FLOW TRANSDUCERS: BERNOULLI’S PRINCIPLE AND CONTINUITY, MOHAMED JABIR P K

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
ORIFICE PLATE, NOZZLE PLATE, VENTURE TUBE, DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE
ROTAMETER, ANEMOMETERS, ELECTROMAGNETIC FLOW METER. MAJLIS ARTS AND SCIENCE COLLEGE
WHAT IS A FLOW TRANSDUCER?
1. A flow transducer, also known as a flow sensor or flow meter, is a
device used to measure the flow rate of a fluid (liquid or gas)
passing through it.
2. It plays a crucial role in various industrial, medical, and scientific
applications where monitoring and controlling the flow of fluids is
important.
3. The information provided by a flow transducer is essential for
processes such as fluid delivery, quality control, and environmental
monitoring.
THERE ARE DIFFERENT TYPES OF FLOW TRANSDUCERS, AND EACH
OPERATES ON VARIOUS PRINCIPLES TO MEASURE FLOW. SOME COMMON
TYPES INCLUDE:
Differential Pressure Flowmeters: These work based on the principle that as fluid
flows through a pipe, it causes a pressure drop. By measuring the pressure
difference across an obstruction in the pipe, such as an orifice plate or a venturi
tube, the flow rate can be determined.
Electromagnetic Flowmeters: These utilize Faraday's law of electromagnetic
induction. As conductive fluid passes through a magnetic field, a voltage is
induced, which is proportional to the flow rate.
Ultrasonic Flowmeters: These use ultrasonic waves to measure the velocity of the
fluid. Transit time or Doppler shift techniques are commonly employed in ultrasonic
flow measurement.
Turbine Flowmeters: These have a rotating turbine placed in the path of the fluid. The
rotation of the turbine is proportional to the flow rate, and this rotation is then converted into
a measurable signal.

Vortex Shedding Flowmeters: These rely on the principle that a fluid flowing past a bluff
body (like a triangular or rectangular prism) creates vortices in its wake. The frequency of
vortex shedding is proportional to the flow rate.

Thermal Mass Flowmeters: These measure the heat dissipation or absorption by a fluid
stream. The amount of heat required to maintain a constant temperature difference between
two sensors is proportional to the mass flow rate.
BERNOULLI’S PRINCIPLE
The total mechanical energy of the moving fluid comprising the
gravitational potential energy of elevation, the energy
associated with the fluid pressure and the kinetic energy of the
fluid motion, remains constant.
Bernoulli’s principle can be derived from the principle of
conservation of energy.
Bernoulli’s equation formula is a relation between pressure, kinetic
energy, and gravitational potential energy of a fluid in a container.
The formula for Bernoulli’s principle is given as follows:

Where p is the pressure exerted by the fluid, v is the velocity of the

fluid, ρ is the density of the fluid and h is the height of the container.
Bernoulli’s equation gives great insight into the balance between
pressure, velocity and elevation.
BERNOULLI’S EQUATION DERIVATION
1. Consider a pipe with varying diameter and height through which an
incompressible fluid is flowing.
2. The relationship between the areas of cross-sections A, the flow
speed v, height from the ground y, and pressure p at two different
points 1 and 2 are given in the figure below.
BERNOULLI’S EQUATION DERIVATION
ASSUMPTIONS:
The density of the incompressible fluid remains constant at both
points.
The energy of the fluid is conserved as there are no viscous forces
in the fluid.
Therefore, the work done on the fluid is given as:
dW = F1dx1 – F2dx2
dW = p1A1dx1 – p2A2dx2
dW = p1dv – p2dv = (p1 – p2)dv
WE KNOW THAT THE WORK DONE ON THE FLUID WAS DUE TO THE CONSERVATION OF
CHANGE IN GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL ENERGY AND CHANGE IN KINETIC ENERGY.
THE CHANGE IN KINETIC ENERGY OF THE FLUID IS GIVEN AS:
PRINCIPLE OF CONTINUITY
According to the principle of continuity
If the fluid is in streamline flow and is in-compressible then we can say that mass of
fluid passing through different cross sections are equal.
FROM THE ABOVE SITUATION, WE CAN SAY THE MASS OF
LIQUID INSIDE THE CONTAINER REMAINS THE SAME.

The rate of mass entering = Rate of mass leaving

The rate of mass entering = ρA1V1Δt—– (1)
The rate of mass entering = ρA2V2Δt—– (2)
Using the above equations,
ρA1V1=ρA2V2
THIS EQUATION IS KNOWN AS THE PRINCIPLE OF CONTINUITY.
SUPPOSE WE NEED TO CALCULATE THE SPEED OF EFFLUX FOR THE
FOLLOWING SETUP.
APPLICATIONS OF BERNOULLI’S PRINCIPLE AND EQUATION

Bernoulli’s principle is used for studying the unsteady potential flow

which is used in the theory of ocean surface waves and acoustics. It
is also used for approximation of parameters like pressure and
speed of the fluid.
The other applications of Bernoulli’s principle are:
Venturi meter: It is a device that is based on Bernoulli’s theorem
and is used for measuring the rate of flow of liquid through the
pipes. Using Bernoulli’s theorem, Venturi meter formula is given as:
WORKING OF AN AEROPLANE:
1. Working of an aero plane: The shape of the wings is such that the air passes at
a higher speed over the upper surface than the lower surface.
2. The difference in airspeed is calculated using Bernoulli’s principle to create a
pressure difference.
3. When we are standing at a railway station and a train comes we tend to fall
towards the train.
4. This can be explained using Bernoulli’s principle as the train goes past, the
velocity of air between the train and us increases.
5. Hence, from the equation, we can say that the pressure decreases. So the
pressure from behind pushes us towards the train. This is based on Bernoulli’s
effect.
ORIFICE PLATE
1. Orifice plates are one of the most popular devices for the
measurement and control of fluid flow.
2. The shape and manufacturing tolerances of plates used in
measurement applications are defined in the international
standardization publications of ISO, AGA, ASME and others.
3. The relationships and values of flow, differential pressure, and plate
bore are determined.
1. In flow control applications, orifice plates are used as restriction
devices to regulate fluid flow or reduce the flowing pressure
downstream of the orifice plate.
2. The use of a fixed restriction orifice can be beneficial and economic
by reducing the demands on other flow system components.
3. Unlike measurement orifices, the sizing and design of restriction
orifices are not defined by standardization organizations.
4. Additionally, restriction orifices, abbreviated "RO", are often exposed
to severe flow conditions associated with large pressure reductions
and the related fluid conditions caused by liquids flashing to a gas,
cavitation, and sonic (choked) flow. In torturous applications, mimicking
the design of measurement orifices is not sufficient.
ORIFICE PLATES ARE NORMALLY MOUNTED BETWEEN A SET OF ORIFICE
FLANGES AND ARE INSTALLED IN A STRAIGHT RUN OF SMOOTH PIPE TO
AVOID DISTURBANCE OF FLOW PATTERNS FROM FITTINGS AND VALVES.

1. Orifice Plate 2. Hole in Plate

3. Tappings 4. Orifice flange
ORIFICE PLATE PRINCIPLE OF WORKING:
1. The whole principle is based on Bernoulli’s principle, and it states that for a flow
of a non conducting fluid, an increase in the speed of the fluid occurs
simultaneously with a decrease in pressure.
2. The orifice plate which is fixed at a section of the pipe, creates an obstruction to
the flow by provides an opening (in the form of an orifice) to the flow passage.
3. A fluid whose rate of flow is to be measured using the orifice plate is based on
the principle that when an orifice plate is placed in a pipe carrying the fluid, it
causes a pressure drop as explained in the paragraph above which varies with
the flow rate.
4. This pressure drop is measured using a differential pressure sensor and when
calibrated this pressure drop becomes a measure flow rate.
OPERATION OF ORIFICE PLATE:
1. The details of the fluid movement inside the pipe and orifice
plate have to be understood.
2. The fluid having uniform cross section of flow converges into the
orifice plate’s opening in its upstream.
3. When the fluid comes out of the orifice plate’s opening- Its cross
section is minimum and uniform for a particular distance and
then the cross section of the fluid starts diverging in the
downstream.
1. At the upstream of the orifice, before the converging of the fluid
takes place, the pressure of the fluid (P1) is maximum.
2. As the fluid starts converging, to enter the orifice opening its
pressure drops.
3. When the fluid comes out of the orifice opening, its pressure is
minimum(p2) and this minimum pressure remains constant in the
minimum cross section area of fluid flow at the downstream.
APPLICATION OF ORIFICE PLATE
1. The eccentric and segmental orifice plates are used to measure flow
rates of fluids
2. containing suspended materials such as solids, oil mixed with water
and wet steam.
3. wide applicability as it has been standardized.
ADVANTAGES OF ORIFICE PLATE
1. It has easy method to measure flow rate.
2. It has predictable characteristics and occupies less space.
3. Can be used to measure flow rates in large pipes.
LIMITATIONS OF ORIFICE PLATE
1. Pressure recovery at downstream is poor, that is, overall loss
varies from 40% to 90% of the differential pressure.
2. In the upstream straightening varies are a must to obtain laminar
flow conditions.
3. Gets clogged when the suspended fluids flow.
4. The orifice plate gets corroded and due to this after sometime,
inaccuracy occurs, moreover the orifice plate has low physical
strength.
FLOW NOZZLE
1. When a flow nozzle is placed in a pipe carrying whose rate of
flow is to be measured, the flow nozzle causes a pressure drop
which varies with the flow rate.
2. This pressure drop is measured using a differential pressure
sensor and when calibrated this pressure becomes a measure of
flow rate.
FLOW NOZZLE
DESCRIPTION OF FLOW NOZZLE
The main parts of flow nozzle arrangement used to measure flow
rate are as follows:
1. A flow nozzle which is held between flanges of pipe carrying
the fluid whose flow rate is being measured. The flow nozzle’s
area is minimum at its throat.
2. Openings are provided at two places 1 and 2 for attaching a
differential pressure sensor (u-tube manometer, differential
pressure gauge etc.,) as show in the diagram.
OPERATION OF FLOW NOZZLE
1. The fluid whose flow rate is to be measured enters the nozzle smoothly
to the section called throat where the area is minimum.
2. Before entering the nozzle, the fluid pressure in the pipe is p1.
3. As the fluid enters the nozzle, the fluid converges and due to this its
pressure keeps on reducing until it reaches the minimum cross section
area called throat.
4. This minimum pressure p2 at the throat of the nozzle is maintained in
the fluid for a small length after being discharged in the down stream
also.
5. The differential pressure sensor attached between points 1 and 2
records the pressure difference (p1-p2) between these two points
which becomes an indication of the flow rate of the fluid through the
pipe when calibrated.
APPLICATIONS OF FLOW NOZZLE
1. It is used to measure flow rates of the liquid discharged into the
atmosphere.
2. It is usually used in situation where suspended solids have the
property of settling.
3. Is widely used for high pressure and temperature steam flows.
ADVANTAGES OF FLOW NOZZLE
1. Installation is easy and is cheaper when compared to venturi meter
2. It is very compact
3. Has high coefficient of discharge.
DISADVANTAGES OF FLOW NOZZLE
1. Pressure recovery is low
2. Maintenance is high
3. Installation is difficult when compared to orifice flow meter.
VENTURI FLOW METER
When a venturi flow meter is placed in a pipe carrying the fluid
whose flow rate is to be measured, a pressure drop occurs
between the entrance and throat of the venturi meter.
This pressure drop is measured using a differential pressure
sensor and when calibrated this pressure drop becomes a
measure of flow rate.
VENTURI FLOW METER
CONSTRUCTION OF VENTURI METER
1. The entry of the venture is cylindrical in shape to match the size of the
pipe through which fluid flows. This enables the venture to be fitted to
the pipe.
2. After the entry, there is a converging conical section with an included
angle of 19’ to 23’.
3. Following the converging section, there is a cylindrical section with a
minimum area called as the throat.
4. After the throat, there is a diverging conical section with an included
angle of 5’ to 15’.
5. Openings are provided at the entry and throat (at sections 1 and 2 in
the diagram) of the venture meter for attaching a differential
pressure sensor (u-tube manometer, differential pressure gauge, etc.)
as shown in the diagram.
OPERATION OF VENTURI METER
1. The fluid whose flow rate is to be measured enters the entry
section of the venturi meter with a pressure P1.
2. As the fluid from the entry section of venturi meter flows into
the converging section, its pressure keeps on reducing and
attains a minimum value P2 when it enters the throat.
3. That is, in the throat, the fluid pressure P2 will be minimal.
VENTURI METER
VENTURI METER
The differential pressure sensor attached between the entry and throat
section of the venturi meter records the pressure difference(P1-P2)
which becomes an indication of the flow rate of the fluid through the
pipe when calibrated.
The diverging section has been provided to enable the fluid to regain
its pressure and hence its kinetic energy.
The lower the angle of the diverging section, the greater the recovery.
APPLICATIONS OF VENTURI METERS
1. It is used where high-pressure recovery is required.
2. Can be used for measuring flow rates of water, gases,
suspended solids, slurries, and dirty liquids.
3. Can be used to measure high flow rates in pipes having
diameters in a few meters.
ADVANTAGES OF VENTURI METERS
1. Fewer changes of getting clogged with sediments
2. The coefficient of discharge is high.
3. Its behavior can be predicted perfectly.
4. Can be installed vertically, horizontally, or inclined.
5. Low-pressure drop (around 10% of Δp)
6. Lower sensitivity to installation effects than orifice plates
7. Less susceptibility to damage
8. More suitable for gas flows with entrained liquid
9. Comprehensive standards (ISO 5167)
LIMITATIONS OF VENTURI METERS
1. They are large in size and hence where space is limited, they
cannot be used.
2. Expensive initial cost, installation, and maintenance.
3. Require long laying length. That is, the venturi meter has to be
proceeded by a straight pipe which is free from fittings and
misalignments to avoid turbulence in flow, for satisfactory
operation. Therefore, straightening vanes is a must.
4. Low turndown (can be improved with dual range Δp cells)
5. Greater cost to manufacture
WHAT IS A ROTAMETER?
1. Rotameter is a reliable, simple, and low-cost flow measuring
instrument. So this instrument is used to measure the flow rate
of a liquid or a gas.
2. This meter includes a tapered tube through a moving internal
float.
3. Sometimes, rotameters are also called gravity flow meters,
mechanical flow meters or variable area flow meters.
4. In gravity flow meters, the term gravity means, the rotameter
must be installed vertically.
1. Rotameters’ working principle is to measure the flow
rate of liquid because the liquid supplies throughout a
tapered tube.
2. Once the liquid supplies throughout the tube then its
cross-sectional region will become higher.
ROTAMETER CONSTRUCTION
The rotameter construction can be done by using different components
like transparent tube, scale, float, and transmitter.
1. In the construction, the shape of the transparent tube is conical which includes a
scale and floats within it. This transparent tube is very helpful in observing the
measurements directly.
2. A float is a small device within the tube of a rotameter with precise dimensions.
The float is used to indicate the rate of flow of liquid within the tube, which can
be designed with plastic, glass, or metal.
3. The scale on this meter displays the flow measurements by showing with float.
4. Transmitters are very helpful in recording the flow measurements precisely as
compared to we observer on the scale directly.
5. It includes a float and a tapered tube where the float is arranged within the
tapered tube. At both ends of the device, nets are arranged through a pipeline
using flanged connections. Rotameters are connected vertically always in the
pipelines and a scale is available on the tube to check the flow rate values
directly.
 ROTAMETER WORKING
1. In a rotameter, liquid flows from the base of the tapered tube, after that some of the liquid
directly hits the bottom of the float & the remaining liquid will flow away from the float.
2. So, the float in the rotameter experiences two forces in the reverse direction, the
gravitational force is a downside, and the drag force is on the upside.
3. The flow of liquid pushes the float up from gravity. After some time, the flowing region
achieves a position wherever the force induced on the floating body accurately matches the
float’s weight.
4. So the float will discover equilibrium once the area in the region of float produces sufficient
drag which is equivalent to weight.
When both the gravity & float weight are stable, then the distance float moved upward is
relative to the flow velocity of the liquid which is flowing throughout the tapered tube.
PARAMETERS
1. Flow rates are like the volumetric flow rate of fluid and gas.
2. Operating pressure
3. Temperature of liquid
4. Diameter of pipe
5. Indicating type of scale
6. Requirements of valve
WHAT IS A ROTAMETER USED FOR?/ WHAT IS ROTAMETER APPLICATIONS ?

1. Rotameters are used in different industries.

2. These are used where there is a quality air supply is required.
3. This is used where low pressure is necessary.
4. Used in laboratories.
5. Process and oil industries.
6. Used in the medical field for measurement of oxygen flow rate.
CHARACTERISTICS

1. Linearity
2. Accuracy
3. Pressure Drop
4. Differential
5. Corrosive
6. Capacity
7. Minimum Piping Requirement
WHAT IS AN ANEMOMETER AND HOW DOES IT WORK?
1. The anemometer is a
device used to measure
wind speed and wind
pressure.
2. It is an essential tool for
meteorologists, who study
weather patterns, and
physicists, who study and
learn how air moves.
3. But anemometers can also
be used in engineering,
aviation, and many other
fields.
1. The history and development of anemometers have been marked by
several innovations and improvements, from early mechanical designs
to modern electronic instruments.
2. Nevertheless, one thing never changed - anemometers continue to be
an essential tool for understanding and predicting weather patterns.
TYPES OF ANEMOMETERS AND THEIR USES
Wind measuring gadgets come in a variety of shapes and sizes.
The are three main types of anemometers;
1. Cup anemometers;
2. Vane anemometers;
3. Ultrasonic anemometers;
CUP ANEMOMETERS
Cup anemometers are the most common type of anemometer.
They consist of three or four cups attached to horizontal arms, which
rotate with the wind.
The speed of the cups is used to calculate the wind speed.
Cup anemometers are often used in weather stations and ships, as they
are simple, reliable, and relatively inexpensive.
VANE ANEMOMETERS
Vane anemometers, also known as wind vanes, are similar to cup
anemometers but use a vertical vane instead of cups.
The vane rotates with the wind, and the angle of the vane is used
to calculate the wind speed.
Vane anemometers are often used in aviation and meteorology as
they are more sensitive and accurate than cup anemometers.
But they can also be seen in windsurfing, kiteboarding, and sailing
in general.
ULTRASONIC ANEMOMETERS
Ultrasonic anemometers use sound waves to measure wind speed.
They emit a sound wave and measure the time it takes for the
sound wave to travel to and from a target.
The speed of the wind is calculated based on the time it takes for
the sound wave to travel a known distance.
Ultrasonic anemometers are often used in wind turbines and
meteorology.
WORKING PRINCIPLE
1. The anemometer working principle is simple and there no change
since 1846. It works on the principle of converting mechanical energy
into electrical energy as the tachometer does.
2. We know that a tachometer converts the mechanical energy into
corresponding electrical pulses to monitor the speed of the motor
digitally.
3. In the same way, the digital type is also an electromechanical device,
that works on the same principle.
1. The working principle of hot-wire type depends on the rate
of airflow, that cools the heated object.
2. That means the speed of the airflow measures the rate of
cooling.
3. The wire, which is heated electrically is placed in the
airflow gets cooled down due to the increase in the flow of
air.
4. In order to maintain the temperature of the wire constant,
the power should be increased.
1. The input power given to the hot-wire is utilized for the
measurement of airspeed.
2. Then the digital meter connected to the electronic circuit calibrates
the speed of the air.
3. And also time taken to cool the hot-wire is noted and the air
current is calculated.
4. Generally, this type is used for measurement low speeds of the
airflow
ADVANTAGES
1. It is mainly used to measure speed, pressure, and direction of the wind
2. It consumes less power according to its cost and provides precision
during the measurement
3. It is available in different sizes and shapes
4. As it is a climate station device, it can detect, estimate, and gives
information about the wind. It is utilized as a climate checking station.
DISADVANTAGES
1. The main drawback is, the anemometer may get damaged due
to the strong winds. Installation should be done with care.
2. Distortion may occur in the anemometer due to the strong winds.
3. Applications
APPLICATIONS
1. Used to measure wind speed and wind velocity.
2. Used to measure the pressure of the wind
3. Used to estimate the direction of the wind
4. Used as a station for climate checking
5. Used to check the weather condition by using RC plane users or drone users
6. Used by the hunters, Shooters, and pilots for long-range applications
7. Used to evaluate the velocity of wind before sky diving.
8. Aerodynamics uses the anemometer to measure the speed of the air.
9. Used as a weather monitoring device
ELECTROMAGNETIC FLOW METERS WORKING PRINCIPLE

1. Electromagnetic Flow Meters, simply known as mag flow

meter is a volumetric flow meter that is ideally used for
wastewater applications and other applications that
experience low-pressure drop and with appropriate liquid
conductivity required.
2. The device doesn’t have any moving parts and cannot work
with hydrocarbons and distilled water. Mag flow meters are
also easy to maintain.
ELECTROMAGNETIC FLOW METERS
PRINCIPLE OF MAGNETIC FLOW METER BASED ON FARADAY’S LAW
Magnetic flow meters work based on Faraday’s Law of
Electromagnetic Induction.
According to this principle, when a conductive medium passes
through a magnetic field B, a voltage E is generated which is
proportional to the velocity v of the medium, the density of the
magnetic field, and the length of the conductor.
In a magnetic flow meter, a current is applied to wire coils mounted
within or outside the meter body to generate a magnetic field.
The liquid flowing through the pipe acts as the conductor and this
induces a voltage that is proportional to the average flow velocity.
This voltage is detected by sensing electrodes mounted in the Magflow
meter body and sent to a transmitter which calculates the volumetric
flow rate based on the pipe dimensions.
1. Basically, when the conductive liquid flows through the magnetic field,
voltage is induced.
2. To measure this generated voltage (which is proportional to the
velocity of the flowing liquid), two stainless steel electrodes are used
which are mounted opposite each other.
3. The two electrodes which are placed inside the flow meter are then
connected to an advanced electronic circuit that has the ability to
process the signal.
4. The processed signal is fed into the microprocessor that calculates the
volumetric flow of the liquid.
LIMITATIONS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC FLOW METERS
(i) The substance being measured must be conductive.
Therefore, it can’t be employed for metering the flow rate
of gases and steam, petroleum products, and similar
liquids having very low conductivity.
(ii) To render the meter insensitive to variations in the
resistance of liquid, the effective resistance of the liquid
between the electrodes should not exceed 1% of the
impedance of the external circuit.
(iii) It is a very expensive device.
ADVANTAGES OF ELECTROMAGNETIC FLOW METER
(i) The obstruction to the flow is almost nil and therefore this type
of meter can be used for measuring heavy suspensions, including
mud, sewage, and wood pulp.
ii) There is no pressure head loss in this type of flow meter other
than that of the length of straight pipe that the meter occupies.
(iii) They are not very much affected by upstream flow
disturbances.
(iv) They are practically unaffected by variations in density,
viscosity, pressure, and temperature.
APPLICATIONS OF MAGNETIC FLOW METERS
This electromagnetic flow meter being a non-intrusive type, can be
used in general for any fluid which is having a reasonable
electrical conductivity above 10 microsiemens/cm.
Fluids like sand water slurry, coal powder, slurry, sewage, wood
pulp, chemicals, water other than distilled water in large pipelines,
hot fluids, highly viscous fluids especially in food processing
industries, and cryogenic fluids can be metered by the
electromagnetic flow meter.
REFERENCES
https://fidicondevices.com/what-is-orifice-plate/
https://instrumentationtools.com/venturi-flow-meter-working-principle-animation/
https://www.elprocus.com/rotameter/
https://www.surfertoday.com/windsurfing/what-is-an-anemometer
https://www.watelectronics.com/what-is-an-anemometer-working-its-applications/
https://www.toppr.com/guides/physics/mechanics/anemometer/
https://instrumentationtools.com/electromagnetic-flow-meters-working-principle/