1.

INTRODUCTION
1.1 An Introduction to Bernoulli’s Theorem
Bernoulli’s theorem is the principle of energy conservation for
perfect fluids in steady, or streamline, flow and is the basis for
many engineering applications. This was first derived in 1738
by a Swiss mathematician, Daniel Bernoulli.

1.2 Bernoulli’s Equation

Bernoulli's equation is used to solve any problems involving
incompressible fluid flow. The Bernoulli equation applies to
the various measuring devices like Venturi meter, Nozzle meter,
Orifice meter, Pitot tube, and its applications to flow
measurement from takes, within pipes, and in open channels.
1.3 Daniel Bernoulli (1700–1782)
Daniel Bernoulli was a Dutch-born member of the Swiss
mathematical family. His most important work considered the
basic properties of fluid flow, pressure, density, and velocity,
and gave the Bernoulli principle.
1. Bernoulli’s Theorem
2.1 Statement of the Bernoulli’s Theorem

Bernoulli’s theorem, also known as Bernoulli’s principle,

states that the whole mechanical energy of the moving
fluid, which includes gravitational potential energy of
elevation, fluid pressure energy, and kinetic energy of fluid
motion, remains constant.

p+1/2ρv2+ρghp+1/2ρv2+ρgh= constant

This equation is known as Bernoulli’s equation.

2.2 Bernoulli’s Theorem Derivation

We can find out the formula written above for the Bernoulli’s
principle. Let us derive this formula using a diagram.
In the above figure we can see that a fluid is flowing from Side
A to side B
The height as side A is h1 while the height of the fluid at Side B
is h2.
The cross-section area at A = a1
Cross section area at B = a2
The pressure of fluid at side A = P1
pressure of the fluid at side B = P2
Velocity of the fluid at side A = V1
Velocity of the fluid at side B = V2
As we know that fluid flows from high pressure to low pressure,
so P1 > P2.
Let us assume that during a certain period, the fluid displaced
at side A be dX1 while the displacement of the fluid be dX2 at
side B so that the same amount of fluid volume is passed.
Then a small amount of work done (dw) on the fluid will be
given by = F1.dX1 – F2.dX2
where F1 is the force applied at side A and F2 is the force
applied at side B
as F = P.A
where P = pressure and A = area
so, dw = P1.a1.dX1 – P2.a2.dX2
as area and length = volume, so, a.dX = dv
dw = P1.dv – P2.dv
or, dw = dv (P1-P2)
The total energy of the given fluid system will be equal to the
change in the potential energy and kinetic energy of the fluid.
i.e., dw = du + dk (because we assume that no viscous force is
present) —–(i)
where du = change in potential energy and dk = change in
kinetic energy
dk = (1/2)m1.(V1)² – (1/2)m2.(V2)²
as we go with the assumption that the density of the fluid
remains constant at all the points
as mass = density x volume
so, dk = (1/2)ρ.dv.(V1)² – (1/2)ρ.dv.(V2)²
dk = (1/2)ρ.dv(V1² – V2²)
du = m2.g.h2 – m1.g.h1
du = ρ.dv.g.h2 – ρ.dv.g.h1
or du = ρ.dv.g(h2-h1)
putting the values of dw, du, and dk in equation (i), we get
dv (P1-P2) = ρ.dv.g(h2-h1) + (1/2)ρ.dv(V1² – V2²)
cancelling out dv from each term, we get
(P1-P2) = ρ.g(h2-h1) + (1/2)ρ(V1² – V2²)
on rearranging the above terms, we get
P1 + ρ.gh1 + (1/2)ρV1² = P2 + ρ.gh2 + (1/2)ρV2²
as we can see the total energy is conserved at both points
Hence, P + ρgh + (1/2)ρv² = constant

2.3 Principle of Continuity

According to the principle of continuity
If the fluid is in streamline flow and is in-compressible then we
can say that mass of fluid passing through different cross
sections are equal.

From the above situation, we can say the mass of liquid inside
the container remains the same.
The rate of mass entering = Rate of mass leaving
The rate of mass entering = ρA1V1Δt—– (1)
The rate of mass entering = ρA2V2Δt—– (2)
Using the above equations,
ρA1V1=ρA2V2
This equation is known as the Principle of Continuity.
Suppose we need to calculate the speed of efflux for the
following setup.

Using Bernoulli’s equation at point 1 and point 2,

p+12ρv12+ρgh=p0+12ρv22
v22=v12+2pρ–2p0ρ+2gh

Generally, A2 is much smaller than A1; in this case, v12 is very

much smaller than v22 and can be neglected. We then find,
v22=2p−p0ρ+2gh
Assuming A2<<A1, we get,
v2=2gh
Hence, the velocity of efflux is.
2gh
2.4 Relation between Conservation of Energy and
Bernoulli’s Equation
Conservation of energy is applied to the fluid flow to produce
Bernoulli’s equation. The net work done results from a change
in a fluid’s kinetic energy and gravitational potential energy.
Bernoulli’s equation can be modified depending on the form of
energy involved. Other forms of energy include the dissipation
of thermal energy due to fluid viscosity.

2.5 Bernoulli’s Equation at Constant Depth

When the fluid moves at a constant depth that is when h1 = h2,
then Bernoulli’s equation is given as:
P1+12ρv12=P2+12ρv22

2.6 Bernoulli’s Equation for Static Fluids

When the fluid is static, then v1 = v2 = 0, then Bernoulli’s
equation is given as:

When v1 = v2 = 0 P1 + ρgh1 = P2 + ρgh2

When h2 = 0 P2 = P1 + ρgh1

3. Limitations of Bernoulli’s Theorem

Due to friction, the fluid particle velocity is greatest in the middle
of a tube and decreases gradually towards the tube's direction.
Consequently, because particles of the liquid velocity are not
consistent, the liquid's mean velocity must be employed.This
formula can be used to enhance a liquid supply's efficiency. But
in turbulent or non-steady flows, it is ineffectual. This theorem is
typically used for low viscosity fluids.

4. Bernoulli’s Theorem Applications

There are many applications of the Bernoulli’s theorem in the
real world. This theorem is widely used in many disciplines,
including cardiovascular physiology and aviation. Some of the
applications of Bernoulli’s theorem are stated below.

 Finding Pressure Drops in Pipes: The pressure drop via

a pipe can be calculated using this theorem. The friction
between the fluid and the pipe walls is what results in the
pressure drop.

 Aerodynamics: The lift produced by airplane wings is

explained by Bernoulli’s theorem. The design of the wings
makes the upper surface of the wing move air more
quickly than the bottom surface. As a result, there is a
pressure difference between the wing’s top and bottom
surfaces, which produces lift.

 Cardiovascular System: Hemodynamic uses this

Theorem to analyse blood flow in the circulatory system. It
 adds to the explanation of events like the Bernoulli effect,
in which decreased pressure causes heart valves to close.
 Venturi meter: It is a tool that gauges how quickly liquid
moves through pipes and is based on Bernoulli’s principle.
 Hydraulic Engineering: Engineers employ Bernoulli’s
principle to create effective water purification systems,
pipelines, and dams. The theorem helps these systems’
fluid flow and pressure distribution be optimized.
 Curve of a Baseball : Have you ever seen a baseball
pitcher deliver a curveball? When the baseball takes a
curved trajectory as it passes the plate, in most cases, the
batter would not be able to judge the path of the ball and
miss the ball. One of the crucial aspects of curveball can
be explained using a formula typically used to describe
fluid flow. Bernoulli’s equation can be used to explain the
basic aspect of the curve of a baseball (curveball).
Usually, Bernoulli’s equation points to pressure, height,
and velocity (“air” is the fluid). At any point in the fluid (air),
the K (constant) will be equal to the total sum of the other
three values (height, pressure, and velocity).

 Aerofoil and Bernoulli’s Principle

The air over the top of a typical aerofoil encounters
compressed flow lines and boosted air speed compared to the
wing. This introduces a reduction in pressure on the top (as per
the Bernoulli equation) and produces a lift force.
Aerodynamicists use the Bernoulli concept to explain the
pressure calculations made in wind tunnels. They show that
when pressure calculations are done at multiple places around
the aerofoil and added together, it is similar to the observed lift.

 Blowing of roofs
During a storm, the roofs of huts or tinned roofs are blown off
without any damage to other parts of the hut. The blowing wind
creates a low pressure P1 on top of the roof. The pressure
P2 under the roof is however greater than P1. Due to this
pressure difference, the roof is lifted and blown off with the
wind.

 Bunsen burner
In a Bunsen burner, the gas comes out of the nozzle with high
velocity. Due to this the pressure in the stem of the burner
decreases. So, air from the atmosphere rushes into the burner.

 Motion of two parallel boats

When two boats separated by a small distance row parallel to
each other along the same direction, the velocity of water
between the boats becomes large compared to that on the
outer sides. Because of this, the pressure in between the two
boats gets reduced. The high pressure on the outer side
pushes the boats inwards. As a result of this, the boats come
closer and may even collide.
5. Experiment

AIM:
To verify the Bernoulli’s theorem.

OBJECTIVE:
The objective of the experiment is to verify the Bernoulli’s
equation which relates the pressure energy, kinetic energy and
potential energy per unit weight from point to point in the fluid.
The equation is based upon the law of conservation of energy
below.

In this experiment water is made to flow in a Perspex tank in

which the centreline of the cross section lies all on the same
horizontal plane. There is no change in potential energy per
unit weight as the fluid does not lose elevation during flow. The
horizontal plane is taken as the datum which reduces potential
energy variable in the equation to zero. Thus the equation is
verified as follows.
APPARATUS USED:
A Perspex tank of water, a tapered inclined pipe fitted with no.
of piezometer tubes point, measuring tank, scale, stopwatch.

PRECAUTIONS:
1. When fluid is flowing, there is a fluctuation in the height of
piezometer tubes, note the mean position carefully.
2. Carefully keep some level of fluid in inlet and outlet supply
tank.

PROCEDURE:
1. To carry out the experiment, water was allowed to flow in
the Perspex tank and the outflow was adjusted so that the
water levels in the piezometers are steady.

2. Piezometer readings for pressure heads are measured.

3. The water is allowed to flow into the collecting vessel for a

given period. T seconds and the height h, of water
collected in the measuring tank is recorded.
4. Area of the tank A is calculated.

5. The velocity V of the flow in any section is then obtained

by dividing the following equation (A*(h/t)), by the area of
the converging tube at that section.

6. The experiment was repeated with the lower head h in the

tank that is with a lower flow rate fluid.
DISCUSSION:
6.CONCLUSION

Bernoulli’s law states that if a non-viscous fluid is flowing along

a pipe of varying cross section, then the pressure is lower at
constrictions where the velocity is higher, and the pressure is
higher where the pipe opens out and the fluid stagnate. Many
people find this situation paradoxical when they first encounter
it(higher velocity, lower pressure), Venturi meter, atomiser and
filter pump Bernoulli’s principle is used in venturi meter to find
the rate of flow of a liquid. It is used in a carburettor to mix air
and petrol vapour in an internal combustion mix air and petrol
vapour in a combustion engine. Bernoulli’s principle is used in
an atomiser and filter pump. Wings of aeroplane wings of an
aeroplane are made tapering. The upper surface is made
convex, and the lower surface is made concave. Due to this
shape of the wing, the air currents at the top have a large
velocity than at the bottom. Consequently, the pressure above
the surface of the wing is less compared to the lower surface of
the wing. This difference of pressure is helpful in giving a
vertical lift to the Plane.
7.BIBLIOGRAPHY

 www.sciencefare.com
 www.cbsegide.com
 Referenced from H.C Verma.
 Referenced from physics NCRET book.