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DS Lectures..............

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Discrete Structures

Previous Lecture Summery

• Basic Logic gates

• Constructing Circuits using logic gates

• Designing Circuits for given Inputs/outputs

• Equivalent Circuits

• Reductions of circuits
Applications of Logic

3
Lectures outline

• Basic Logic gates

• Circuits using logic gates

• Boolean Algebra

• Adders

• Reductions of circuits
Basic Logic Gates
x
• Not x where x = ¬x
x xy
• And y where xy = x  y
x x+y
• Or y where x+y = x  y
Constructing Circuits
Here is the circuit of the statement

(p  q)  (~p  q)  (p  ~q)
Cont...
Following is the circuit output of the following
statement

(x + y)  ¬ y

x
y
Designing a circuitt for a given input/output

Here is the out put

we can write it as following


Designing a circuitt for a given input/output

Here is the circuit of the previous input/output


Boolean Algebra
• Just like Boolean logic, variables can only be 1 or 0,
instead of true/false
• Not
~0 = 1
~1 = 0

• Or is used as a plus And is used as a multiplication


0+0 = 0 0*0=0
0+1=1 0*1=0
1+0=1 1*0=0
1+1= ? 1*1=1
Todays Lecture Outline
• NAND and NOR Gates

• Basics of Boolean Algebra

• Decimal and Binary numbers

• Half Adders

• Circuits using Half adders

• Full adder circuits

• Parallel Adder Circuits


Equivalent Circuits
Following is the circuit representations of the statement

[(P∧ ∼Q) ∨ (P ∧ Q)] ∧ Q


Equivalent Circuits

[(P ∧ ∼Q) ∨ (P ∧ Q)] ∧ Q


≡ (P ∧ (∼Q ∨ Q)) ∧ Q ; by the distributive law
≡ (P ∧ (Q ∨ ∼Q)) ∧ Q ; by the commutative law for ∨
≡ (P ∧ t) ∧ Q ; by the negation law
≡P∧Q ; by the identity law.
Equivalent Circuits
Thus the two circuits are logically equivalent.
Equivalent Circuits
Find the Boolean expressions for the circuits and show
that they are logically equivalent
Equivalent Circuits
Find the Boolean expressions for the circuits and show
that they are logically equivalent
NAND and NOR Gates
Another way to simplify a circuit is to find an equivalent circuit
that uses the least number of different kinds of logic gates.
Two gates not previously introduced are useful for this: NAND-
gate and NOR-gate.
A NAND-gate is a single gate that acts like an AND-gate
followed by a NOT-gate.
A NOR-gate acts like an OR-gate followed by a NOT-gate.
Thus the output signal of a NAND-gate is 0 when, and only
when, both input signals are 1, and the output signal for a
NOR-gate is 1 when, and only when, both input signals are 0.
The logical symbols corresponding to these gates are | (for
NAND) and ↓ (for NOR), where | is called a Sheffer stroke
and ↓ is called a Peirce arrow. Thus

P | Q ≡ ∼(P ∧ Q) and P ↓ Q ≡ ∼(P ∨ Q).


NAND and NOR Gates
NAND and NOR Gates
It can be shown that any Boolean expression is
equivalent to one written entirely with Sheffer strokes or
entirely with Peirce arrows. Thus any digital logic circuit
is equivalent to one that uses only NAND-gates or only
NOR-gates.
Rewriting Expressions Using the Sheffer Stroke

Use the definition of Sheffer stroke to show that


a. ∼P ≡ P | P b. P ∨ Q ≡ (P | P) | (Q | Q).
Rewriting Expressions Using the Peirce Arrow

Show that the following logical equivalences hold for the


Peirce arrow ↓, where P ↓ Q ≡ ∼(P ∨ Q).

a. ∼P ≡ P ↓ P
b. P ∨ Q ≡ (P ↓ Q) ↓ (P ↓ Q)
c. P ∧ Q ≡ (P ↓ P) ↓ (Q ↓ Q)

b. (P ↓ Q) ↓ (P ↓ Q)

≡ ∼(P ↓ Q) by part (a)

≡ ∼[∼(P ∨ Q)] by definition of ↓


≡P∨Q by the double negative law
Boolean Algebra
Decimal representations

6152 = 6*1000 + 1*100 + 5*10 + 2*1

= 6*103 + 1*102 + 5*101 + 2*100.

More generally, decimal notation is based on the fact that any positive
integer can be written uniquely as a sum of products of the form

d ·10n
where each n is a nonnegative integer and each d is one of the decimal
digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, or 9. The word decimal comes from the Latin
root deci, meaning “ten.”
Boolean Algebra
Converting decimal to binary representations

27 = 16 + 8 + 2 + 1
= 1·24 + 1·23 + 0·22 + 1·21 + 1·20.
Boolean Algebra
Any integer can be represented uniquely as a sum of products of the form
d ·2n
where each n is an integer and each d is one of the binary digits (or bits) 0
or 1.
Converting binary to decimal
Represent 110101 in decimal notation.
Addition in Binary Notation
Add 11012 and 1112 using binary notation.
Solution: Because 210 = 102 and 110 = 12, the translation of 110 +
110 = 210 to binary notation is

It follows that adding two 1’s together results in a carry of 1 when


binary notation is used. Adding three 1’s together also results in a
carry of 1 since 310 = 112 (“one one base two”).
Addition in Binary Notation
Thus the addition can be performed as follows:
Boolean Algebra
• Just like Boolean logic, variables can only be 1 or 0,
instead of true/false
• Not
~0 = 1
~1 = 0

• Or is used as a plus And is used as a multiplication


0+0 = 0 0*0=0
0+1=1 0*1=0
1+0=1 1*0=0
1+1= ? 1*1=1
Half Adder
• Consider adding two 1-bit binary numbers x and y
0+0 = 0
0+1 = 1
1+0 = 1
1+1 = 10

• Carry is x AND y
• Sum is x XOR y
• The circuit to compute this is called a half-adder.
Circuit of Half Adder

• Sum = x XOR y
• Carry = x AND y

x
y Sum
Carry
Using Half adders

•We can then use a half-adder to compute the


sum of two Boolean numbers

1 0 0
1 1 0 0
+1 1 1 0
? 0 1 0
How to fix that
• We need to create an adder that can take a carry bit as an
additional input
Inputs: x, y, carry in
Outputs: sum, carry out
• This is called a full adder
Will add x and y with a half-adder
Will add the sum of that to the
carry in
• What about the carry out?
It’s 1 if either (or both):
x+y = 10
x+y = 01 and carry in = 1
The Full adder
Parallel Adder Circuits
Two full-adders and one half-adder can be used together to build a
circuit that will add two three-digit binary numbers PQR and STU to
obtain the sum WXYZ. Such a circuit is called a parallel adder.
Parallel adders can be constructed to add binary numbers of any
finite length.
The Full adder
The full circuitry of the full adder

c
s

x
y
c
Lecture summary

• Basic Logic gates

• Circuits using logic gates

• Boolean Algebra

• Adders (Half and Full)

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