Republic of the Philippines

DON HONORIO VENTURA STATE UNIVERSITY

Cabambangan, Villa de Bacolor, Pampanga

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE

Department of Civil Engineering

A. Course Code / Title : HRENG 313 – Highway and Railroad Engineering

B. Module Number : Module 3 – Geometric Design for Highways and Railways

C. Time Frame : 2nd week of Nov. to 1st week of Dec. 2020 (3 hours per week)

D. Description : This module gives an explanation on the different factors

influencing Highway Design and the fundamentals of vertical and
horizontal alignment.

E. Objectives : At the end of this module, the learner should be able to:
1. Be familiar on the cross section elements of highways and
determine its importance in design.
2. Know the different fundamentals under vertical and horizontal
alignment.
3. Solve problems regarding the geometric design of highways.

F. Contents : 3.1 Introduction

3.2 Factors Influencing Highway Design
3.3 Cross-Section Elements
3.4 Design of the Alignment
3.5 Vertical Alignment
3.5.1 Vertical Curve Fundamentals
3.5.2 Stopping Sight Distance
3.5.3 Stopping Sight Distance and Crest Vertical Curve
Design
3.5.4 Stopping Sight Distance and Sag Vertical Curve
Design
3.5.5 Underpass Sight Distance and Sag Vertical Curve
Design
3.6 Horizontal Alignment
3.6.1 Vehicle Cornering
3.6.2 Stopping Sight Distance and Horizontal Curve
Design

3.1 Introduction
Geometric design deals with the dimensioning of the elements of highways, such as vertical and horizontal
curves, cross sections, truck climbing lanes, bicycle paths, and parking facilities. The characteristics of driver,
pedestrian, vehicle, and road, serve as the basis for determining the physical dimensions of these elements.

1|Page
 When one considers the diversity of vehicles’ performance and physical dimensions, and the interaction of
these characteristics with the many elements constituting highway design, it is clear that proper design is a complex
procedure that requires numerous compromises. Moreover, it is important that design guidelines evolve over time in
response to changes in vehicle performance and dimensions, and in response to evidence collected on the
effectiveness of existing highway design practices, such as the relationship between crash rates and various
roadway design characteristics.
In highway design, the determination of the length of freeway acceleration and deceleration lanes, maximum
highway grades, stopping sight distances, passing sight distances, and numerous accident-prevention devices all
rely on a basic understanding of vehicle performance.
The fundamental objective of geometric design is to produce a smooth-flowing and safe highway facility, an
objective that only can be achieved by providing a consistent design standard that satisfies the characteristics of the
driver and the vehicles that use the road. The American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials
(AASHTO) serves a critical function in developing guidelines and standards used in highway geometric design.

3.2 Factors Influencing Highway Design

Highway design is based on specified design standards and controls which depend on the following
roadway system factors:
 Functional classification
 Design hourly traffic volume and vehicle mix
 Design speed
 Design vehicle
 Cross section of the highway, such as lanes, shoulders, and medians
 Presence of heavy vehicles on steep grades
 Topography of the area that the highway traverses
 Level of service
 Available funds
 Safety
 Social and environmental factors
These factors are often interrelated. For example, design speed depends on functional classification which
is usually related to expected traffic volume. The design speed may also depend on the topography, particularly in
cases where limited funds are available. In most instances, the principal factors used to determine the standards to
which a particular highway will be designed are the level of service to be provided, expected traffic volume, design
speed, and the design vehicle. These factors, coupled with the basic characteristics of the driver, vehicle, and road,
are used to determine standards for the geometric characteristics of the highway, such as cross sections and
horizontal and vertical alignments. For example, appropriate geometric standards should be selected to maintain a
desired level of service for a known proportional distribution of different types of vehicles.

3.3 Cross Section Elements

The principal elements of a highway cross section consist of the travel lanes, shoulders, and medians (for
some multilane highways). Marginal elements include median and roadside barriers, curbs, gutters, guard rails,
sidewalks, and side slopes. Figure 3.1 shows a typical cross section for a two-lane highway, and Figure 3.2 shows
that for a multilane highway.

2|Page
 Figure 3.1

Figure 3.2

The cross section of a typical highway has latitude of variables to consider such as:
1. The volume of traffic.
2. Character of the traffic.
3. Speed of the traffic.
4. Characteristics of motor vehicles and of the driver

Highway design usually adopted cross section that is uniform in thickness from end to end of the
improvement. This is acceptable on high volume traffic road facilities. For a low volume traffic facilities, modification
of the features like the shoulders width in rough areas are usually employed to reduce costs.

Road Shoulder
Road shoulder or verge is defined as that portion of the roadway between the edge of the traffic lane and
the edge of the ditch, gutter, curb or side slope. AASHTO requires that its usable pavement width shall be strong
enough to support vehicles.

The Cross Slope

The cross slope is provided in all tangent sections of the roadway. Slope usually falls in both directions from
the centerline of the two lane highway except where super elevation of curves directs all water towards the inside.
For high type pavement the crown or slope is often 1% to 2%. However, steeper slopes are strongly
recommended because rain water flow away more rapidly reducing the water thickness on the road pavement. A
cross slope in one direction of multi-lane highways makes driving comfortable, but with heavy rainfall, the water depth
increases on the roadway.

3|Page
Cut or Fill Slope
Side slopes are provided on embankments and fills to provide stability for earthworks. They also serve as a
safety feature by providing a recovery area for out-of-control vehicles. Earth fill of normal height is safe on a slope of
1:2 ratios. Meaning, the first number represents the horizontal distance while the second number is the vertical
distance.

Number of Lanes
The number of lanes in a segment of the highway is determined from the estimated traffic volume for the
design year (AADT) and highway lane capacity at expected level of service.

Highway Median
A median is the section of a divided highway that separates the lanes in opposing directions. The width of a
median is the distance between the edges of the inside lanes, including the median shoulders. An island is a defined
area between traffic lanes for control of vehicle movement and for pedestrian refuge. Within an intersection, median
is considered an island.

The Grade Line

Grade line is defined as the longitudinal profile of the highway as a measure how the centerline of the
highway rises and fall. It appears on a profile taken along the road centerline. It is a series of straight lines connected
by parabolic vertical curves to which straight grades are tangent.

Curbs and Gutters

Curbs are raised structures made of either Portland cement concrete or bituminous concrete (rolled asphalt
curbs) that are used mainly on urban highways to delineate pavement edges and pedestrian walkways. Curbs are
also used to control drainage, improve aesthetics, and reduce right of way.
Gutters or drainage ditches are usually located on the pavement side of a curb to provide the principal
drainage facility for the highway. They are sloped to prevent any hazard to traffic.

Guard Rails
Guard rails are longitudinal barriers placed on the outside of sharp curves and at sections with high fills.
Their main function is to prevent vehicles from leaving the roadway.

Sidewalks
Sidewalks are usually provided on roads in urban areas, but are uncommon in rural areas. Nevertheless,
the provision of sidewalks in rural areas should be evaluated during the planning process to determine sections of the
road where they are required.

Right of Way
The right of way is the total land area acquired for the construction of a highway. The width should be
sufficient to accommodate all the elements of the highway cross section, any planned widening of the highway, and
public-utility facilities that will be installed along the highway. Acquisition of land for the right of way is very costly.
Based on experience from the past, highway agency now consider it a good practice to acquire right of way wide

4|Page
enough to sufficiently provide for the ultimate expected development.

3.4 Design of the Alignment

The alignment of a highway is composed of vertical and horizontal elements. The vertical alignment includes
straight (tangent) highway grades and the parabolic curves that connect these grades. The horizontal alignment
includes the straight (tangent) sections of the roadway and the circular curves that connect their change in direction.
The design of the alignment depends primarily on the design speed selected for the highway. The least costly
alignment is one that takes the form of the natural topography.
It is not always possible to select the lowest cost alternative because the designer must adhere to certain
standards that may not exist on the natural topography. It is important that the alignment of a given section has
consistent standards to avoid sudden changes in the vertical and horizontal layout of the highway. It is also important
that both horizontal and vertical alignments be designed to complement each other, since this will result in a safer
and more attractive highway. One factor that should be considered to achieve compatibility is the proper balancing of
the grades of tangents with curvatures of horizontal curves and the location of horizontal and vertical curves with
respect to each other.

3.5 Vertical Alignment

The vertical alignment of a highway consists of straight sections known as grades, (or tangents) connected
by vertical curves. The design of the vertical alignment therefore involves the selection of suitable grades for the
tangent sections and the appropriate length of vertical curves. The topography of the area through which the road
traverses has a significant impact on the design of the vertical alignment.
Vertical curves are used to provide a gradual change from one tangent grade to another so that vehicles
may run smoothly as they traverse the highway. These curves are usually parabolic in shape. The expressions
developed for minimum lengths of vertical curves are therefore based on the properties of a parabola.

3.5.1 Vertical Curve Fundamentals

A vertical parabolic curve is a parabolic curve tangent to two intersecting tangent.
A. Symmetrical vertical parabolic curve
B. Unsymmetrical vertical parabolic curve

A. Symmetrical vertical parabolic curve

A parabolic curve where in the horizontal distances from PC to V and V to PT are equal.
Elements:
1. Point of Curvature (PC)
2. Point of Tangency (PT)
3. Back and Forward Tangents
4. Vertex
5. g1 and g2 (grades of intersecting tangents) - If the algebraic
difference in the order of the grades of the two slopes is
positive, that is (g1 - g2), we have a summit curve.
6. Diameter of the vertical parabolic curve – a line drawn from
the vertex to the midpoint of the horizontal distance of the curve
from PC to PT.
7. Length of the Parabolic Curve (L) – horizontal distance
between PC and PT
8. Offset from tangent to a point on vertical parabolic curve (y) –
the vertical distance of the point from the tangent which is
parallel to the diameter.

5|Page
FORMULAS:
1.

2. Squared Property of Parabola (SPP)

;
( ) ( )

3. Highest / Lowest Point

(From PC) (From PT)

4. where n = no. of stations and r = change in the rate of slope

6|Page
Sample Problems:
1. A 6.2% grade is followed by -2.8% grade; the grades intersecting at Sta. (10+800) of elevation 1,060m. The
symmetrical parabolic curve is 300m.
a) Locate the highest point on the curve. Determine its station and elevation.
b) Locate the Sta. C on the curve that lies on the left of the summit and is at elevation 1.054m.

Given:
g1 = 6.2%
g2 = -2.8% g2 = -2.8%
Sta. V (10+800); elevation 1,060 g1=6.2%
L=300m

Locate the Highest point on the curve.

By observation, HP is located near PT.
Therefore, use S2.

For the elevation of HP:

Solve for H, a and y

[ ]

( )

By SPP, solve y

7|Page
Station of HP

( )

For the Station of point C

Solve for X

Using SPP

Use the given elevation of point C.

( )

8|Page
 ( )

2. A 200m symmetrical parabolic curve has a grade of -4% and +6%. Sta. PI is at (5+600) with
elevation of 110.25m. Find the elevation at the top culvert, placed at the lowest point if the
backfill depth is 0.6m.

Given:
L=200m
g1= -4%
g2=+6%
Sta. PI (5+600) ; elevation 110.25m
Backfill depth = 0.6m

g2=6%
g1 = -4%

The culvert is placed at the lowest

point of the curve. For the elevation of the top of culvert,

By observation, LP is located near PC. Therefore, use S1.

For the elevation of LP

9|Page
Solve for a

( )

Solve for y using SPP

Solve for H

[ ]

10 | P a g e
B. Unsymmetrical vertical parabolic curve

L1 = length of the parabolic curve at left

L2 = length of the parabolic curve at right
g1 = slope of backward tangent
g2 = slope of forward tangent

FORMULAS
1.

2. Squared Property of Parabola (SPP)

;

Location of the HP or LP on the curve

(from PC) (from PT)

; use ; use

Sample Problem:
An unsymmetrical parabolic curve has a forward tangent of -8% and a back tangent of +5%. Locate the position of
the highest point on the summit and its’ distance from the PT. The vertical curve has a length of 40m on the side of
the PC and 60m from the PT. The PC is at station (6+780) and has an elevation of 110m.
Given:
g1=5%
g2=-8%
L1=40m
L2=60m
Sta. PC (6+780); 110m

To identify the position of the Highest Point, solve for the value of and compare it to the value of H

11 | P a g e
For the Station and elevation of HP

Solve for a and y

Using SPP

Location of HP from PT
Location of HP from PT
HP is located 74.359m from PT

12 | P a g e
3.5.2 Stopping Sight Distance
Construction of a vertical curve is generally a costly operation requiring the movement of significant
amounts of earthen material. Thus one of the primary challenges facing highway designers is to minimize
construction costs (usually by making the vertical curve as short as possible) while still providing an adequate level of
safety. An appropriate level of safety is usually defined as that level of safety that gives drivers sufficient sight
distance to allow them to safely stop their vehicles to avoid collisions with objects obstructing their forward motion.

We can compute this necessary stopping sight distance (SSD) as the summation of vehicle practical stopping
distance and the distance traveled during driver perception/reaction time:

 Deceleration:
 Braking Time:


Sample Problems:

1. Compute the total distance a car had traveled from the time the driver sees a hazard when he is traveling at
a speed of 75kph, perception time is 2 seconds and the average skid resistance is equal to 0.60. Assume
the car has an efficiency of 80%.
Given:
V = 75kph
T=2s
F=0.60
Efficiency = 80%

Note:

Unit conversion:

13 | P a g e
 ( )

2. A bus is running at a speed of 20mph downhill on a grade of -2%. The coefficient of friction between the
road surface and the tire is 0.34. After suddenly applying full brakes, how far the bus travels until it stops?
Given:
V=20mph
G = -2%
F=0.34

G=-2%

Braking Distance

Compute the braking distance:

Convert V from miles per hour(mph) to kph

14 | P a g e
3.5.3 Stopping Sight Distance and Crest Vertical Curve Design
The length of curve is the critical element in providing sufficient SSD on a vertical curve. Longer curve
lengths provide more SSD, all else being equal, but are more costly to construct. Shorter curve lengths are less
expensive to construct but may not provide adequate SSD due to more rapid changes in slope. What is needed,
then, is an expression for minimum curve length given a required SSD. In developing such an expression, crest and
sag vertical curves are considered separately.
The case of designing a crest vertical curve for adequate stopping sight distance is illustrated in the figure.
To determine the minimum length of curve for a required sight distance, the properties of a parabola for an equal
tangent curve can be used to show that
√ √
For For
√ √
Where: L = minimum length of vertical curve
A = absolute value of the difference in grades | |
Standard Values for and

S = sight distance PVC = point of vertical curve (initial point of curve)

= height of driver’s eye above roadway surface PVI = point of vertical intersection (intersection of
initial = height of object above roadway surface and final grades
L = Length of curve PVT = point of vertical tangent, final point of vertical
curve (point where the curve returns to the final grade or final tangent)

Sample Problems:
1. A vertical summit curve has grades of +3% and -2% which intersects at station (20+040). If the stopping site
distance is equal to 163.78m,
a. Compute the maximum speed that a vehicle could move along this curve to avoid collision if the perception
reaction time of the driver is 2 seconds and the coefficient of friction is 0.25.
b. Compute the length of the curve.

Given:
g1=3%
g2 = -2%
Sta V (20+040)
S= 163.78

15 | P a g e
For the maximum speed of the vehicle

For the length of the curve, assume S>L

√ √

√ √

Base on the values of S and L, S<L wrong assumption. Therefore, use the formula of L for S<L

√ √

√ √

S<L therefore, the final length of the curve is 316.151m

16 | P a g e
 2. A 5% grade intersects a -3.4% grade at station (1+990) of elevation 42.3 m. If the stopping sight distance is
equals to 83. 289m, compute the length of the curve.

Given:
g1=5%
g2 = -3.4%
Sta. V (1+990) ; 42.3m
S = 83.289m

For the length of the curve, assume S<L

√ √

√ √

S<L therefore, correct assumption. Length of the curve is 137.359m

3.5.4 Stopping Sight Distance and Sag Vertical Curve Design

Sag vertical curve design differs from crest vertical curve design in the sense that sight distance is governed
by nighttime conditions because in daylight, sight distance on a sag vertical curve is unrestricted. Thus the critical
concern for sag vertical curve design is the length of roadway illuminated by the vehicle headlights, which is a
function of the height of the headlight above the roadway and the inclined angle of the headlight beam, relative to the
horizontal plane of the car. The sag vertical curve sight distance design problem is illustrated in the figure.

S = sight distance PVC = point of vertical curve (initial point of curve)

H= height of headlight PVI = point of vertical intersection (intersection of
initial = inclined angle of headlight and final grades
L = Length of curve PVT = point of vertical tangent, final point of vertical
curve (point where the curve returns to the final grade or final tangent)

17 | P a g e
 To determine the minimum length of curve for a required sight distance, the properties of a parabola for an
equal-tangent curve can be used to show that
For For
For the sight distance required to provide adequate SSD, current AASHTO design guidelines [2011] use a
headlight height of 2.0 ft and an upward angle of one degree.
If H and are not given:
For For

Sample Problem
A vertical sag parabolic curve has tangent grades of -1.5% and +3.5%. Compute the length of the curve if it has a
stopping sight distance of 182.93m.
Given:
g1=-1.5%
g2 = 3.5%
S=182.93m

For the length of the

curve, assume S<L

Use this formula when H and β are not given.

S<L therefore, correct assumption. Length of the curve is 219.503m

If H=0.6 and β = 1°, use the first formula

For the length of the curve, assume S<L

S<L therefore, correct assumption. Length of the curve is 220.557m.

18 | P a g e
3.5.5 Underpass Sight Distance and Sag Vertical Curve Design
Design for sag curves is based on nighttime conditions because during daytime conditions a driver can see
the entire sag curve. However, in the case of a sag curve being built under an overhead structure (such as roadway
or railroad crossing), a driver’s line of sight may be restricted so that the entire curve length is not visible.
In designing the sag curve, it is essential that the curve be long enough to provide a suitably gradual rate of
curvature such that the overhead structure does not block the line of sight and allows the required stopping sight
distance for the specified design speed to be maintained.

For For

Sample Problem
At a certain underpass, the height of a driver’s eye on a 240m sag parabolic curve at the instant when the perception
reaction time of 2seconds is 1.1m while the height of the object above the pavement is 1.0m, The back tangent grade
is -3% meeting the forward tangent at station (12+100) elevation 300m. If the length of the sight distance is 320m,
determine the grade of the forward tangent. If a catch basin is to be placed at the lowest point of the curve, locate the
point where the catch basin should be placed. Vertical clearance at the center of the underpass is 4.25m.

Given:
g1=-3%
h1=1.1m
h2=1.0m
S=320m
L=240m
Hc=4.25m
Sta. V (12+100) ; elev. 300m

Req’d:
g2
Station and elevation of LP

Solve for g2

S(320)>L(240), use formula for L equals to:

19 | P a g e
Solve for H

Solve for the Station and elevation of LP, assume the curve is symmetrical.

By observation, LP is located near PC, therefore use S1

Solve for a and y

( )

20 | P a g e
 Using SPP

3.6 Horizontal Alignment

The critical aspect of horizontal alignment is the horizontal curve, with the focus on design of the directional
transition of the roadway in a horizontal plane. Stated differently, a horizontal curve provides a transition between two
straight (or tangent) sections of roadway. A key concern in this directional transition is the ability of the vehicle to
negotiate a horizontal curve. The highway engineer must design a horizontal alignment to accommodate the
cornering capabilities of a variety of vehicles, ranging from nimble sports cars to ponderous trucks.

3.6.1 Vehicle Cornering

Rv = radius defined to the vehicle’s traveled path in ft or m Wp = vehicle weight parallel to the roadway surface in
lb or kN
α = angle of incline in degrees, Ff = side frictional force (centripetal, in lb or kN),
e = number of vertical ft of rise per 100 ft, Fc = centripetal force (lateral acceleration × mass, in
of horizontal distance lb or kN),
W = weight of the vehicle in lb or kN Fcp = centripetal force acting parallel to the roadway
surface in lb or kN, and
Wn = vehicle weight normal to the roadway Fcn = centripetal force acting normal to the roadway
surface in lb or kN surface in lb or kN

21 | P a g e
a. Minimum radius of curvature

R = min. radius of curvature

e = super elevation (m/m)
= coefficient of side friction or skid resistance
v = design speed
g= 9.81 m/sec2

b. Centrifugal ratio or impact factor

V = design speed of car (m/s)

g= 9.81 m/sec2
R = radius of curvature in meters

Sample Problem
A car having a weight of 40kN is moving at a certain speed around the curve. Assuming no lateral pressure between
the tire and pavement and considering a centrifugal ratio of 0.30,

a. Compute the force that will tend to pull the car away from the center of the curve.
b. If the degree of the curve is 4° determine the maximum speed that the car could move around the curve.
c. Compute the angle of embankment to be provided for this speed if the skid resistance is 0.12.

Given: W=40kN
CR=0.30
W=40kN

e
1m
α
Solve for Fcp

Solve for Max. Velocity

22 | P a g e
Since degree of the curve is given, apply the formula of Radius in simple curve

Solve for α

Solve for e

23 | P a g e
3.6.3 Stopping Sight Distance and Horizontal Curve Design
As is the case for vertical curve design, adequate stopping sight distance must be provided in the design of
horizontal curves. Sight distance restrictions on horizontal curves occur when obstructions are present. Such
obstructions are frequently encountered in highway design due to the cost of right-of-way acquisition or the cost of
moving earthen materials, such as rock outcroppings. When such an obstruction exists, the stopping sight distance is
measured along the horizontal curve from the center of the traveled lane (the assumed location of the driver’s eyes).
For a specified stopping distance, some distance Ms (the middle ordinate of a curve that has an arc length equal to
the stopping sight distance) must be visually cleared so that the line of sight is such that sufficient stopping sight
distance is available.

R = radius measured to the centerline of the Ms = middle ordinate necessary to provide

road in ft or m adequate stopping sight distance (SSD) in ft
or m
Rv = radius to the vehicle’s traveled path SSD = stopping sight distance in ft or m
(usually measured to the center of the PC = point of curve (the beginning point of
the innermost lane of the road) in ft or m horizontal curve), and
Δ = central angle of the curve in degrees PT = point of tangent (the ending point of the
Δs = angle (in degrees) subtended by an arc horizontal curve).
equal in length to the required stopping
sight distance (SSD),
L = length of curve in ft or m

Sight Distance in horizontal curve:

For For
R = radius of curvature
Note: if L is not given in the problem, use the first equation.

24 | P a g e
Sample Problem:
The desirable sight distance when rounding a simple curve is 600m. If the clearance from the center line of the road
to the building is 40m and the length of the curve is 540m, find the minimum radius of curvature.
Given:
S=600m
m=40m
L=540m

Based on the given value of S and L, S>L,

[ ]

References:
 Principles of Highway Engineering and Traffic Analysis, 5th Edition by Mannering & Washburn
 Highway and Traffic Engineering 4th Edition by Garber & Hoel
 Elements of Roads and Highways 2nd Edition by Max B. Fajardo, Jr.

25 | P a g e