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TABLE OF CONTENT

S.No. TOPICS Page No.

1 Insect Adaptations 3-4
2 Insect Growth Regulators (IGRs 5-7
3 Pest Identification, Damage Symptoms 8-11
4 Digestion in Insects 12-14
5 Insect Nervous and Reproductive Systems: Structure and Functions 15-18

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Insect Adaptations:

1. What Are Adaptations?

 Definition: Changes in an insect's body or behavior to help it survive in its environment.
 Examples:
o Webbed feet help water animals swim.
o Camouflage hides insects from predators.
2. Types of Insect Adaptations

A. Body Adaptations
1. Camouflage:
o Insects blend into their surroundings.
o Example: Stick insects look like sticks.
2. Antennae:
o Insects in dark places have long antennae and small eyes.
o Example: Antennae help feel their way in darkness.
3. Legs:

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 o Jumping legs: Grasshoppers jump high to escape predators.
o Digging legs: Mole crickets burrow underground.
o Swimming legs: Water striders walk on water.

B. Mouthpart Adaptations
1. Chewing:
o Found in insects that eat plants or animals.
o Example: Grasshoppers chew sideways.
2. Sponging:
o Used to soak up food.
o Example: Flies spit on food to dissolve it before "sponging" it up.
3. Lapping:
o For drinking nectar using straw-like parts.
o Example: Butterflies.
4. Sucking:
o For drinking plant juices or blood.
o Example: Mosquitoes suck blood.
3. How Adaptations Match Habitats
 Aquatic Insects:
o Long oar-like legs for swimming.
o Example: Whirligig beetles.
 Flying Insects:
o Strong wings for fast movement.
o Example: Dragonflies.
 Land Insects:
o Thin legs for running or strong legs for jumping.
o Example: Cockroaches run fast; fleas jump high.
4. Key Examples
 Fleas: Long legs for jumping onto animals, small flattened bodies to hide in fur.
 Dragonflies: Strong wings for flight, large eyes for spotting prey.
 Butterflies: Bright colors to warn predators, long mouthparts for nectar.

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Insect Growth Regulators (IGRs):

1. What Are Insect Growth Regulators (IGRs)?

 Chemicals that interfere with the growth, development, and metamorphosis of insects.
 Include synthetic versions of insect hormones and other compounds like:
o Juvenile Hormones (JH).
o Moulting Hormones (Ecdysone).
o Chitin Synthesis Inhibitors.
2. Key Hormones in Insect Growth
1. Brain Hormone:
o Activates glands to produce Juvenile Hormone (JH).
2. Juvenile Hormone (JH):
o Keeps larvae in their immature stage.
o Lower levels signal the insect to move to the pupal or adult stage.
3. Ecdysone (Moulting Hormone):
o Triggers moulting (shedding of the old skin).
o High levels lead to pupation; absent in adults.
3. Types of IGRs and Their Effects

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 1. Juvenoids (JH Mimics):
o Prevent metamorphosis by keeping insects in the larval stage.
o Cause deformities or extra moulting (e.g., Methoprene for flies and pests).
2. Anti-JH (Precocenes):
o Destroy glands that produce Juvenile Hormone.
o Insects develop into small, non-reproductive adults.
3. Chitin Synthesis Inhibitors:
o Block the formation of chitin (a key component of the insect’s exoskeleton).
o Examples: Diflubenzuron, Penfluron.
o Effects:
 Failed moulting.
 Deformities in mouthparts.
 Death during pupation.
4. Neem-Based IGRs:
o Azadirachtin from neem affects growth, reproduction, and feeding in pests.
4. Advantages of IGRs
 Effective in small amounts (economical).
 Target specific insects, sparing beneficial species.
 Biodegradable and environmentally safe.
 Non-toxic to humans and animals.
5. Disadvantages
 Slow action compared to traditional pesticides.
 Limited to specific life stages (e.g., larvae).
 Possible development of resistance.
6. Antifeedants
 What Are They? Chemicals that stop insects from feeding, causing them to die of starvation.
 Sources:
o Botanicals: Neem, chrysanthemum, and solanum alkaloids.
o Synthetic: Copper compounds and carbamates.
7. Attractants

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  Chemicals that lure insects using taste or smell.
 Examples:
o Food Lures: Sugars attract houseflies.
o Pheromones: Used for mating disruption and pest traps.
8. Repellents
 Chemicals that drive insects away by making surfaces unappealing.
 Examples:
o Natural: Citronella oil (used in mosquito repellents).
o Synthetic: Dimethyl phthalate (for mosquitoes).

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Pest Identification, Damage Symptoms:

Pests of maize: Maize Shootfly

Maize shootfly: Atherigona orientalis (Muscidae: Diptera)

Distribution and status: Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu,

Maharashtra, Karnataka.

Host range: Maize, sorghum, ragi and bajra

Damage symptoms: The maggot feeds on the young growing shoots

resulting in “dead hearts”.

Bionomics: Small grey coloured fly.

Management
o Grow resistant cultivars like DMR 5, NCD, VC 80
o Furrow application of phorate granules 10 G 10 kg/ha (or) lindane 6 G 25 kg per ha

Gram Pod Borer: Helicoverpa armigera

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1. Pest Identification
 Eggs: Spherical, creamy white, laid singly.
 Pupa: Brown, found in soil, leaves, pods, and crop debris.
 Adult Moth:
o Pale brownish-yellow.
o Forewings: Grey to pale brown with V-shaped marks.
o Hindwings: Smoky white with broad black margins.

2. Symptoms of Damage
 Young Larvae:
o Feed on chlorophyll, leaving veins intact (skeletonized leaves).
 Older Larvae:
o Defoliate plants.
o Feed on flowers and green pods.
o Create circular holes in pods and eat the grains, leaving empty pods.
3. Management
Economic Threshold Level (ETL):
 Larvae: 2 early instar larvae per plant.
 Eggs: 5–8 eggs per plant.
Cultural Control:
1. Use pheromone traps: 12 traps per hectare.
2. Set up bird perches: 50 per hectare.
3. Hand-picking of larvae and blister beetles.
Biological Control:
 Apply Ha NPV (Helicoverpa Nuclear Polyhedrosis Virus):
o Use 1.5 × 10¹² POB/ha mixed with teepol (1 ml/liter).
Chemical Control:
1. Dichlorvos 76 WSC: 625 ml/ha.
2. Neem-Based Treatments:
o Neem seed kernel extract 5% (31 kg/ha) sprayed twice.

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 o Neem oil: 12.5 liters/ha.
3. Triazophos 40 EC: 780 ml/ha.
4. Phosalone 35 EC: 1.25 liters/ha.

Pest of Sorghum: Shootfly (Atherigona varia soccata):

1. Symptoms of Damage
 Maggots bore into the stem, cutting the growing point.
 Central shoots dry out, creating a "dead heart" symptom.
 Affected plants produce side tillers.
2. Pest Identification
 Eggs: White, cylindrical, slightly flattened at the tip.
 Adult: Whitish-grey fly.

3. Management Strategies

Economic Threshold Level (ETL):

 1 egg per plant in 10% of plants during the first two weeks of sowing.
 10% plants showing dead hearts.
Cultural Control:
1. Early Sowing:
o Plant sorghum immediately after receiving the South-West or North-East monsoon to
reduce shoot fly attack.
2. Increased Seed Rate:
o Use 12.5 kg/ha for direct sowing and remove damaged seedlings during thinning.
o Alternatively, grow a nursery and transplant healthy seedlings.
3. Field Sanitation:
o Plough after harvest and destroy stubbles to reduce pest survival.

Biological Control
 Set up TNAU low-cost fishmeal traps:

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 o Use 12 traps per hectare for the first 30 days.
Chemical Control
1. Seed Treatment:
o Imidacloprid 70 WS @ 10 g/kg of seeds.
2. Nursery Sprays (for an area of 120 m²):
o Methyl Demeton 25 EC: 12 ml.
o Dimethoate 30 EC: 12 ml.
3. Main Field Sprays:
o Methyl Demeton 25 EC: 500 ml/ha.
o Dimethoate 30 EC: 500 ml/ha.
o Neem Seed Kernel Extract: 5%.
4. Soil Application:
o Phorate 10 G: 18 kg/ha or Carbofuran: 33.3 kg/ha during sowing.

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Digestion in Insects:

1. How Do Insects Digest Food?

 Insects break down food into smaller parts using enzymes to absorb nutrients.
 The digestive system has three main parts:
1. Foregut: Initial breakdown and food storage.
2. Midgut: Main site for digestion and nutrient absorption.
3. Hindgut: Absorbs water and prepares waste for excretion.
2. The Digestive Process
1. Foregut:
o Includes the pharynx, esophagus, crop (food storage), and sometimes a grinding organ
(proventriculus).
o Moves food to the midgut but doesn’t absorb nutrients.
2. Midgut:
o Produces enzymes to digest proteins, carbohydrates, and fats.
o Has special cells with microvilli that absorb nutrients efficiently.
o May contain protective structures like the peritrophic membrane to shield cells from
harmful food particles or chemicals.
3. Hindgut:

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 o Absorbs water and salts.
o Contains specialized structures (e.g., rectal pads) for water conservation.
o Hosts symbiotic microorganisms in some insects (e.g., termites) to help digest complex
food like cellulose.

3. Food and Digestive Adaptations

 Solid Food Feeders:
o Short, strong guts to process tough food (e.g., caterpillars).
 Liquid Food Feeders:
o Long, narrow guts for efficient liquid absorption (e.g., sap-feeding Hemiptera).
o Use a "filter chamber" to separate water and concentrate nutrients.

4. Enzymes in Digestion

 Protein Digestion:
o Enzymes like trypsin and chymotrypsin break down proteins into amino acids.
o Some insects digest keratin (in feathers) or collagen (in animal tissue).
 Carbohydrate Digestion:
o Enzymes like amylase break down starch into sugars.
o Cellulose digestion occurs in some insects with help from gut microorganisms (e.g.,
termites).
 Lipid Digestion:
o Enzymes like lipases process fats into glycerol and fatty acids.
5. Special Adaptations
 Extra-Intestinal Digestion:
o Insects like blowfly larvae liquefy food outside their bodies before consuming it.
 Symbiotic Assistance:
o Termites rely on gut microorganisms to digest cellulose from wood.
 Filter Chamber:
o Found in sap-sucking insects, it prevents excessive water intake while absorbing
nutrients.

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Key Takeaways
 Insects have specialized digestive systems adapted to their diet.
 Solid feeders have robust guts, while liquid feeders have elongated systems.
 Enzymes and symbiotic microorganisms play crucial roles in breaking down various types of
food.

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Insect Nervous and Reproductive Systems: Structure and Functions:

Reproductive System in Insects:

1. General Features
 Insects have separate male and female sexes (sexual dimorphism).
o Example: Male and female mosquitoes look different.
2. Female Reproductive System
 Main Function: Produce eggs and store sperm for fertilization.
 Key Parts:
1. Ovaries:
 Contain tubes called ovarioles that produce eggs.
 Types of ovarioles:
 Panoistic: No extra cells for nutrition (e.g., Cockroach).
 Telotrophic: Nutrition comes from cells in one place (e.g., Bugs).
 Polytrophic: Each egg gets its own nurse cells (e.g., Moths, Flies).
2. Oviducts:
 Carry eggs from ovaries to the genital chamber.
3. Spermatheca:

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  Stores sperm until eggs are ready for fertilization.
 Provides nutrients to sperm.
4. Accessory Glands:
 Produce materials to protect eggs or stick them to surfaces.
 Example: Cockroach produces ootheca (egg cases); bees produce venom.
3. Male Reproductive System
 Main Function: Produce and store sperm, then transfer it to the female.
 Key Parts:
1. Testes:
 Contain tubes that produce sperm.
2. Vasa Deferentia:
 Tubes that carry sperm to the seminal vesicle (storage area).
3. Seminal Vesicle:
 Stores sperm until mating.
4. Accessory Glands:
 Produce seminal fluid and spermatophores (capsules containing sperm).
5. Ejaculatory Duct:
 Transfers sperm to the female.
4. Egg Structure
 Chorion: Protective outer shell.
 Vitelline Membrane: Surrounds the egg's contents.
 Micropyle: A small opening for sperm entry.

Key Takeaways
 Insects have specialized reproductive systems for producing, storing, and fertilizing eggs.
 Females have spermatheca to store sperm, and accessory glands to protect eggs.
 Males produce sperm and transfer it using seminal fluid and spermatophores.

Insect Nervous and Endocrine Systems:

1. Insect Nervous System

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  Function: Controls behavior, memory, movement, and responses to stimuli (like light or sound).
 Main Parts:
1. Central Nervous System (CNS):
 Includes the brain, sub-oesophageal ganglion, and ventral nerve cord.
 Brain:
 Made of three parts:
 Protocerebrum: Controls eyes.
 Deutocerebrum: Controls antennae.
 Tritocerebrum: Links the brain to the rest of the nervous
system.
 Ventral Nerve Cord:
 A chain of ganglia connected by nerves.
 Thoracic ganglia control legs and wings.
 Abdominal ganglia control muscles, anal cerci, and ovipositors.
2. Visceral (Sympathetic) Nervous System:
 Divided into:
 Oesophageal System: Supplies nerves to the gut and heart.
 Ventral System: Controls spiracles (breathing openings).
 Caudal System: Controls the hindgut and reproductive system.
3. Peripheral Nervous System:
 All nerves that branch out from the CNS and visceral systems.

2. Insect Endocrine System

 Function: Produces hormones to regulate growth, molting, and reproduction.
 Key Components:
1. Neurosecretory Cells:
 Located in the brain and ventral nerve cord.
 Produce:
 Brain Hormone (PTTH): Stimulates molting.
 Other hormones for water balance and egg development.

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 2. Endocrine Glands:
 Corpora Cardiaca:
 Stores hormones from the brain and releases them into the blood.
 Corpora Allata:
 Produces Juvenile Hormone (JH):
 Keeps the insect in its immature stage.
 Helps with egg yolk deposition in females.
 Prothoracic Glands:
 Produce Ecdysone (Molting Hormone):
 Triggers molting and transformation to the next stage.

Key Takeaways
 The nervous system controls immediate actions like movement and responses.
 The endocrine system regulates long-term processes like growth, molting, and reproduction
through hormones.
 Hormones like Juvenile Hormone (JH) and Ecdysone are critical for insect development and
metamorphosis.

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