INDEX

PRESSURE
EQUATION OF CONTINUITY
DANIEL BERNOULLI
INTRODUCTION TO
BERNOULLI’S THEOREM
BERNOULLI’S EQUATION
EXPERIMENT
APPLICATIONS
CONCLUSION
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
I have taken efforts in this project
under the guidance of Miss. Reena
Sadhwani , and my principle. Thanks
to both of them for supporting me in
its completion.

I am grateful towards my friends and

my family for assisting me in this
project in every possible way.

At last, I would like to extend my

sincere gratitude towards the
almighty SCIENCE COMMUNITY which
works hard everyday to let us kids
investigate these theories and move
closer towards unraveling the
mysterious of nature.
 CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that this Physics project on
“BERNOULLI’S THEOREM ” has been
completed by Stuti Jain of XI science in the
academic year of 2023-24 under the
guidance of Miss. Reena Sadhwani mam for
partial fulfillment of the chemistry
practicale examination conducted by
AISSCE, Ner Delhi

INTERNAL EXTERNAL PRINCIPAL

EXAMINER EXAMINER SIGNATURE
PRESSURE
Pressure, in the physical sciences, is
the perpendicular force per unit area,
or the stress at a point within a
confined fluid.

In SI units, pressure is measured in

pascals; one pascal equals one
newton per square metre.

Absolute pressure of a gas or liquid is

the total pressure it exerts, including
the effect of atmospheric pressure.
An absolute pressure of zero
corresponds to empty space or a
complete vacuum.

Pressure is a scalar quantity.

EQUATION OF CONTINUITY
According to the equation of continuity Av =
constant. Where A =cross-sectional area and
v=velocity with which the fluid flows.

It means that if any liquid is flowing in

streamline flow in a pipe of non-uniform
cross-section area, then rate of flow of liquid
across any cross-section remains constant.

Consider a fluid flowing through a tube of varying

thickness.

Let the cross-sectional area at one end (I) = A1

and cross sectional area of other end (II) = A2.
The velocity and density of the fluid at one end (I)=v1,
ρ1 respectively, velocity and density of fluid at other
end (II)= v2, ρ2

Volume covered by the fluid in a small interval of time

∆t, across left cross-sectional is Area (I) =A1xv1x∆t

Volume covered by the fluid in a small interval of

time ∆t, across right cross-sectional Area (II) = A2x
v2x∆t

Fluid inside is incompressible (volume of fluid does

not change by applying pressure) that is density
remains same. {ρ1=ρ2 .... (equation 1)}

Along (I) mass=ρ1 A1 v1∆t and along second point (II) ,

mass = ρ2A2 v2∆t
By using equation (1), we can conclude that A1 v1 =
A2 v2.This is the equation of continuity.

From Equation of continuity we can say that

Av=constant.

This equation is also termed as “Conservation of

mass of incompressible fluids”.
DANIEL BERNOULLI

Daniel Bernoulli (8 February 1700 – 17 March 1782) was a Swiss

mathematician and physicist and was one of the many prominent
mathematicians in the Bernoulli family. He is particularly
remembered for his applications of mathematics to mechanics,
especially fluid mechanics, and for his pioneering work in
probability and statistics. His name is commemorated in the
Bernoulli's principle, a particular example of the conservation of
energy, which describes the mathematics of the mechanism
underlying the operation of two important technologies of the
20th century: the carburetor and the airplane wing. Together
Bernoulli and Euler tried to discover more about the flow of
fluids. It was known that a moving body exchanges its kinetic
energy for potential energy when it gains height. Daniel realised
that in a similar way, a moving fluid exchanges its specific kinetic
energy for pressure, the former being the kinetic energy per unit
volume.
 INTRODUCTION TO
BERNOULLI’S THEOREM
In fluid dynamics, Bernoulli's principle states that an
increase in the speed of a fluid occurs simultaneously
with a decrease in pressure or a decrease in the fluid's
potential energy. The principle is named after Daniel
Bernoulli, as mentioned before, who published it in his
book Hydrodynamica in 1738. Although Bernoulli
deduced that pressure decreases when the flow speed
increases, it was Leonhard Euler who derived Bernoulli's
equation in its usual form in 1752. The principle is only
applicable for isentropic flows: when the effects of
irreversible processes (like turbulence) and non adiabatic
processes (e.g. heat radiation) are small and can be
neglected

. Bernoulli's principle can be applied to various types of

fluid flow, resulting in various forms of Bernoulli's
equation; there are different forms of Bernoulli's
equation for different types of flow. The simple form of
Bernoulli's equation is valid for incompressible flows (e.g.
most liquid flows and gases moving at low Mach number).
More advanced forms may be applied to compressible
flows at higher Mach numbers.
 Bernoulli's principle can be derived from the principle
of conservation of energy. This states that, in a steady
flow, the sum of all forms of energy in a fluid along a
streamline is the same at all points on that
streamline. This requires that the sum of kinetic
energy, potential energy and internal energy remains
constant. Thus an increase in the speed of the fluid –
implying an increase in its kinetic energy (dynamic
pressure) – occurs with a simultaneous decrease in
(the sum of) its potential energy (including the static
pressure) and internal energy. If the fluid is flowing
out of a reservoir, the sum of all forms of energy is
the same on all streamlines because in a reservoir the
energy per unit volume (the sum of pressure and
gravitational potential ρ g h) is the same everywhere.

Bernoulli's principle can also be derived directly

from Isaac Newton's Second Law of Motion. If a small
volume of fluid is flowing horizontally from a region
of high pressure to a region of low pressure, then
there is more pressure behind than in front. This
gives a net force on the volume, accelerating it along
the streamline.
Fluid particles are subject only to pressure and their
own weight. If a fluid is flowing horizontally and
along a section of a streamline, where the speed
increases it can only be because the fluid on that
section has moved from a region of higher pressure
to a region of lower pressure; and if its speed
decreases, it can only be because it has moved from
a region of lower pressure to a region of higher
pressure. Consequently, within a fluid flowing
horizontally, the highest speed occurs where the
pressure is lowest, and the lowest speed occurs
where the pressure is highest.
 BERNOULLI’S
EQUATION
The equation is given as,

P + 1/2(ρ v2) + ρgh = 0

Where P is pressure, ρ is the density of the fluid,

v is its velocity, g is the acceleration due to
gravity and h is the height of the fluid from the
ground.

DERIVATION
 Finding the Work Done

First, we will calculate the work done (W1) on the

fluid in the region BC. Work done is

W1 = P1A1 (v1∆t) = P1∆V

Moreover, if we consider the equation of continuity,

the same volume of fluid will pass through BC and
DE. Therefore, work done by the fluid on the right-
hand side of the pipe or DE region is

W2 = P2A2 (v2∆t) = P2∆V

Thus, we can consider the work done on the fluid as

– P2∆V. Therefore, the total work done on the fluid is

W1 – W2 = (P1 − P2) ∆V

The total work done helps to convert the

gravitational potential energy and kinetic energy of
the fluid. Now, consider the fluid density as ρ and
the mass passing through the pipe as ∆m in the ∆t
interval of time.

Hence, ∆m = ρA1 v1∆t = ρ∆V

 EXPERIMENT
This experiment is aimed at investigating the validity of
Bernoulli’s equation when applied to a steady flow of water in
tapered duct and to measure the flow rate of steady flow rates.
Based on Bernoulli’s theorem relates the pressure, velocity, and
elevation in a moving fluid the compressibility and viscosity
(internal friction) of which are negligible and the flow of which is
steady, or laminar.

For this experiment, by using the FM 24 Bernoulli’s Apparatus

Test Equipment is to demonstrate the Bernoulli’s theorem. The
experiment was conducted in order to find the time taken to
collect 3L of water, the volumetric flow rates of the water, the
pressure difference at all manometer tube at different cross
section. The time to collect 0.003 m3 water is recorded based on
the different flow rate for each experiment.

The combination of venture meter complete with manometer

tube and hydraulic bench were used. During the experiment,
water is fed through a hose connector and the flow rate can be
adjusted at the flow regulator valve at the outlet of the test
section. The venture can be demonstrated as a means of flow
measurement and the discharge coefficient can be determined
the results show the reading of each manometer tubes increase
when the pressure difference increases. From the reading of
height can be calculated the data by applied the Bernoulli
equation to fin the velocity of the fluid moving.
The pressure level and velocity reading for part A to E
of the tube is recorded. From Bernoulli theory, the
relation between the increase and decrease in the
pressure value is inversely proportional to its velocity.
Bernoulli's Principle tells that as the fluid flows more
quickly through the narrow sections, the pressure
actually decreases rather than increases. Thus, it
proves the validity of Bernoulli’s theorem.
 APPLICATIONS
In modern everyday life there are many observations
that can be successfully explained by application of
Bernoulli's principle, even though no real fluid is
entirely inviscid and a small viscosity often has a large
effect on the flow.

An injector on a steam locomotive (or static boiler).

A De Laval nozzle utilizes Bernoulli's principle to

create a force by turning pressure energy generated
by the combustion of propellants into velocity. This
then generates thrust by way of Newton's third law of
motion.

The pilot tube and static port on an aircraft are used

to determine the airspeed of the aircraft. These two
devices are connected to the airspeed indicator,
which determines the dynamic pressure of the airflow
past the aircraft. Dynamic pressure is the difference
between stagnation pressure and static pressure.
Bernoulli's principle is used to calibrate the airspeed
indicator so that it displays the indicated airspeed
appropriate to the dynamic pressure.
 Bernoulli's principle can be used to calculate the lift force
on an airfoil, if the behaviour of the fluid flow in the vicinity
of the foil is known. For example, if the air flowing past the
top surface of an aircraft wing is moving faster than the air
flowing past the bottom surface, then Bernoulli's principle
implies that the pressure on the surfaces of the wing will be
lower above than below. This pressure difference results in
an upwards lifting force. Whenever the distribution of
speed past the top and bottom surfaces of a wing is known,
the lift forces can be calculated (to a good approximation)
using Bernoulli's equations – established by Bernoulli over
a century before the first man-made wings were used for
the purpose of flight. Bernoulli's principle does not explain
why the air flows faster past the top of the wing and slower
past the underside.

The Bernoulli grip relies on this principle to create a

non-contact adhesive force between a surface and
the gripper.
 The carburettor used in many reciprocating engines
contains a venturi to create a region of low pressure to
draw fuel into the carburettor and mix it thoroughly with
the incoming air. The low pressure in the throat of a venturi
can be explained by Bernoulli's principle; in the narrow
throat, the air is moving at its fastest speed and therefore it
is at its lowest pressure.

The flow speed of a fluid can be measured using a device such

as a Venturi meter or an orifice plate, which can be placed into
a pipeline to reduce the diameter of the flow. For a horizontal
device, the continuity equation shows that for an
incompressible fluid, the reduction in diameter will cause an
increase in the fluid flow speed. Subsequently, Bernoulli's
principle then shows that there must be a decrease in the
pressure in the reduced diameter region. This phenomenon is
known as the Venturi effect.

The maximum possible drain rate for a tank with a hole or tap
at the base can be calculated directly from Bernoulli's
equation, and is found to be proportional to the square root
of the height of the fluid in the tank. This is Torricelli's law,
showing that Torricelli's law is compatible with Bernoulli's
principle. Viscosity lowers this drain rate. This is reflected in
the discharge coefficient, which is a function of the Reynolds
number and the shape of the orifice.
 CONCLUSION
Bernoulli's law states that if a non-viscous fluid is
flowing along a pipe of varying cross section, then the
pressure is lower at constrictions where the velocity
is higher, and the pressure is higher where the pipe
opens out and the fluid stagnate. Many people find
this situation paradoxical when they first encounter it
(higher velocity, lower pressure). Venturimeter,
atomiser and filter pump Bernoulli’s principle is used
in venturimeter to find the rate of flow of a liquid. It is
used in a carburettor to mix air and petrol vapour in
an internal combustion engine. Bernoulli’s principle is
used in an atomiser and filter pump. Wings of
Aeroplane Wings of an aeroplane are made tapering.
The upper surface is made convex and the lower
surface is made concave. Due to this shape of the
wing, the air currents at the top have a large velocity
than at the bottom. Consequently the pressure above
the surface of the wing is less as compared to the
lower surface of the wing. This difference of pressure
is helpful in giving a vertical lift to the plane.