhausted, the flame of
the candle flickers off.
3. Combustion requires heat.

The substance must reach its ignition temperature to catch
fire.
Below the ignition temperature, even if a combustible substance is present along with
oxygen, it will not burn. Example :- Matchstick
Ignition temperature is the lowest temperature at which a substance catches fire or starts
burning.
Contents of Matchstick
Matchsticks are made of suitable wood. These wooden sticks have a mixture of an
antimony trisulphide and potassium chlorate. The rubbing surface present on the
matchbox has powdered glass and a little red phosphorous.
When the head of matchstick is rubbed against the rubbing surface, some red
phosphorous is converted to white phosphorous which reacts with antimony trisulphide
and starts burning.
Types of Combustion
 Slow Combustion: Combustion which takes place at moderate speed. E.g burning of
wood, coal etc. In this combustion, fuel is not completely burnt up. The result is the
production of smoke containing unburnt carbon particles
 Rapid Combustion: Combustion in which a gas burns quickly producing heat and light
in the process. E.g. LPG
 Spontaneous Combustion: Combustion in which a material bursts into flames
suddenly without applying heat. E.g. Phosphorus which burns at room temperature.
Spontaneous combustion of coal dust often causes accidental fires in coal mines. Heat
from the sun or lighting may also cause spontaneous forest fires.
 Explosion: When a material bursts suddenly to produce heat, light and sound on the
application of heat or pressure, it is called an explosion. E.g. Crackers and fireworks
which release a large amount of gas too.
How do We Control Fire?
We can control the fire by one or more of the following:
 Removing the fuel
 Cutting off the air supply (or oxygen supply)
 Cutting off heat or lowering the temperature of the fuel
How do fire extinguishers work?

Fire extinguishers are devices used to put out fires. They either cut off the air supply to fire
or cool off the fuel (below the ignition temperature) or both. The three main types of fire
extinguishers are:
1. ‘Dry Powder’ Fire Extinguisher: This type of fire extinguishers contain a mixture of baking
soda (sodium bicarbonate) and sand. When you throw it over the fire, the baking soda
decomposes by its heat to produce carbon dioxide. Since CO2 is heavier than air, it
descends to envelop the burning flame and cuts off its contact with air (and the oxygen
supply).
2NaHCO3 → Na2CO3 + H2O + CO2
2. ‘Soda-acid’ Fire Extinguisher: This fire extinguisher is a metallic cylinder which contains
the sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) solution. At the bottom of the cylinder, the concentrated
sulphuric acid (H2SO4) is placed in a thin sealed glass tube. A fixed wire gauze surrounds
this tube.
Below the tube, a plunger is placed with its sharp end touching the thin glass tube.
On the top of the cylinder, there is a nozzle which is sealed with wax.
When the plunger hits against the floor, its sharp end breaks the thin glass tube and the
acid inside it reacts with sodium bicarbonate to produce carbon dioxide. CO 2 forces the wax
seal open and rushes out of the nozzle to put out the fire in the direction where the nozzle is
pointed.
3. ‘Foam-type’ Fire Extinguisher: Like the soda-acid fire extinguisher, it uses sodium
bicarbonate solution. However, in this case, a substance called Saporin or Turkey Red
Oil is added to the solution to produce foam along with the gas from the nozzle. Since this
foam is lighter than oil, it floats on the surface of the oil and cuts off its air supply. Hence, it
is very effective in putting out oil fires.
When should we use (or not use) water to extinguish the fire?
When wood, paper and clothes are on fire, we can use water to extinguish them. Water
lowers the temperature of burning material below ignition temperature and thus, the fire
stops burning.
We should not use water when electrical equipment is on fire as water may conduct
electricity and give a shock to people dousing the fire. Also, it should not be used when oil
or petrol catches fire as water is lighter than oil and petrol and sinks down. Oil and petrol
keep floating on the top and keep burning.
What should we do when electrical equipment or inflammable materials (like petrol)
catch fire?
Carbon Dioxide is the best fire extinguisher in such cases. CO2 is heavier than oxygen and
hence, covers the burning material like a blanket and cuts off its oxygen supply. Also, it
does not harm the electrical equipment.
CO2 can be stored as a liquid in cylinders at high pressure. When it is released, it
immediately expands, cools down, and envelopes the fire - bringing down the temperature
of the fuel. One can also pour dry chemicals like sodium bicarbonate (or baking soda) or
potassium carbonate on the fire as they release CO2 near a fire.
Flame
Flame is a hot glowing body of ignited gas which is produced when something is on fire. A
region of burning gases is called Flame.
Flame is a zone of combustion of gaseous substances accompanied by evolution of heat
and light. Only those substances which burn and vapourise produce flame. The combustible
substance and the supporter of combustion both are in gaseous state to produce flame.
Structure of a Flame
A flame has three zones:
1. Outermost zone is blue in colour and is the hottest part of the flame. This is also the zone
where complete combustion takes place.
2. Middle zone is yellow in colour and is moderately hot. In this zone, partial combustion takes
place.
3. Innermost zone is black in colour and least hot. Here, we can find the unburned wax
vapours of a candle.
Note: Kerosene oil and molten wax vapourise during burning but charcoal does not
produce flame or vapourise when it burns.
Why do goldsmiths blow at the outermost zone of a flame for melting gold and
silver?
The outermost zone of a flame is its hottest part. Gold and silver have high melting points
and hence, goldsmiths blow at the outermost zone of the flame to melt gold and silver
quickly.
What is a Fuel?
Fuels are substances that give us heat which we use for domestic and industrial purposes,
such as wood, kerosene, and petrol.
What will an ideal fuel or good fuel look like?
Ideally, a good fuel is one which:
 has proper ignition temperature (neither too high nor too low),
 does not produce undesirable or poisonous substances and cause pollution,
 does not leave behind much ash,
 is cheap,
 is readily available,
 produces a large amount of heat or have high calorific value,
 has a moderate rate of consumption,
 is easily controllable (can be started or stopped as needed),
 is easy to handle and transport, and
 has low moisture content (so that it burns easily).
Note: Some fuels are cheaper than others.

Fuel Efficiency
Fuel efficiency of a fuel depends on its calorific value.
The calorific value of a fuel depends on the amount of heat produced by complete
combustion of 1 kg of the fuel. The unit used to measure the calorific value of a fuel
is kilojoule per kg (kJ/kg).
Calorific Value of Common Fuels We Use
If we look at the table, we will see that hydrogen seems to be the most efficient fuel followed
by LPG. CNG and Methane come next, closely followed by Kerosene, Diesel and Methane.
Cow dung cake seems to be the least efficient fuel here.
Uses of Fuels
Some of the ways in which common fuels are used are:
1. Gasoline is used in cars, scooters and other vehicles we use every day.
2. Natural gas is used in heating systems, water heaters, dryers, and stovetops in our homes.
3. Oil and natural gas are used in making several things that we use every day. Hydrocarbons,
for example, are used in making plastics, pharmaceuticals and several other items we use
daily.
4. Coal is the primary fossil fuel used in many thermal power plants to produce electricity.
Types of Fuels
Fuels can mainly be divided into three groups:
 Liquid Fuels: Petroleum (which is a fossil fuel), crude oil (from which we get petrol or
gasoline), diesel, kerosene oil etc.
 Solid Fuels: Firewood, charcoal, coal (fossil fuel which is mined as steam coke or soft
coke), dung cakes, tallow (animal fat), straw and other agricultural wastes, paraffin wax,
camphor etc.
 Gaseous Fuels: Most commonly used gas is LPG (Liquid Petroleum Gas) which we use
as cooking gas at home. Some of the other commonly used gaseous fuels are:
o We get CNG (Compressed Natural Gas) from natural oil wells.
o Natural gas (or methane) gets released from the putrefying organic matter.
o Butane gas is obtained from natural gas.
o In the villages, animal dung and farm waste are used to produce biogas. Biogas is
also collected from sewage plants.
o When hard coke is heated and converted into coke, coal gas is produced.
o Water gas is produced by passing steam over red-hot coke.
o Acetylene used a gas produced by adding calcium carbide to water. Its smell is a bit
unpleasant but the flame it produces is so hot that it is used for cutting metals and
welding purposes.
Harmful Effects of Burning Fuels

1. Carbon fuels like wood, coal and petroleum release ash and fine unburnt carbon particles in
the air which can cause respiratory diseases like asthma. These fine particles are referred
to as Suspended Particulate Matter (SPM).
2. Incomplete combustion of fuels (such as coal, gasoline and other fossil fuels) releases
carbon monoxide gas which is very poisonous and can kill people sleeping in the room
where coal is burning. CO combines with haemoglobin in our blood to form
carboxyheamoglobin and renders it incapable of transporting oxygen. These fuels also
release unburnt hydrocarbons, many of which are carcinogenic (cause cancer) and pose
serious health hazards.
3. Carbon dioxide released by most fuels during combustion is causing an imbalance in the
atmosphere. Deforestation is also leading to a situation where there are fewer trees to
absorb the carbon dioxide. This is leading to global warming.
4. Burning of coal and diesel releases sulphur dioxide gas which is corrosive in nature and
causes irritation in nose, throat and airways. It also causes shortness of breath, wheezing,
and a feeling of tightness around the chest. Petrol engines release gaseous oxides of
nitrogen. These sulphur and nitrogen oxides dissolve in rainwater to form acids and cause
acid rain.
TEXTBOOK QUESTIONS
Question 1:List conditions under which combustion can take place.
Ans: Combustion is a process of reaction of a substance with oxygen. There are certain
conditions required for combustion to take place. They are:
(i) Presence of a fuel
(ii) Air (or oxygen)
(iii) Ignition temperature (minimum temperature at which a substance catches fire).
Question 2:Fill in the blanks:
(a) Burning of wood and coal causes pollution of air.
(b) A liquid fuel used in homes is liquefied petroleum gas (LPG)_.
(c) Fuel must be heated to its ignition temperature before it starts burning.
(d) Fire produced by oil cannot be controlled by water .
Question 3:Explain how the use of CNG in automobiles has reduced pollution in our cities.
Ans: Combustion of fuels like petroleum causes formation of un-burnt carbon particles along
with carbon monoxide gas. These harmful pollutants enter the air and cause respiratory diseases.
Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) produces these harmful products in very less quantity. It is a
comparatively cleaner fuel. Therefore, the use of CNG has reduced pollution in our cities.
Question 4:Compare LPG and wood as fuels.
Ans: Wood has been a traditional fuel for both domestic and industrial use. However, it produces
a lot of smoke that can cause respiratory problems. Also, wood is obtained from trees. Thus,
using wood as a fuel causes deforestation. Therefore, slowly wood is replaced by LPG, which is
a liquefied form of petroleum gas. It does not give out smoke and other pollutants and is a
cleaner fuel. Again, fuel efficiency of LPG is more than that of wood. The calorific value of LPG
is 55000 kJ / kg, while that of wood is between 17000 to 22000 kJ / kg. Hence, LPG is favoured
over wood.
Question 5:Give reasons.
(a) Water is not used to control fires involving electrical equipment.
20
(b) LPG is a better domestic fuel than wood.
(c) Paper by itself catches fire easily whereas a piece of paper wrapped around an
aluminium pipe does not.
Ans: (a) Water is a good conductor of electricity. If it is used for controlling a fire involving
electrical equipments, then the person dousing the fire might get an electric shock. Also, water
can damage electrical equipments.
(b) LPG is a better domestic fuel as it does not produce smoke and un-burnt carbon particles,
which cause respiratory problems.
(c) A piece of paper wrapped around aluminium pipe does not catch fire easily. This is because
aluminium, being a metal, is a good conductor of heat. Therefore, heat is transferred from the
paper to the metal and the paper does not attain its ignition temperature.
Question 6: Make a labelled diagram of a candle flame.
Question 7:Name the unit in which the calorific value of a fuel is expressed.
Ans: The calorific value of a fuel is expressed in kilojoules per kilogram (kJ/kg).
Question 8:Explain how CO2 is able to control fires.
Ans: CO2 is a non-combustible gas and extinguishes fire in two ways:
(i) Since it is heavier than oxygen, it covers the fire like a blanket and cuts off the contact
between oxygen and fuel.
(ii) In cylinders, CO2 is kept in the liquid form. When released, it expands enormously and cools
down. This brings down the temperature of the fuel, which helps in controlling the fire.
Question 9:It is difficult to burn a heap of green leaves but dry leaves catch fire easily.
Explain.
Ans: Green leaves have a lot of moisture in them. This moisture does not allow them to catch
fire easily. However, dry leaves have no moisture in them. Therefore, they catch fire easily.
52
Question 10:Which zone of a flame does a goldsmith use for melting gold and silver and
why?
Ans: Goldsmiths use the outermost part/zone of the flame to melt gold and silver. This is
because the outermost zone of the flame undergoes complete combustion and is the hottest part
of the flame.
Question 11:In an experiment 4.5 kg of a fuel was completely burnt. The heat produced
was measured to be 180,000 kJ. Calculate the calorific value of the fuel.
Ans: The calorific value of fuel is the amount of heat produced by the complete combustion of
1 kg of fuel.
Now,
Heat produced by 4.5 kg of fuel = 180000 kJ
Therefore, heat produced by kJ/kg
= 40,000 kJ/kg
Hence, the calorific value of the fuel is 40,000 kJ/kg.
Question 12:Can the process of rusting be called combustion? Discuss.
Combustion is a chemical process in which a substance reacts with oxygen and gives out energy
during the process in the form of either heat or light or both. Rusting of iron is an exothermic
process as heat is released during rusting. Hence, it is a kind of slow combustion.
Question 13:Abida and Ramesh were doing an experiment in which water was to be heated
in a beaker. Abida kept the beaker near the wick in the yellow part of the candle flame.
Ramesh kept the beaker in the outermost part of the flame. Whose water will get heated in
a shorter time?
Ans: The water in the Ramesh‟s beaker will heat up in a shorter time. This is because the
outermost zone of a flame is the hottest zone, while the yellow zone (in which Abida had kept
the beaker) is less hot.

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CHAPTER : CELL

Discovery of the Cell:

Organisms Show Variety in Cell Number, Shape and Size:

Cell Structure and Function:

Parts of the Cell:

Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) is a network of canals made up of membranes that encloses a

Function of Golgi Bodies:

Ribosomes- Protein Factory of cells

LYSOSOME – A SINGLE MEMBRANE ORGANELLE

• Amyloplast: stores starch

b) Chromoplasts: These contain different-colored pigments. Most important type of

6CO2 + 6H2O → C6H12O6 + 6O2

PLANT CELL ANIMAL CELL

Cell wall is present. Cell wall is absent.

Vacuoles are larger in size. Vacuoles are smaller in size

Nucleus lies on one side in the peripheral cytoplasm.

Ans 2: An English Scientist ―Robert Hook discovered the cell in 1665.

Q 3: Give three examples of unicellular organisms?

Q 4: Answer the following Questions?

i. Why cells could not be observed before 17th Century?

ix. Neuron is an example of a cell having branched structure.

a) Plasma membrane has the following functions:

ii) It protects the cell from injuries. iii) Maintain

b) Chromosomes contain hereditary information of the cell in the form of genes.

Q 6: Why are the following important to a plant cell?

• The cell wall maintains the shape of the cell.

• It protects the plant cell against injury.

• It provides mechanical strength to the cell.

• Allows free movement of materials.

• Nucleus helps in cell division

Q 7: Draw an outline diagram of an Animal Cell. Label the different parts?

Q8: Mention 3 differences between Plant Cell & Animal Cell?

Cell wall is present. Cell wall is absent.

It contains chloroplast. It does not contain

a. Both have plasma membrane.

Chemical Effects of Electric Current

Conductors and insulators

Can liquids conduct electricity?

• Any solution of acids or bases can

Figure 3 Liquids that are Poor and

Figure 4 Set up to detect if a liquid can conduct electricity

Figure 5 Electrolysis Process

Electrolysis of aqueous solution of water

Following reaction takes place

1. At Anode: We will notice oxygen gas bubbles at anode.

1. It is used for electroplating.

Effects of an electric current

Chemical effects of electric current

Figure 6 Electroplating of copper on brass

Other applications of Chemical Effect of Electric Current

Figure 8 Extraction of Aluminium

Figure 9 Purification of Copper using Electroplating

Figure 10 Decomposing water to separate hydrogen and oxygen

possible reasons. Explain your answer.

The bulb may not glow because of the following reasons:

(iii) both liquids are equally conducting.

(iv) conducting properties of liquid cannot be compared in this manner.

(i) Liquid A is a better conductor than liquid B.

Q11: Prepare a list of objects around you that are electroplated.

Examples of electroplated objects are as follows: