Desalination 212 (2007) 319327

Solar-powered Rankine cycles for fresh water production

Lourdes Garca-Rodrguez*, Agustn M. Delgado-Torres

Dpto. Fsica Fundamental y Experimental, Electrnica y Sistemas, Universidad de La Laguna,
Avda. Astrofsico Francisco Snchez s/n, 38206 La Laguna, Tenerife, Spain
Tel. +34 (922) 318102; Fax +34 (922) 318228; email: [email protected]

Received 21 July 2006; accepted 19 October 2006

Abstract
The lack of access to electricity grid and fresh water strongly limits the development and the quality of life to
many rural locations. The distributed solar power generation can be applied to many basic needs, not only electricity
generation, but also desalination, cooling, heating, etc. For this reason it provides opportunity of social and economic
development and therefore promoting employment. This paper is focused on the analysis of distributed solar-
powered generation systems for driving a reverse osmosis desalination process based on solar-heated Rankine
cycles. Three different top temperature ranges are considered in order to consider medium to low temperature solar
thermal collectors. Results presented in this paper points out that desalination systems coupled to solar-powered
organic Rankine cycles exhibit lower specific consumption of solar energy than solar distillation and solar
photovoltaic reverse osmosis systems. Therefore, there are interesting prospects for developing cost-effective solar
desalination systems based on such a technology although intensive experimental research is still needed.
Keywords: Solar desalination; Solar thermal energy; Reverse osmosis; Distillation

1. Introduction employment. Desalination is an important appli-

cation since the existing regional imbalance of
The lack of access to an electricity grid and
water resources across the continent makes water
fresh water strongly limits the development and
shortage a great problem in many regions. As aqui-
the quality of life to many rural locations. The
fers are the main water source in arid and semi-
distributed solar power generation is useful to
arid regions, its over-exploitation just worsens the
provide many basic needs, not only electricity,
problem of water quality with the additional prob-
but also desalination, cooling, heating, etc. For
lems of saline intrusion, soil salinisation, deserti-
this reason it provides opportunity of social and
fication, accelerated erosion, etc.
economic development and therefore promoting
This paper offers a preliminary analysis of a
distributed shaft power generation system based
*Corresponding author.

0011-9164/07/$ See front matter 2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.desal.2006.10.016
320 L. Garca-Rodrguez, A.M. Delgado-Torres / Desalination 212 (2007) 319327

on solar-heated Rankine cycles for driving a re- osmosis desalination.

verse osmosis process. Firstly, section 2 presents The system is able to operate continuously with
a brief review of the state of the art of such a tech- thermal energy backup
nology. Secondly, sections 3 and 4 present a pre-
liminary analysis of the technology prospects fo- To sum up, distributed mechanical generation
cused on the application to fresh water produc- systems powered by solar thermal energy are able
tion. Finally, sections 5 and 6 point out from pre- to supply all basic needs of rural communities with
vious sections the research required for develop- better efficiency and therefore with potential of
ing the technology and conclusions, respectively. cost reduction as opposed to photovoltaic systems.
Nevertheless, despite above prospects, very little
effort has been made to date in solar thermal-pow-
2. Solar powered-Rankine cycles, state of the
ered systems based on technologies of medium
art
(one axis parabolic trough) and low temperature
Power generation based on solar thermal me- (stationary) solar collectors.
dium temperature collectors are mature enough Solar thermal collectors are able to generate
to cover power demand around tens of MW based shaft power by means of a Rankine, Brayton or
on Rankine cycle (SEGS plants). Nevertheless, Stirling cycle or by other specially designed ex-
the status of systems suitable for satisfying power pansion system. Rankine cycle is used in conven-
demands of rural communities is quite different. tional solar electricity generation systems (above
Nowadays, the only distributed power generation mentioned SEGS plants) which uses medium tem-
solar systems normally used for rural communi- perature solar collectors parabolic trough col-
ties are photovoltaic systems. Nevertheless, the lectors. Rankine and Stirling cycles are used in
use of solar thermal energy by means of a ther- high temperature solar systems heliostats and
modynamic power cycle has interesting potentials parabolic dish technologies. In addition, many
of higher efficiency and lower costs [1] than pho- different systems for solar thermal energy con-
tovoltaic systems. In addition, a considerable ad- version to mechanical energy have been proposed
ditional advantage is that a solar-heated thermo- or implemented for very small systems mainly
dynamic cycle is able to provide low-grade ther- developed for water pumping refered to in the
mal energy to drive other applications as water or literature as solar-powered heat engines. They are
space heating as well as thermal energy at higher classified in conventional devices, if they are
temperature for driving an absorption chiller, a based on Rankine, Brayton or Stirling cycles, or
seawater distiller, etc. This fact improves the over- unconventional ones, if a specially designed ex-
all system efficiency and considerably increases pansion system is used. Three wide reviews of
the benefit of installing such a system. Also, solar such systems had been reported by Spencer up to
thermal systems have the following additional 1989 [24]. Besides that, a more recent review
advantages: was reported by Wong and Sumathy [5]. Other
Potential overall efficiency of solar thermal interesting related papers are Mankbadi and Ayad
systems is higher than photovoltaic systems. [6], Bahadori [7], or Pytlinski [8].
Solar thermal systems permit thermal storage The use of solar-powered heat engines offers
instead of batteries. That avoids costly opera- interesting potentials for small to medium size
tional maintenance, toxic wastes and replace- communities in developing and isolated areas.
ment problems. Direct applications are: electricity production,
Many applications do not require electricity water pumping, reverse osmosis (RO) desalina-
but mechanical power as pumping or reverse tion, vapour compression chillers, etc. Except very
 L. Garca-Rodrguez, A.M. Delgado-Torres / Desalination 212 (2007) 319327 321

small systems for water irrigation pumping, none 3. Working fluids

of above applications has been thoroughly
analysed or developed and very few pilot systems The literature related to organic working flu-
exist. With regard to seawater desalination, only ids for Rankine cycles have mainly been published
three designs of solar heat engine-driven RO have during the last 510 years [16,17], being many of
been published and only one of them has been the papers focused on low-temperature cycles,
implemented [911]. Two pilot plants were in- which permits industrial waste heat recovery [18
stalled, they used commercial low temperature 21]. In the last few years different papers have
solar collectors and operate with top cycle tem- been published relating to the interest of using
perature around 70C [9,10]. Finally, the experi- siloxanes as working fluids of organic Rankine
mental research literature related to distributed cycles. With respect to other organic working flu-
power plants of medium temperature solar tech- ids previously considered, they have higher mo-
nologies (parabolic trough collectors) or low tem- lecular weigh, better stability and lower toxicity.
perature (stationary collectors) solar technology Moreover, some of them are among fluids known
is also very scarce: In the early 1980s, it was dem- as BetheZeldovichThompson fluids (BZT flu-
onstrated a 150 kWe organic Rankine cycle plant ids), which improve the flux through the turbine
powered by parabolic trough solar collectors. thus resulting in higher performance.
Hassani and Price [12] reported that the opera- Despite the assessments published in the lit-
tion problems of this plant precluded further de- erature, considerable effort is still needed for a
velopment of such systems. Nevertheless the same suitable selection of working fluids for operating
authors carried out a new assessment of the tech- at top temperatures ranges suitable for different
nology taking into account the current significant solar collector technologies (around 80C, 100
improvements in both, solar and organic Rankine 150C or 200400C) since solar powered sys-
cycle technologies. Besides that, Saitoh and Hoshi tems have specially features:
[1] reported the tests of a small prototype with Solar collector efficiency decreases with top
7.6 kW of electricity generation in summer temperature of the cycle while the efficiency
weather conditions, in a system powered by con- of the thermodynamic cycle increases. There-
ventional compound parabolic solar collectors. fore, the effect of superheating in the Rankine
Some other systems reported in the literature are cycle on the global efficiency of the system
given in Table 1. has to be carefully analysed. If a conventional
steam turbine is used, the final thermodynamic

Table 1
Solar power generation systems based on Rankine cycles using toluene as working fluid

Date, location Production Solar collector Maximum temperature

(kW) of the cycle (C)
1979, Munich (Germany) [13] 150 450
1979, Albuquerque (EEUU) [13] 32 300
1979-83, Arizona (EEUU) [14] 150200 Parabolic trough collector 268
(EEUU) [14] 26 Parabolic dishes 400
1981, Al-Sulaibiya (Kuwait) [15] 100 Parabolic dishes
322 L. Garca-Rodrguez, A.M. Delgado-Torres / Desalination 212 (2007) 319327

state of the expansion have to be dry steam, Rankine cycle. The heat rejected from the ther-
then the use of dry fluids usually are the most modynamic cycle may be use to preheat the feed
suitable and the superheating of the fluid is water or in any other application.
optional. Nevertheless, if other kind of expan- Table 2 gives some examples of potential can-
sion device is used this condition is not neces- didate fluids for solar thermal collectors from low
sary. to medium temperature ranges (static and one-axis
Thermodynamic states that can be reached at tracking technologies). Some working fluids with
the outlet of the solar field along the day and toxicity problems, as benzene, have been also in-
along the year have to be detailed analysed cluded for comparison. Table 2 shows that some
due to the variability inherent to the solar irra- fluids permit not only the use of mechanical power
diance, which may result in operational generation but also the heat rejected in the cycle.
troubles of the thermodynamic cycle. Very few pilot desalination plants have been
Toxicity and safety of the candidate fluids have coupled to solar power plants (Table 3) or are
to be taken into account by considering safe driven by the shaft power or electricity generated
operation and system maintenance in remote by a solar-heated thermodynamic cycle (Table 4).
areas avoiding any toxic waste generation. Nevertheless, such systems exhibit a high efficient
use of the solar energy as it is pointed out in this
paper. Besides that, seawater desalination by us-
4. Desalination powered by a solar-heated
ing PVRO process has similar high costs than
Rankine cycle
solar distillation [22]. Therefore, there is consid-
Fig. 1 shows a basic diagram of the most simple erable room for developing a more cost-effective
reverse osmosis system powered by a solar-heated solar technology based on solar-powered thermo-

Solar
collector High pressure RO module 8
pump
turbine 6
5
condenser 7
1 4 3

pump

Fig. 1. Basic diagram of a reverse osmosis system powered by a solar-heated Rankine cycle. 1. Working fluid entering the
solar field; 2. Working fluid at its maximum temperature and pressure (steam); 3. Expansioned steam; 4. Condensed
working fluid; 56. Feedwater (brackish water or seawater); 7. Brine; 8. Product.
 L. Garca-Rodrguez, A.M. Delgado-Torres / Desalination 212 (2007) 319327 323

Table 2
Estimated main thermodynamic data of some potential candidate cycles (sol: quotient between shaft power production
and solar energy available on the solar collector plane. Points 2 and 4 are referred to previous Fig. 1)

Cycle Solar collector sol (%) Maximum/minimum temperatures

T2 (C) T4 (C)
Ammonia Advanced 1.5X compound 7.5 80 30
parabolic concentrator
Isopentane Advanced 1.5X compound 7.4 90.3 30
parabolic concentrator
Benzene Parabolic trough collector 17.4 280 85
n-hexane Parabolic trough collector 13.1 184 70
Toluene Parabolic trough collector 15.0 355 115
22.4 380 35
Octamethylcyclotetrasiloxane (D4) Parabolic trough collector 19.3 338 35
12.8 376 115
Hexamethyldisiloxane (MM) Parabolic trough collector 18.2 350 35
10.9 350 115

Table 3
Dual purpose solar plants

Plant location Desalination process Solar collector

3
Kuwait [24] MSF (25 m /d) Conventional solar power plant
RO (20 m3/d)
PSA, Almera, Spain [25] (72 m3/d) Conventional solar power plant

Table 4
Desalination plants driven by solar-heated thermodynamic cycles

Plant location Desalination process m3/d Solar collector

Yanbu, Saudi Arabia [26] Freezing Point-focusing collectors
Los Baos, California, USA [27] RO Solar pond
El Paso, Texas, USA [28] RO Solar pond
Cadarache, France [10] RO (brackish water) 15 Flat plate collector (3 kW)
El Hamrawin, Egypt [10] RO (brackish water) 54 Flat plate collector (10 kW)

dynamic cycles. The most important item in capi- tion of 1 kg of fresh water is analysed for reverse
tal cost for solar distillation systems is the solar osmosis process driven by different solar-pow-
field. Since distillation units are more expensive ered Rankine cycles from Table 2 in comparison
than reverse osmosis systems, the solar field size with PV-driven reverse osmosis. This analysis is
is even more important in solar thermal-driven based on the following basic assumptions:
reverse osmosis desalination. Therefore, the so- The thermodynamic behaviour of all working
lar thermal consumption required for the produc- fluids considered has been modelled by multi-
324 L. Garca-Rodrguez, A.M. Delgado-Torres / Desalination 212 (2007) 319327

parametric equations of state given in the lit- Performance ratio of membrane distillation
erature. process, 4.
Parabolic trough collector model, LS3 [23]. Auxiliary energy consumption of desalination
Static solar collectors, high efficiency solar col- processes is not considered.
lectors have been selected among collectors
commercially available. Table 5 shows the specific solar energy con-
Isoentropic performance of the pump and the sumption of different desalination processes. Two
steam turbine [14], 0.75 (although the perfor- different condensation temperatures of the Rank-
mance of the steam turbine working with si- ine cyle have been considered if parabolic trough
loxanes is expected to be higher than with other collectors are used in order to analyze the suit-
organic fluids). ability of recovering the heat rejection for driv-
Optimised Rankine cycle with superheating ing a thermal desalination process. Condensation
and regeneration if necessary. Regenerator ef- temperatures of 35C and 115C have been se-
ficiency if any, 0.8. Maximum operational tem- lected in order to cover a wide range of working
perature considered to optimize the Rankine conditions. The different solar desalination sys-
cycle with parabolic trough collector, 400C. tems considered on the analysis performed are the
Solar irradiance, 850 W/m2. following:
Main energy consumption of reverse osmosis Reverse osmosis driven by solar photovoltaic
process with energy recovery, 2 kWh/m3. energy.
Performance ratio of multi-effect distillation Reverse osmosis driven by solar-heated Rank-
process, 10. ine cycle and two possibilities of recover the

Table 5
Specific solar energy consumption of different solar desalination systems (Tmin: minimum temperature of the thermody-
namic cycle, sol: quotient between shaft power production and solar energy available on the solar collector plane)

Main features of the solar system Specific solar energy consumption

(kJ/kg)
Working fluid of Rankine cycle Solar collector Tmin sol RO RO+MED RO+MD
(C) (%)
Ammonia Advanced 1.5X compound 30 7.5 95.4
parabolic concentrator
Isopentane Advanced 1.5X compound 30 7.4 97.5
parabolic concentrator
Benzene Parabolic trough collector 85 17.4 41.5 37.7 39.9
n-hexane Parabolic trough collector 70 13.1 55.0 47.8 51.8
Toluene Parabolic trough collector 115 15.0 48.0 43.2 46.0
35 22.4 32.1
Octametilciclotetrasiloxano (D4) Parabolic trough collector 115 12.8 56.25 49.8 53.5
35 19.3 37.3
Hexametildisiloxano (MM) Parabolic trough collector 115 10.9 65.9 56.7 61.9
35 18.2 39.5
PV 10.0 72
13.0 55.4
 L. Garca-Rodrguez, A.M. Delgado-Torres / Desalination 212 (2007) 319327 325

heat rejection of the Rankine cycle, the cou- climatic conditions of a given location in or-
pling of either, a multi-effect distillation der to calculate the annual production, and
(MED) or a membrane distillation (MD) unit. the cost of the solar collectors, and their in-
stallation, operation and maintenance costs.
In order to compare the specific solar energy
consumption of above systems with that of some 4. Although the coupling of distillation pro-
solar distillation processes, Table 6 [29] is given. cesses in order to recover the heat rejection of the
To sum up, the following results are pointed thermodynamic cycle always reduce the specific
out from the comparison of data displayed in solar energy consumption, the balance between
Tables 5 and 6: increasing of desalination subsystem capital costs
1. The specific solar energy consumption of and decreasing of specific auxiliary energy con-
reverse osmosis process driven by solar-heated sumption have to be analysed to assess the cou-
Rankine cycles could be lower than PVRO sys- pling of the distillation unit.
tems. Then, there are interesting prospects of be- 5. The comparison of specific solar energy
ing more cost-effective than PVRO. Neverthe- consumptions of the systems analyzed with solar
less intensive experimental research is necessary distillation shows the higher efficiency of using
in order to perform a techno-economic assess- solar thermal energy conversion on reverse os-
ment. mosis process instead of the direct thermal en-
2. Some of the working fluid that reaches high ergy use on distillation.
performance exhibit toxicity problems and have
to be discarded, especially benzene. Nevertheless,
siloxanes avoid such problems and permit the op-
5. Research required
eration with parabolic trough collectors and have
better behaviour in the steam turbine, which Little effort has been focused for developing
should increase the performance above that con- solar organic Rankine cycles. For this reason, in-
sidered. tensive research is required for optimizing solar
3. The solar field area required is directly re- collectors, selected working fluids, boundary con-
lated with the specific solar energy consumption ditions of the cycles and heat storages.
but in order to evaluate the cost of the solar field Solar collector designs for organic Rankine
required additional parameters are necessary: cycles. Operation conditions and working fluid

Table 6
Thermodynamic assessment of three different solar distillation systems based on solar thermal collectors and a multi-
effect distillation (MED) unit [29]. PTC: parabolic trough collectors, LTC: low temperature solar collectors; DEAHP:
double effect absorption heat pump

Desalination system Main energy consumption Solar desalination system Solar specific energy
(kJ/kg) consumption(*) (kJ/kg)
DEAHPMED 108 (at 180C) PTCDEAHPMED 142
MED 240 (at 70C) PTCMED 315
MED 240 (at 70C) LTCMED 5451600
333369(**)
(*)
Efficiency of solar collectors at 800 W/m2 (solar irradiance)
(**)
If evacuated absorber tubes are used
326 L. Garca-Rodrguez, A.M. Delgado-Torres / Desalination 212 (2007) 319327

required for the application of solar collectors 6. Conclusions

to a high efficiency thermodynamic cycle are
Distributed systems based on solar-powered
different from that normally required in other
Rankine cycles could provide shaft power thus
solar thermal-driven processes. Then, it is nec-
resulting in a wide range of application that cov-
essary the optimisation of the solar collector
ers all basic needs of developing communities in
design. According to the maximum operational
remote areas with no electricity grid available.
temperatures required, parabolic trough col-
Such systems can be coupled to different systems
lectors, compound parabolic or Fresnel con-
as an alternator to produce electricity, a pump for
centrators or non-concentrating solar collec-
irrigation or water distribution, a reverse osmosis
tors are suitable for this application.
unit for seawater or brackish water desalination,
Selected working fluids and boundary condi-
etc, so it can provide a significant contribution to
tions. Since the increasing of the top cycle tem-
solve real existing problems of developing com-
perature enhances the Rankine cycle perfor-
munities. In addition, the heat rejection of the ther-
mance but decreases the solar collector per-
modynamic power cycle may be used for sani-
formance, every working fluid and solar col-
tary water or space heating, for driving and ab-
lector considered have to be analysed in order
sorption chiller or even for driving a thermal de-
to select the most suitable thermodynamic
salination process.
boundary conditions.
Solar-powered organic Rankine cycles permit
Experimental research. Experimental data ac-
the use of a thermal storage coupling the solar
quisition and operational experience not only
collector field and the thermodynamic cycle thus
from collector prototypes but also from the
avoiding the disadvantages of operational and
solar thermodynamic cycle is required in or-
environmental problems caused by batteries in
der to develop such a technology.
solar photovoltaic (PV) systems. Also, it permits
the use of a conventional thermal energy resource
Above research will be developed within the
as backup if a continuous operation is necessary.
framework of the project entitled POWERSOL
The comparison presented in this paper points
(Mechanical Power Generation Based on Solar
out that desalination systems coupled to solar-
Heat Engines) [30], partially supported by the
powered organic Rankine cycles exhibit lower
European Commission under the Specific pro-
specific consumption of solar energy than solar
gram for research, technological development and
distillation and solar photovoltaic reverse osmo-
demonstration: Integrating and strengthening the
sis systems. As a result, there are interesting pros-
European Research Area (Specific measures in
pects for developing cost-effective solar desali-
support of international co-operation, INCO). The
nation systems based on such a technology.
project focuses on the technological development
of solar thermal-driven mechanical power gen-
eration based on a solar-heated thermodynamic
cycle (POWERSOL system). This technological
development consists in optimizing a solar-as- Acknowledgments
sisted thermodynamic cycle that generates me-
The authors wish to thank the European Com-
chanical power from low to medium temperature
mission for its financial assistance within the In-
range. The optimization is performed by means
ternational Cooperation Activities Programme,
of experimental testing of the thermodynamic
POWERSOL Project, Contract No. FP6-
cycle with selected working fluids and of three
INCO2004-MPC3-03234.
solar collector prototypes.
 L. Garca-Rodrguez, A.M. Delgado-Torres / Desalination 212 (2007) 319327 327

References [16] S. Devotta and F.A. Holland, Comparison of theoreti-

cal Rankine power cycle performance data for 24 work-
[1] T.S. Saitoh and A. Hoshi, Proposed solar Rankine cycle ing fluids. Heat Recovery Systems, 5 (1985) 503510.
system with phase change steam accumulator and CPC [17] G. Angelino and P. Colonna di Paliano, Organic Rank-
solar collector. IECEC2002, paper no. 20150. ine cycles (ORCs) for energy recovery from molten
[2] L.C. Spencer, A comprehensive review of small solar- carbonate fuel cells. 35th Intersociety Energy Conver-
powered heat engines: Part I. A history of small pow- sion Engineering, Las Vegas, Nevada, July 2428,
ered devices up to 1950. Solar Energy, 43(4) (1989) 2000.
191196. [18] T.Ch. Hung, Waste heat recovery of organic Rankine
[3] L.C. Spencer, A comprehensive review of small solar- cycle using dry fluids. Energy Convers. Mgmt., 42
powered heat engines: Part II. Research since 1950 (2001) 539553.
conventional engines up to 100 kW. Solar Energy, [19] T.C. Hung, T.Y. Shai and S.K. Wang, A review of or-
43(4) (1989) 197210. ganic Rankine cycles (ORCs) for the recovery of low-
[4] L.C. Spencer, A comprehensive review of small solar- grade waste heat. Energy, 22 (1997) 661667.
powered heat engines: Part III. Research since 1950 [20] V. Maizza and A. Maizza, Unconventional work fluids
unconventional engines up to 100 kW. Solar En- in organic Rankine-cycles for waste energy recovery
ergy, 43(4) (1989) 197210. systems. Appl. Therm. Eng., 21 (2001) 381390.
[5] Y.W. Wong and K. Sumathy, Solar thermal water pump- [21] B.T. Liu, K.H. Chien and Ch.Ch. Wang, Effect of work-
ing systems: a review. Renewable Sustain. Energy Rev., ing fluids on organic Rankine cycle for waste heat re-
3 (1999) 185217. covery. Energy, 29 (2004) 12071217.
[6] R.R. Mankbadi and S.S. Ayad, Small-scale solar pump- [22] G. Firenza, V.K. Sharma and G. Braccio, Techno-eco-
ing: the technology. Energy Convers. Mgmt., 28(2) nomic evaluation of a solar powered water desalina-
(1988)171184. tion plant. Energy Convers. Mgmt., 44(14) (2003)
[7] M.N. Bahadori, Solar water pumping. Solar Energy, 22172240.
28 (1978) 307316. [23] E. Zarza Moya, Generacin Directa de Vapor con
[8] J.T. Pytlinski, Solar energy installations for pumping Colectores Solares Cilindro Parablicos. Proyecto Di-
irrigation water. Solar Energy, 21 (1978) 255262. rect Solar Steam (DISS). Ph.D. thesis, University of
[9] A. Maurel, Dessalement et energies nouvelles, Desali- Seville, November 7, 2003 (in Spanish).
nation, 31 (1979) 489499. [24] E.E. Delyannis, Status of solar assisted desalination: A
[10] J.J. Libert and A. Maurel, Desalination and renewable review. Desalination, 67 (1987) 319.
energies a few recent developments. Desalination, [25] E. Zarza Moya, Solar Thermal Desalination Project,
39 (1981) 363372. Phase II Results and Final Project Report. CIEMAT,
[11] D. Manolakos, G. Makris, G. Papadakis and S. Kyritsis, ed., Madrid, 1995.
Autonomous low-temperature solar Rankine cycle for [26] W. Luft, Int. J. Solar Energy, 1 (1982) 2132.
reverse osmosis desalination. Proc. 5th ISES European [27] D.D Engdahl, Technical Information record on the Salt-
Solar Conference, Friburg, Germany, June 2023, Gradient solar Pond system at the Los Baos Demon-
2004, pp. 453459. stration Desalting Facility. December, 1987.
[12] V. Hassani and H.W. Price, Modular trough power [28] H. Lu, J.C. Walton and A.H.P. Swift, Zero discharge
plants. Proc. Solar Forum 2001. Solar Energy: The desalination. The Int. Desalination and Water Reuse
Power to Choose, Washington, DC, April 2125, 2001. Quarterly, 10(3) (2000) 3543.
[13] H.M. Curran, Use of organic working fluids in Rank- [29] D.-C. Alarcn-Padilla and L. Garca-Rodrguez, Ap-
ine engines. J. Energy, 5(4) (1981) 218223. plication of absorption heat pumps to multi-effect de-
[14] W.B. Stine and M. Geyer, Power cycles for electricity salination: a case study of solar desalination. Desali-
generation. In: Power from the Sun. 2001. [January nation, 212 (2007) 294302.
24, 2005] <http://www.powerfromthesun.net/ [30] L. Garca-Rodrguez and J. Blanco-Glvez, Solar-
chapter12/Chapter12new.htm>. heated Rankine cycles for water and electricity pro-
[15] G. Schmidt, P. Schmid, H. Zewen and S. Moustafa, duction: POWERSOL Project. Desalination, 212
Development of a point focusing collector farm sys- (2007) 311316.
tem. Solar Energy, 31(3) (1983) 299311.