A12 - Sensors and Transducers

Unit III
 A12 - Sensors and Transducers
Unit III

1. Level Transducer
A level transducer is a device that produces an electric signal with respect to a liquid level.
Level transducers are classified based on following measurement methods
Direct and indirect level measurements.
Continuous and discrete level measurements.
In direct method of measurement, the liquid level is converted directly to electrical signal. This
can be done with the help of some indicators. In indirect method, liquid level is first converted to
displacement and this displacement is then converted to electrical signal.
Continuous Level Transducer
Continuous level transducers measure the exact position of liquid level. It can monitor the entire
system. Different types of continuous level transducers are
Ultrasonic level transducers
Float element type-level transducers
Capacitive level transducers
Pressure type-level transducers
Inductive level transducers
Resistive level transducers etc.
Float Element Type Level Transducers
A float element type liquid level transducer is the most common simple method to measure liquid
levels.
As the liquid level rises in the tank, the float rises. It causes to move the wiper over the potential
divider. The output terminals of the potential divider are connected to a voltmeter. The output
voltage is increased as the float rises. That is the voltage will be proportional to the liquid level.
Advantages
Simple in construction.
Easy to operate.
Works at large temperature range.
Disadvantages
Not suitable in moderate pressure.
Design of float should be selected properly.
Ultrasonic Level Transducers
The ultrasonic level transducers work by the time-of-flight principle. It is a method used for
measuring the distance between a sensor and an object.

The ultrasonic transmitter emits an ultrasonic pulse beam towards the liquid. This pulse is reflected
back to the ultrasonic receiver by the liquid surface. The time difference between the transmission
and reception is measured and is calibrated to distance.It can be used for both continuous and
discrete level measurements.
Advantages
Reliable.
There are no moving parts.
Can be used in high humidity.
 Material density or conductivity is not affected.
Disadvantages
Dust particle may create distortion.
Vibration or high noise will affect result.
Manometer Type Level Transducers

Pressure Type Level Transducers

Pressure Type Level Transducers

differential pressure type level transducer 1
Capacitive Level Transducers
Capacitive transducers can also be used to measure liquid levels.
Measurement of non-conductive material
capacitive level transducer
The two concentric cylinders act as electrodes and the non-conducting liquid act as the dielectric
medium.
Point (Discrete) Level Transducer
Discrete level transducers are used to detect a single discrete liquid height. It is normally used for
detecting overflow or below the required level conditions.

2. What is a Flow Meter?

A flow meter (or flow sensor) is an instrument used to measure linear, nonlinear, mass or
volumetric flow rate of a liquid or a gas. When choosing flowmeters, one should consider such
intangible factors as familiarity of plant personnel, their experience with calibration and
maintenance, spare parts availability, and mean time between failure history, etc., at the particular
plant site. It is also recommended that the cost of the installation be computed only after taking
these steps.
One of the most common flow measurement mistakes is the reversal of this sequence: instead of
selecting a sensor which will perform properly, an attempt is made to justify the use of a device
because it is less expensive. Those "inexpensive" purchases can be the most costly installations.
This page will help you better understand flow meters, but you can also speak to our application
engineers at any time if you have any special flow measurement challenges.
Fluid and flow characteristics
The fluid and its given and its pressure, temperature, allowable pressure drop, density (or specific
gravity), conductivity, viscosity (Newtonian or not?) and vapor pressure at maximum operating
temperature are listed, together with an indication of how these properties might vary or interact.
In addition, all safety or toxicity information should be provided, together with detailed data on
the fluid's composition, presence of bubbles, solids (abrasive or soft, size of particles, fibers),
tendency to coat, and light transmission qualities (opaque, translucent or transparent?).
Pressure & Temperature Ranges
Expected minimum and maximum pressure and temperature values should be given in addition to
the normal operating values when selecting flowmeters. Whether flow can reverse, whether it does
not always fill the pipe, whether slug flow can develop (air-solids-liquid), whether aeration or
pulsation is likely, whether sudden temperature changes can occur, or whether special precautions
are needed during cleaning and maintenance, these facts, too, should be stated.
 3. What is Bernoulli’s Principle?
Bernoulli’s principle formulated by Daniel Bernoulli states that as the speed of a moving fluid
increases (liquid or gas), the pressure within the fluid decreases. Although Bernoulli deduced the
law, it was Leonhard Euler who derived Bernoulli’s equation in its usual form in the year 1752.
Bernoulli’s principle states that the total mechanical energy of the moving fluid comprising the
gravitational potential energy of elevation, the energy associated with the fluid pressure and the
kinetic energy of the fluid motion, remains constant.
Bernoulli’s Principle Formula
Bernoulli’s equation formula is a relation between pressure, kinetic energy, and gravitational
potential energy of a fluid in a container.
The formula for Bernoulli’s principle is given as:
p + 12 ρ v2 + ρgh =constant

Where,

p is the pressure exerted by the fluid

v is the velocity of the fluid
ρ is the density of the fluid
h is the height of the container
Bernoulli’s equation gives great insight into the balance between pressure, velocity and elevation.
Bernoulli’s Equation Derivation
Consider a pipe with varying diameter and height through which an incompressible fluid is
flowing. The relationship between the areas of cross-sections A, the flow speed v, height from the
ground y, and pressure p at two different points 1 and 2 is given in the figure below.
Principle of Continuity
According to the principle of continuity
If the fluid is in streamline flow and is in-compressible then we can say that mass of fluid passing
through different cross sections are equal.

From the above situation, we can say the mass of liquid inside the container remains the same.
The rate of mass entering = Rate of mass leaving
The rate of mass entering = ρA1V1Δt—– (1)
The rate of mass entering = ρA2V2Δt—– (2)
Using the above equations,
ρA1V1=ρA2V2
This equation is known as the Principle of continuity.
Suppose we need to calculate the speed of efflux for the following setup.
Using Bernoulli’s equation at point 1 and point 2,
p+12ρv21+ρgh=p0+12ρv22v22=v21+2p−p0ρ+2gh
Generally, A2 is much smaller than A1; in this case, v12 is very much smaller than v22 and can
be neglected. We then find, v22=2p−p0ρ+2gh
Assuming A2<<A1,
We get, v2=2gh−−−√
Hence, the velocity of efflux is 2gh−−−√

4. Orifice plates
Orifice plates are one of the most popular devices for the measurement and control of fluid flow.
The shape and manufacturing tolerances of plates used in measurement applications are defined in
the international standardization publications of ISO, AGA, ASME and others. From the formulas
and data within these publications, the relationships and values of flow, differential pressure, and
plate bore are determined. In flow control applications, orifice plates are used as restriction devices
to regulate fluid flow or reduce the flowing pressure downstream of the orifice plate. The use of a
fixed restriction orifice can be beneficial and economic by reducing the demands on other flow
system components. Unlike measurement orifices, the sizing and design of restriction orifices are
not defined by standardization organizations. Additionally, restriction orifices, abbreviated "RO",
are often exposed to severe flow conditions associated with large pressure reductions and the
related fluid conditions caused by liquids flashing to a gas, cavitation, and sonic (choked) flow. In
torturous applications, mimicking the design of measurement orifices is not sufficient. Orifice
Plates are normally mounted between a set of Orifice Flanges and are installed in a straight run of
smooth pipe to avoid disturbance of flow patterns from fittings and Valves.

1. Orifice Plate 2. Hole in Plate 3. Tappings 4. Orifice flange

 5. Flow Nozzle Principle
When a flow nozzle is placed in a pipe carrying whose rate of flow is to be measured, the flow
nozzle causes a pressure drop which varies with the flow rate.
This pressure drop is measured using a differential pressure sensor and when calibrated this
pressure becomes a measure of flow rate.

Description of Flow Nozzle

The main parts of flow nozzle arrangement used to measure flow rate are as follows:
A flow nozzle which is held between flanges of pipe carrying the fluid whose flow rate is being
measured. The flow nozzle’s area is minimum at its throat.
Openings are provided at two places 1 and 2 for attaching a differential pressure sensor (u-tube
manometer, differential pressure gauge etc.,) as show in the diagram.
Operation of flow Nozzle

1. The fluid whose flow rate is to be measured enters the nozzle smoothly to the section called
throat where the area is minimum.
2. Before entering the nozzle, the fluid pressure in the pipe is p1. As the fluid enters the nozzle,
the fluid converges and due to this its pressure keeps on reducing until it reaches the
minimum cross section area called throat. This minimum pressure p2 at the throat of the
nozzle is maintained in the fluid for a small length after being discharged in the downstream
also.
3. The differential pressure sensor attached between points 1 and 2 records the pressure
difference (p1-p2) between these two points which becomes an indication of the flow rate
of the fluid through the pipe when calibrated.
Applications of Flow Nozzle
It is used to measure flow rates of the liquid discharged into the atmosphere.
It is usually used in situation where suspended solids have the property of settling.
 Is widely used for high pressure and temperature steam flows.
Advantages of flow Nozzle
Installation is easy and is cheaper when compared to venturi meter
It is very compact
Has high coefficient of discharge.
Disadvantages of flow Nozzle
Pressure recovery is low
Maintenance is high
Installation is difficult when compared to orifice flow meter.
6. Venturi tube
Venturi tube, short pipe with a constricted inner surface, used to measure fluid flows and as a
pump. The 18th–19th-century Italian physicist Giovanni Battista Venturi, observing the effects of
constricted channels on fluid flow, designed an instrument with a narrow throat in the middle; fluid
passing through the tube speeds up as it enters the throat, and the pressure drops. There are
countless applications for the principle—e.g., an automobile carburetor, in which air flows through
a venturi channel at whose throat gasoline vapor enters through an opening, drawn in by the low
pressure. The pressure differential can also be used to measure fluid flow. See also Bernoulli’s
theorem.
The classical venturi tube is shown in Figure 6.6. It comprises a cylindrical inlet section followed
by a convergent entrance into a cylindrical throat and a divergent outlet section. A complete
specification may be found by reference to BS 1042 Part 1 1964; relevant details are repeated here:

A. Diameter of throat. The diameter d of the throat shall be not less than 0.224D and not greater
than 0.742D, where D is the entrance diameter.
B. Length of throat. The throat shall have a length of 1.0d.
C. Cylindrical entrance section. This section shall have an internal diameter D and a length of not
less than 1.0d.
Conical section. This shall have a taper of 1012°. Its length is therefore 2.70(D − d) within ±0.24(D
− d).
E. Divergent outlet section. The outlet section shall have an inclined angle of not less than 5° and
not greater than 15°. Its length shall be such that the exit diameter is not less than 1.5d.
In operation the fluid passes through the convergent entrance, increasing velocity as it does so,
resulting in a differential pressure between the inlet and throat. This differential pressure is
monitored in the same way as for the orifice plate, the relationship between flow rate and
differential being as defined in Equation (6.24).
Location of Pressure Tapping
The upstream pressure tapping is located in the cylindrical entrance section of the tube 0.5D
upstream of the convergent section and the downstream pressure tapping is located in the throat at
a distance 0.5D downstream of the convergent section. Pressure tappings should be sized so as to
avoid accidental blockage.
Generally the tappings are not in the form of a single hole but several equally spaced holes
connected together in the form of an annular ring, sometimes called a piezometer ring. This has
the advantage of giving a true mean value of pressure at the measuring section.
Application
The venturi is used for applications in which there is a high solids content or high-pressure
recovery is desirable. The venturi is inherently a low head-loss device and can result in an
appreciable saving of energy.
To sum up the venturi tube:
Advantages:
• Simple in operation
• Low head loss
• Tolerance of high solids content
• Long-term reliability
•No moving parts
Disadvantages:
•Expensive
• Square-root pressure-velocity relationship
• Poor turndown ratio
• Critical installation requirements

7. Rotameters

Figure 1. The rotameter's operating principle is based on a float of given density's establishing an
equilibrium position where, with a given flow rate, the upward force of the flowing fluid equals
the downward force of gravity. It does this, for example, by rising in the tapered tube with an
increase in flow until the increased annular area around it creates a new equilibrium position. By
design, the rotameter operates in accordance with formula for all variable-area meters, directly
relating flow rate to area for flow.
Rotameters are the most widely used type of variable-area (VA) flowmeter. In these devices, the
falling and rising action of a float in a tapered tube provides a measure of flow rate (see Figure 1).
Rotameters are known as gravity-type flowmeters because they are based on the opposition
between the downward force of gravity and the upward force of the flowing fluid. When the flow
is constant, the float stays in one position that can be related to the volumetric flow rate. That
position is indicated on a graduated scale. Note that to keep the full force of gravity in effect, this
dynamic balancing act requires a vertical measuring tube.

Other forms of gravity-type VA meters may incorporate a piston or vane that responds to flow in
a manner similar to the float's behavior. All these devices can be used to measure the flow rates of
most liquids, gases, and steam. There are also similar types that balance the fluid flow with a spring
rather than gravitational force. These do not require vertical mounting, but corrosive or erosive
fluids can damage the spring and lead to reduced accuracy.
 8. Anemometer
Encyclopedic entry. An anemometer is an instrument that measures wind speed and wind pressure.
Anemometers are important tools for meteorologists, who study weather patterns.
An anemometer is an instrument that measures wind speed and wind pressure. Anemometers are
important tools for meteorologists, who study weather patterns. They are also important to the
work of physicists, who study the way air moves.
The most common type of anemometer has three or four cups attached to horizontal arms. The
arms are attached to a vertical rod. As the wind blows, the cups rotate, making the rod spin. The
stronger the wind blows, the faster the rod spins. The anemometer counts the number of rotations,
or turns, which is used to calculate wind speed. Because wind speeds are not consistent—there are
gusts and lulls—wind speed is usually averaged over a short period of time.
A similar type of anemometer counts the revolutions made by windmill-style blades. The rod of
windmill anemometers rotates horizontally.
Other anemometers calculate wind speed in different ways. A hot-wire anemometer takes
advantage of the fact that air cools a heated object when it flows over it. (That is why a breeze
feels refreshing on a hot day.) In a hot-wire anemometer, an electrically heated, thin wire is placed
in the wind. The amount of power needed to keep the wire hot is used to calculate the wind speed.
The higher the wind speed, the more power is required to keep the wire at a constant temperature.
Wind speed can also be determined by measuring air pressure. (Air pressure itself is measured by
an instrument called a barometer.) A tube anemometer uses air pressure to determine the wind
pressure, or speed. A tube anemometer measures the air pressure inside a glass tube that is closed
at one end. By comparing the air pressure inside the tube to the air pressure outside the tube, wind
speed can be calculated.
Other anemometers work by measuring the speed of sound waves or by shining laser beams on
tiny particles in the wind and measuring their effect.

Uses of Anemometers
Anemometers are used at almost all weather stations, from the frigid Arctic to warm equatorial
regions. Wind speed helps indicate a change in weather patterns, such as an approaching storm,
which is important for pilots, engineers, and climatologists.

9. Electromagnetic Flow Meters Working Principle

Electromagnetic Flow Meters, simply known as mag flow meter is a volumetric flow meter which
is ideally used for waste water applications and other applications that experience low pressure
drop and with appropriate liquid conductivity required. The device doesn’t have any moving parts
and cannot work with hydrocarbons and distilled water. Mag flow meters are also easy to maintain.
Electromagnetic Flow Meters

Principle of Magnetic Flow Meter Based on Faraday’s Law

Magnetic flow meters works based on Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction. According to
this principle, when a conductive medium passes through a magnetic field B, a voltage E is
generated which is proportional to the velocity v of the medium, the density of the magnetic field
and the length of the conductor.

In a magnetic flow meter, a current is applied to wire coils mounted within or outside the meter
body to generate a magnetic field. The liquid flowing through the pipe acts as the conductor and
this induces a voltage which is proportional to the average flow velocity.
This voltage is detected by sensing electrodes mounted in the Magflow meter body and sent to a
transmitter which calculates the volumetric flow rate based on the pipe dimensions.
Mathematically, we can state Faraday’s law as
E is proportional to V x B x L
[E is the voltage generated in a conductor, V is the velocity of the conductor, B is the magnetic
field strength and L is the length of the conductor].
It is very important that the liquid flow that is to be measured using the magnetic flow meter must
be electrically conductive. The Faraday’s Law indicates that the signal voltage (E) is dependent
on the average liquid velocity (V), the length of the conductor (D) and the magnetic field strength
(B). The magnetic field will thus be established in the cross-section of the tube.
Basically when the conductive liquid flows through the magnetic field, voltage is induced. To
measure this generated voltage (which is proportional to the velocity of the flowing liquid), two
stainless steel electrodes are used which are mounted opposite each other.
The two electrodes which are placed inside the flow meter are then connected to an advanced
electronic circuit that has the ability to process the signal. The processed signal is fed into the
microprocessor that calculates the volumetric flow of the liquid.
Limitations of electromagnetic Flow Meters
(i) The substance being measured must be conductive. Therefore, it can’t be employed for metering
the flow rate of gases and steam, petroleum products and similar liquids having very low
conductivity.
(ii) To render the meter insensitive to variations in the resistance of liquid, the effective resistance
of the liquid between the electrodes should not exceed 1% of the impedance of the external circuit.
(iii) It is a very expensive device.
(iv) As the meter always measures the volume rate, the volume of any suspended matter in the
liquid will be included.
(v) To avoid any trouble which would be caused by entrained air, when the flow tube is installed
in a horizontal pipe-line, the electrodes should be on the horizontal diameter.
(vi) As a zero check on the installation can be performed only by stopping the flow, isolating
valves are required and a bypass may also be necessary through which the flow may be directed
during a zero check.
(vii) The pipe must run full, in case regulating valves are installed upstream of the meter.
Advantages of Electromagnetic Flow Meter
(i) The obstruction to the flow is almost nil and therefore this type of meters can be used for
measuring heavy suspensions, including mud, sewage and wood pulp.
ii) There is no pressure head loss in this type of flow meter other than that of the length of straight
pipe which the meter occupies.
(iii) They are not very much affected by upstream flow disturbances.
(iv) They are practically unaffected by variation in density, viscosity, pressure and temperature.
(v) Electric power requirements can be low (15 or 20 W), particularly with pulsed DC types.
(vi) These meters can be used as bidirectional meters.
(vii) The meters are suitable for most acids, bases, water and aqueous solutions because the lining
materials selected are not only good electrical insulators but also are corrosion resistant.
(viii) The meters are widely used for slurry services not only because they are obstruction less but
also because some of the liners such as polyurethane, neoprene and rubber have good abrasion or
erosion resistance.
(ix) They are capable of handling extremely low flows.
Disadvantages of Magnetic Flow Meter
(i) These meters can be used only for fluids which have reasonable electrical conductivity.
(ii) Accuracy is only in the range of ± 1% over a flow rate range of 5%.
(iii) The size and cost of the field coils and circuitry do not increase in proportion to their size of
pipe bore. Consequently small size meters are bulky and expensive.
Applications of Magnetic Flow Meters
This electromagnetic flow meter being non-intrusive type, can be used in general for any fluid
which is having a reasonable electrical conductivity above 10 micro siemens/cm.

Fluids like sand water slurry, coal powder, slurry, sewage, wood pulp, chemicals, water other than
distilled water in large pipe lines, hot fluids, high viscous fluids specially in food processing
industries, cryogenic fluids can be metered by the electromagnetic flow meter.
How to Use Magnetic Flow Meters
Magnetic flowmeters measure the velocity of conductive liquids in pipes, such as water, acids,
caustic, and slurries. Magnetic flowmeters can measure properly when the electrical conductivity
of the liquid is greater than approximately 5μS/cm. Be careful because using magnetic flowmeters
on fluids with low conductivity, such as deionized water, boiler feed water, or hydrocarbons, can
cause the flowmeter to turn off and measure zero flow.
This flowmeter does not obstruct flow, so it can be applied to clean, sanitary, dirty, corrosive and
abrasive liquids. Magnetic flowmeters can be applied to the flow of liquids that are conductive, so
hydrocarbons and gases cannot be measured with this technology due to their non-conductive
nature and gaseous state, respectively.
10. Impeller Flow Meters Working Principle
Two rotating impellers, designed with a figure eight cross section, rotate in opposite directions due
to the forces exerted by the gas flow being measured. The shape of the impellers prevents contact
while the gap between them remains constant.
Lobed Impeller Flow Meters

A gear drive external to the measuring chamber synchronizes the impellers. During each rotation
four crescent shaped volumes are moved through the measuring chamber. The number of rotations
is proportional to the flow. The rotation is coupled using an adjustable fine tooth gear train to the
totalizer.
An unmeasured flow, which is a function of the pressure drop, flows through the gaps. The
negative error is compensated by an adjustment. The viscosity of flow increases at high pressures
and reduces the losses in the gaps which compensates for the higher losses which would otherwise
exist due to the higher pressure difference.

The pulsations in the flow discharge can cause the pipe system connected to the meter to vibrate.
If resonance should occur, loud noises and sudden pressure drops can result. This condition should
not be allowed to occur; if necessary noise or pulsation dampers should be utilized.

The pressure drop results from the mechanical and dynamic resistances in the meter. The dynamic
portion increases appreciably with increasing load.
Lobed impeller meters are very susceptible to contamination. Since contamination affects the
pressure drop it must be monitored and the meter cleaned when required.
Advantages:
Excellent measuring accuracy for gas measurements
No inlet and outlet sections required
No external power supply
Limitations:
Volume totalizer
For gases only
Moving parts, wear
Flow blockage at zero flow through solid impurities
Sluggish toward quick changes
Also affected by quick changes at high differential pressure, danger of over speeding
Monitoring

11. Turbidity Analyzer Working Principle

Turbidity is an optical property of water based on the amount of light scattered and absorbed by
colloidal and suspended particles. The turbidity value measured in FNU, FTU, NTU etc. is the
quantitative statement of this qualitative phenomenon.
Nephelometry means that the light source and the photodetector are set at a 90-degree angle from
each other. This is considered the angle most sensitive to light scatter regardless of particle size

The goal of measuring turbidity is to get an indication for the concentration of scattering particles
in a medium. This can be done by determination of the light loss of the transmitted beam or the
measurement of the light scattered sideways. Both methods deliver proportional data to particle
concentration and are therefore suitable for measuring turbidity. They however differ in
application and concentration levels. Scattered light measurement principle is more suitable for
the detection of lower concentrations, while transmission (reflection or absorption) measurement
is used for higher concentrations.

The device measures scatted light at 90° which is according to ISO 7027 / DIN EN 27027 to be
used for turbidity values below 40 NTU. The NIR light source and receiver are positioned in a 90°
angle to each other. The light transmitted from the source is directed in equal strength to the
reference detector and into the medium. Light is scattered from the particles and the portion which
is scattered at a 90° angle is received by the detector. The meter now compares the light from the
reference detector and scattered light receiver and calculates the turbidity value.
The measurement unit for the turbidity measured at a 90° angle varies depending on country in
and is according to ISO 7027 Formazine Nephelometric Unit (FNU), but the more commonly used
terminology is Nephelometric Turbidity Unit (NTU) stated within the US EPA 180.1. Both units
compare 1 to 1.
The advantage of the using NIR as light source as stated in the ISO 7027 is that this sensor is not
affected by color of the medium measured.