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Tanda Thermodynamics
 Thermodynamics
Temperature Entropy Diagram

1st and 2nd Law of Thermodynamics

Carnot Cycle

Rankine Cycle and its modifications.

Application of thermodynamic Cycle for power generation Plant

Laws of Thermodynamics
Laws of Thermodynamics
 Laws of Thermodynamics
The zeroth law of thermodynamics defines thermal equilibrium and forms a basis for the definition of temperature:
If two systems are each in thermal equilibrium with a third system, then they are in thermal equilibrium with each
other.

The first law of thermodynamics states that, when energy passes into or out of a system (as work, heat, or
matter), the system's internal energy changes in accordance with the law of conservation of energy.

The second law of thermodynamics states that in a natural thermodynamic process, the sum of the entropies of
the interacting thermodynamic systems never decreases. A common corollary of the statement is that heat does
not spontaneously pass from a colder body to a warmer body.

The third law of thermodynamics states that a system's entropy approaches a constant value as the temperature
approaches absolute zero. With the exception of non-crystalline solids (glasses), the entropy of a system at
absolute zero is typically close to zero.

The first and second laws prohibit two kinds of perpetual motion machines, respectively: the perpetual motion
machine of the first kind which produces work with no energy input, and the perpetual motion machine of the
second kind which spontaneously converts thermal energy into mechanical work.
 1st Laws of Thermodynamics
Conservation of energy, which says that energy can be neither created nor destroyed, but can only
change form. A particular consequence of this is that the total energy of an isolated system does not
change.

It provides the concept of internal energy and its relationship to temperature. If a system has a
definite temperature, then its total energy has three distinguishable components, termed kinetic
energy (energy due to the motion of the system as a whole), potential energy (energy resulting from
an externally imposed force field), and internal energy.

The establishment of the concept of internal energy distinguishes the first law of thermodynamics
from the more general law of conservation of energy.

Work is a process of transferring energy to or from a system in ways that can be described by
macroscopic mechanical forces acting between the system and its surroundings.

The work done by the system can come from its overall kinetic energy, from its overall potential
energy, or from its internal energy.
1st Laws of Thermodynamics
 1st Laws of Thermodynamics
First law of thermodynamics states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed, it can only be
transformed. It tells that total energy in a system remains constant.

The First Law of Thermodynamics, also known as the law of energy conservation, is a fundamental principle
governing the behavior of energy in physical systems. In straightforward terms, it asserts that the total energy
with a closed system remains constant; it can not be created or destroyed, only transformed from one form to
another. Picture a sealed container filled with gas: when heat is added, the internal energy rises as the gas
molecules gain kinetic energy, causing the pressure to increase. Conversely, removing heat reduces the
internal energy, slowing down the molecules.

The 1st Law of Thermodynamics states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed, only transferred or
converted from one form to another. The derivation often starts with the concept of internal energy (U), which
includes both the kinetic and potential energy of particles within a system.

The equation can be expressed as: ΔU = Q + W

Where ΔU is the change in internal energy of the system, Q is the Algebraic sum of heat transfer between the
system and surroundings, and W is the work done by the system on its surroundings or vice versa....
 Limitation of 1st Laws of Thermodynamics

The limitations of the first law of thermodynamics have been discussed here:

Direction of Processes: The first law doesn’t specify the direction in which processes occur. While
it tells us energy is conserved, it doesn’t explain why some processes happen spontaneously
while others require external influences.

Efficiency of Conversions: It doesn’t provide information on the efficiency of energy conversions.

Some processes may be less efficient due to factors like heat loss, but the first law doesn’t
quantify this.

Qualitative Aspects: The law doesn’t delve into the qualitative aspects of energy transformations.
For example, it doesn’t explain the irreversibility of certain processes.

Spontaneity and Entropy: The concept of entropy, a measure of disorder or randomness in a

system, is not explicitly addressed. Understanding the spontaneity of processes requires
considering entropy changes, which the first law alone doesn’t cover.
 2nd Laws of Thermodynamics
The second law of thermodynamics puts restrictions upon the direction of heat transfer and achievable
efficiencies of heat engines. The first law of thermodynamics states that the energy of the universe remains
constant; though energy can be exchanged between system and surroundings, it can’t be created or destroyed.

While the first law of thermodynamics gives information about the quantity of energy transfer as a process, it fails
to provide any insights about the direction of energy transfer and the quality of the energy.

The first law cannot indicate whether a metallic bar of uniform temperature can spontaneously become warmer
at one end and cooler at others. All that the law can state is that there will always be an energy balance if the
process occurs. It is the second law of thermodynamics that provides the criterion for the feasibility of any
process. A process cannot occur unless it satisfies both the first and second laws of thermodynamics.

The second law of thermodynamics states that any spontaneously occurring process will always lead to an
escalation in the entropy (S) of the universe.

In simple words, the law explains that an isolated system’s entropy will never decrease over time. Nonetheless,
in some cases, where the system is in thermodynamic equilibrium or going through a reversible process, the
total entropy of a system and its surroundings remains constant.
The second law is also known as the Law of Increased Entropy.
 2nd Laws of Thermodynamics
The second law clearly explains that it is impossible to convert heat energy to mechanical energy with
100 per cent efficiency.

For example, if we look at the piston in an engine, the gas is heated to increase its pressure and drive
the piston. However, even as the piston moves, there is always some leftover heat in the gas that
cannot be used for carrying out any other work. Heat is wasted, and it has to be discarded. In this
case, it is done by transferring it to a heat sink or in the case of a car engine, waste heat is discarded
by exhausting the used fuel and air mixture to the atmosphere. Additionally, heat generated from
friction that is generally unusable should also be removed from the system.

Mathematically, the second law of thermodynamics is represented as

ΔSuniv > 0, Where ΔSuniv is the change in the entropy of the universe.

Entropy is a measure of the randomness of the system, or it is the measure of energy or chaos within
an isolated system. It can be considered a quantitative index that describes the quality of energy.
2nd Laws of Thermodynamics
 2nd Laws of Thermodynamics
The second law states that there exists a useful state variable called entropy. The change in entropy (delta S,
ΔS) is equal to the heat transfer (delta Q, ΔQ) divided by the temperature (T). ΔS=ΔQT

For a given physical process, the entropy of the system and the environment will remain a constant if the
process can be reversed.

If we denote the initial and final states of the system by “i” and “f”, then: Sf=Si(reversible process)

An example of a reversible process would be ideally forcing a flow through a constricted pipe.
(Ideal means no boundary layer losses).

As the flow moves through the constriction, the pressure, temperature and velocity would change, but these
variables would return to their original values downstream of the constriction.

The second law states that if the physical process is irreversible, the entropy of the system and the
environment must increase; the final entropy must be greater than the initial entropy. Sf>Si(reversible process)
 3rd Laws of Thermodynamics
The third law of thermodynamics states that the entropy of a closed system at thermodynamic
equilibrium approaches a constant value when its temperature approaches absolute zero.

This constant value cannot depend on any other parameters characterizing the system, such as
pressure or applied magnetic field.

At absolute zero (zero kelvins) the system must be in a state with the minimum possible energy.

Entropy is related to the number of accessible microstates, and there is typically one unique state
(called the ground state) with minimum energy. In such a case, the entropy at absolute zero will be
exactly zero.

If the system does not have a well-defined order, then there may remain some finite entropy as the
system is brought to very low temperatures, either because the system becomes locked into a
configuration with non-minimal energy or because the minimum energy state is non-unique.

The constant value is called the residual entropy of the system.

 Thermodynamics
Carnot’s Ideal Heat Engine
French engineer Sadi Carnot conceived a theoretical engine which is free from all practical imperfections.
Such an engine cannot be realized in practice.
It has maximum efficiency, and it is an ideal heat engine. Sadi Carnot’s heat engine requires the following
important parts:
 Thermodynamics :Temperature Entropy Diagram

A Carnot cycle as an idealized thermodynamic cycle performed by a Carnot heat engine, consisting of
the following steps:

1. A reversible isothermal gas expansion process. In this process, the ideal gas in the system absorbs
q in amount heat from a heat source at a high temperature T high expands and does work on
surroundings.

2. A reversible adiabatic gas expansion process. In this process, the system is thermally insulated.
The gas continues to expand and do work on surroundings, which causes the system to cool to a
lower temperature, T low

3. A reversible isothermal gas compression process. In this process, Surroundings do work to the
gas at T low, and cause a loss of heat, q out

4. A reversible adiabatic gas compression process. In this process, the system is thermally insulated.
Surroundings continue to do work to the gas, which causes the temperature to rise back to T high.
Thermodynamics :Temperature Entropy Diagram
 Thermodynamics :Temperature Entropy Diagram
A Carnot cycle as an idealized thermodynamic cycle
performed by a Carnot heat engine, consisting of the
following steps:
T-S Diagram
The T-S diagram of the Carnot cycle

In isothermal processes I and III, ∆T=0.

In adiabatic processes II and IV, ∆S=0

because dq=0.

∆T and ∆S of each process in the Carnot

cycle are shown in Table 13.8.2
 The Carnot Cycle
Idealized thermodynamic cycle consisting of four reversible processes (any substance):

Reversible isothermal expansion (1-2, TH=constant)

Reversible adiabatic expansion (2-3, Q=0, TH🡪TL)
Reversible isothermal compression (3-4, TL=constant)
Reversible adiabatic compression (4-1, Q=0, TL🡪TH)

1-2 2-3 3-4 4-1

 The Carnot Cycle
Work done by gas = ∫PdV, area under the process curve 1-2-3.
1
2 dV>0 from 1-2-3
∫PdV>0

Work done on gas = ∫PdV, area under the

process curve 3-4-1
subtract
1
Net work 1 Since dV<0
2 ∫PdV<0

2
4 3 3
 The Carnot Principles

• The efficiency of an irreversible heat engine is always less than the efficiency of a reversible one operating
between the same two reservoirs. ηth, irrev < ηth, rev

• The efficiencies of all reversible heat engines operating between the same two reservoirs are the same. (ηth,
) = (ηth, rev)B
rev A

• Both Can be demonstrated using the second law (K-P statement and C-statement). Therefore, the Carnot heat
engine defines the maximum efficiency any practical heat engine can reach up to.

• Thermal efficiency ηth=Wnet/QH=1-(QL/QH)=f(TL,TH) and it can be shown that ηth=1-(QL/QH)=1-(TL/TH). This is

called the Carnot efficiency.

• For a typical steam power plant operating between TH=800 K (boiler) and TL=300 K(cooling tower), the
maximum achievable efficiency is 62.5%.
•It has been proven that ηth = 1-(QL/QH )= 1-(TL/TH) for all Carnot engines since the
Carnot efficiency is independent of the working substance.
 Carnot Efficiency
A Carnot heat engine operating between a high-temperature source at 900 K and reject heat to
a low-temperature reservoir at 300 K. (a) Determine the thermal efficiency of the engine. (b) If
the temperature of the high-temperature source is decreased incrementally, how is the thermal
efficiency changes with the temperature.
Lower TH

Increase TL
 Thermodynamics : Entropy
Entropy is a scientific concept most commonly associated with disorder, randomness, or uncertainty.
Entropy is defined as a measure of randomness or disorder of a system.
Entropy is the degree of randomness or the amount of energy in the system which can't be used to do
any work
A measure of the unavailable energy in a closed thermodynamic system that is also usually
considered to be a measure of the system's disorder, that is a property of the system's state, and that
varies directly with any reversible change in heat in the system and inversely with the temperature of
the system
Entropy is a thermodynamic function, which means it is a property of the system's state and not a
property of the process.

It is represented by the letter "S" and is usually denoted in units of J/K or cal/K
 Thermodynamics : Entropy
Entropy is a scientific concept often associated with a state of disorder, randomness, or uncertainty. In
the context of thermodynamics, entropy is related to the energy and temperature of a system,
and it is represented by the equation: S = kb ln Ω
where,
S is the Entropy, kb is the Boltzmann Constant , Ω is the number of microscopic configuration

Entropy Change Formula

The formula for calculating the change in entropy (ΔS) for a system depends on the type of process or
reaction. Here are some standard formulas for entropy change:

Entropy Change General Formula: For a general case, where the process is not isothermal or
isobaric, the entropy change can be calculated using the first law of thermodynamics:
ΔS= ΔQ/T
where,
ΔQ is the heat absorbed or released by the system
T is the absolute temperature
Thermodynamics : Entropy
Thermodynamics : Rankine Cycle
Thermodynamics : Rankine Cycle
Thermodynamics
 Thermodynamics : Rankine Cycle
The Rankine cycle is an idealized thermodynamic
cycle describing the process by which certain heat
engines, such as steam turbines or reciprocating steam
engines, allow mechanical work to be extracted from a
fluid as it moves between a heat source and heat sink.

Heat energy is supplied to the system via a boiler where

the working fluid (typically water) is converted to a
high-pressure gaseous state (steam) in order to turn
a turbine. After passing over the turbine the fluid is
allowed to condense back into a liquid state as waste
heat energy is rejected before being returned to boiler,
completing the cycle. Friction losses throughout the
system are often neglected when simplifying calculations
as such losses are usually much less significant than
thermodynamic losses, especially in larger systems.
 Thermodynamics : Temperature Entropy Diagram
The Rankine cycle closely describes the process by which steam engines commonly found in
thermal power generation plants harness the thermal energy of a fuel or other heat source to generate
electricity. Common heat sinks include ambient air above or around a facility and bodies of water such
as rivers, ponds, and oceans.

The ability of a Rankine engine to harness energy depends on the relative temperature difference
between the heat source and heat sink. The greater the differential, the more mechanical power can be
efficiently extracted out of heat energy, as per Carnot's theorem.

The efficiency of the Rankine cycle is limited by the high heat of vaporization of the working fluid.
Unless the pressure and temperature reach supercritical levels in the boiler, the temperature range over
which the cycle can operate is quite small.

As of 2022, most supercritical power plants adopt a steam inlet pressure of 24.1 MPa and inlet
temperature between 538°C and 566°C, which results in plant efficiency of 40%. However, if pressure
is further increased to 31 MPa the power plant is referred to as ultra-supercritical, and one can increase
the steam inlet temperature to 600°C, thus achieving a thermal efficiency of 42
 Thermodynamics :Temperature Entropy Diagram
There are four processes in the Rankine cycle. The states
are identified by numbers (in brown) in the T–s diagram.

The working fluid is pumped from

Isentropi
Process low to high pressure. As the fluid
c compr
1–2 is a liquid at this stage, the pump
ession
requires little input energy.
The high-pressure liquid enters a
boiler, where it is heated at
constant pressure by an external
Constan
heat source to become a dry
t
saturated vapour. The input
Process pressure
energy required can be easily
2–3 heat T-S Diagram of a typical Rankine cycle operating
calculated graphically, using
addition between pressures of 0.06 bar and 50 bar. Left
an enthalpy–entropy chart (h–s
in boiler from the bell-shaped curve is liquid, right from it is
chart, or Mollier diagram), or gas, and under it is saturated liquid–vapour
numerically, using steam equilibrium.
tables or software.
 Thermodynamics :Temperature Entropy Diagram
The dry saturated vapour
expands through a turbine,
generating power. This decreases
Isentropic the temperature and pressure of
Proces
expansio the vapour, and some
s 3–4
n condensation may occur. The
output in this process can be
easily calculated using the chart
or tables noted above.
Constant
pressure
The wet vapour then enters
heat
Proces a condenser, where it is
rejection T-S Diagram of a typical Rankine cycle operating
s 4–1 condensed at a constant pressure
in between pressures of 0.06 bar and 50 bar. Left
to become a saturated liquid.
condense from the bell-shaped curve is liquid, right from it is
r gas, and under it is saturated liquid–vapour
equilibrium.
 Thermodynamics :Temperature Entropy Diagram
In an ideal Rankine cycle the pump and turbine would be isentropic: i.e., the pump and turbine
would generate no entropy and would hence maximize the net work output.

Processes 1–2 and 3–4 would be represented by vertical lines on the T–s diagram and more
closely resemble that of the Carnot cycle.

The Rankine cycle shown here prevents the state of the working fluid from ending up in the
superheated vapor region after the expansion in the turbine, which reduces the energy removed by
the condensers.

The actual vapor power cycle differs from the ideal Rankine cycle because of irreversibilities in the
inherent components caused by fluid friction and heat loss to the surroundings; fluid friction causes
pressure drops in the boiler, the condenser, and the piping between the components, and as a
result, the steam leaves the boiler at a lower pressure; heat loss reduces the network output, thus
heat addition to the steam in the boiler is required to maintain the same level of network output.
 Thermodynamics :Temperature Entropy Diagram
In a real power-plant cycle (the name "Rankine" cycle is used only
for the ideal cycle), the compression by the pump and the
expansion in the turbine are not isentropic. In other words, these
processes are non-reversible, and entropy is increased during the
two processes. This somewhat increases the power required by
the pump and decreases the energy generated by the turbine.
In particular, the efficiency of the steam turbine will be limited by
water-droplet formation. As the water condenses, water droplets
hit the turbine blades at high speed, causing pitting and erosion,
gradually decreasing the life of turbine blades and efficiency of
the turbine. The easiest way to overcome this problem is by
superheating the steam.

On the T–s diagram above, state 3 is at a border of the two-phase

region of steam and water, so after expansion the steam will be
very wet. By superheating, state 3 will move to the right (and up)
in the diagram and hence produce a drier steam after expansion.
 Thermodynamics :Temperature Entropy Diagram
Rankine Cycle with Reheat : The purpose of a reheating cycle is to
remove the moisture carried by the steam at the final stages of the
expansion process. In this variation, two turbines work in series.
The first accepts vapor from the boiler at high pressure. After the
vapor has passed through the first turbine, it re-enters the boiler
and is reheated before passing through a second, lower-pressure,
turbine.
The reheat temperatures are very close or equal to the inlet
temperatures, whereas the optimal reheat pressure needed is only
one-fourth of the original boiler pressure.
Among other advantages, this prevents the vapour
from condensing during its expansion and thereby reducing the
damage in the turbine blades, and improves the efficiency of the
cycle, because more of the heat flow into the cycle occurs at
higher temperature.
 Thermodynamics :Temperature Entropy Diagram
The reheat cycle was first introduced in the 1920s, but was
not operational for long due to technical difficulties.

In the 1940s, it was reintroduced with the increasing

manufacture of high-pressure boilers, and eventually double
reheating was introduced in the 1950s.

The idea behind double reheating is to increase the average

temperature.

It was observed that more than two stages of reheating are

generally unnecessary, since the next stage increases the
cycle efficiency only half as much as the preceding stage.

Today, double reheating is commonly used in power plants

that operate under supercritical pressure.
 Thermodynamics :Temperature Entropy Diagram
The regenerative Rankine cycle :The regenerative Rankine cycle is
so named because after emerging from the condenser (possibly as
a subcooled liquid) the working fluid is heated by steam tapped from
the hot portion of the cycle. On the diagram shown, the fluid at 2 is
mixed with the fluid at 4 (both at the same pressure) to end up with
the saturated liquid at 7. This is called "direct-contact heating".
The Regenerative Rankine cycle (with minor variants) is commonly
used in real power stations.
Another variation sends bleed steam from between turbine stages
to feedwater heaters to preheat the water on its way from the
condenser to the boiler. These heaters do not mix the input steam
and condensate, function as an ordinary tubular heat exchanger, and
are named "closed feedwater heaters".
Regeneration increases the cycle heat input temperature by
eliminating the addition of heat from the boiler/fuel source at the
relatively low feedwater temperatures that would exist without
regenerative feedwater heating. This improves the efficiency of the
cycle, as more of the heat flow into the cycle occurs at higher
temperature.
Thermodynamics :Temperature Entropy Diagram
Principles of operation
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