What is a cell?

• structural and functional units of all living

organisms
• unicellular and multicellular organisms
– bacteria vs. human
specialized functions

nutrients energy source

reproduce
History of the Cell - Scientist were aware of
cells only after the discovery of microscopes.

•Hooke (1665) – coined term ‘cell’

•Van Leeuwenhoek – viewed first living cells
•Schleiden (1838) – plants are composed of
cells
•Schwann (1839) – animals are composed of
cells
•Virchow (1858) – cells come from cells
Cell theory which states:

1. All living things are composed of one

or more cells.
2. In organisms, cells are the basic units
of structure and function.
3. Cells are produced only from existing
cells.
TYPES OF CELLS
 Prokaryotes
•Pro = before; karyon = nucleus
•relatively small - 5 to 10 um
•lack membrane-bound organelles
•earliest cell type
Eukaryotes
•Eu = true; karyon = nucleus
•contain membrane-bound organelles
•Evolved from prokaryotes by endosymbiotic
association of two or more prokaryotes
•Include Protists, Fungi, Animals, and Plants
Archaea
•Originally thought to be prokaryotes
•relatively small - 5 to 10 um
•lack membrane-bound organelles
•Usually live in extreme environments (thermophiles,
 Eukaryote vs. Prokaryote

eg. fungi eg. bacteria

animals
plants
unicellular organisms: yeast, Dictyostelium etc.
Biggest differences: Prokaryotes lack a nuclear membrane!
Prokaryotes don't have intracellular organelles!
Size of Eukaryotes.
ALL cells share certain structural
characteristics:

1. Cell or Plasma membrane

2. Cytoplasm
3. Genetic Material
Plant cells have three “extra” things than animal cells:

Both types of cell have these: Only plant cells

have these:

1) Nucleus 4) Cell wall

2) Cytoplasm
5) Large
vacuole

3) Cell 6) Chloroplasts
membrane
Plant Cell
Animal cells
 Plant Cell Animal Cell
Has rigid cell wall Lacks cell wall
Rigid structure Lacks rigid structure
Contains cell membrane Contains cell membrane

No centrioles Contain centrioles

Contains chloroplasts No chloroplasts
Large, central vacuole Smaller, more
numerous vacuoles
No flagella Flagella may be present
Plant
Cells
 A typical plant cell:
Cell wall – made
of cellulose which
strengthens the cell

Cell membrane
– controls what Chloroplasts (containing
comes in and out chlorophyll) – this is needed
for photosynthesis

Nucleus – controls
Large vacuole – what the cell does and
contains sap and stores information
helps support the
cell
Cytoplasm –
Chemical reactions
happen here
 CELL WALL
•The plant cell wall is a remarkable
structure. It provides the most significant
difference between plant cells and other
eukaryotic cells.
•The cell wall is rigid (up to many
micrometers in thickness) and gives plant
cells a very defined shape.
• The cell wall is the reason for the
difference between plant and animal cell
functions.
•Because the plant has evolved this rigid
structure, they have lost the opportunity
to develop nervous systems, immune
systems, and most importantly, mobility.
•The cell wall is composed of cellulose fiber,
polysaccharides, and proteins.
•In new cells the cell wall is thin and not very
rigid. This allows the young cell to grow. This
first cell wall of these growing cells is called the
primary cell wall.
•When the cell is fully grown, it may retain its
primary wall, sometimes thickening it, or it may
deposit new layers of a different material, called
the secondary cell wall.
 Functions of the cell wall

• Maintaining / determining cell shape.

• Support and mechanical strength (allows plants to get
tall, hold out thin leaves to obtain light)
• Prevents the cell membrane from bursting in a
hypotonic medium (i.e., resists water pressure).
• Controls the rate and direction of cell growth and
regulates cell volume.
• carbohydrate storage - the components of the wall can
be re-used in other metabolic processes (especially in
seeds). Thus, in one sense the wall serves as a storage
for carbohydrates.
•has a metabolic role (i.e., some of the proteins in the
wall are enzymes for transport, secretion).
 Cell wall Components - Chemistry

• The main chemical components of the primary plant

cell wall include cellulose (in the form of organized
microfibrils), a complex carbohydrate made up of
several thousand glucose molecules linked end to end.

• Carbohydrates are good building blocks because they

can produce a nearly infinite variety of structures.
• There are a variety of other components in the wall
including protein, and lignin
 Morphology of the Cell Wall
there are three major regions of the wall:

1- Middle lamella - outermost layer, glue that binds adjacent cells,

composed primarily of pectic polysaccharides.

2- Primary wall - wall deposited by cells before and during active

growth. The primary wall is comprised of pectic polysaccharides,
hemicellulose, cellulose and protein (see Darvill et al, 1980). The
actual content of the wall components varies with species and
age. All plant cells have a middle lamella and primary wall.

3- Secondary Wall - some cells deposit additional layers. This

occurs after growth stops or when the cells begins to differentiate
(specialize). The secondary wall is mainly for support and is
comprised primarily of cellulose and lignin.
Cell Wall Morphology
 Plasma membrane:

outside the cell

double layer of lipids

proteins
inside the cell

Several functions of membrane proteins:

outside the cell

inside the cell

inport and export cross-linking of
of molecules membrane proteins amplification of convertion of product
extracellular signal
X into product Y
•The fluid mosaic model of the membrane
shows the membrane is composed of a
number of proteins which are similar to
shifting tiles.
•The spaces between the tiles are filled with
fluid-like phospholipids.
•The phospholipid consists of hydrophilic
heads, which point towards the outside
environment and the cytoplasm.
•The hydrophobic tails repel the water and
point in. Thus, the phospholipids form a
bilayer that acts like a barrier between the cell
and the environment.
•The phospholipid bilayer also contains
cholesterol, which makes the bilayer stronger,
more flexible and more permeable.
• There are a number of important proteins in
the plasma membrane which will be discussed
later.
 Plastids

•Plastids are organelles

that occur only in plants.
•Their most prominent
members are the
chloroplasts. Others
plastids are the colored
chromoplasts and the
colorless leucoplasts as
well as their proplastids.
 1- CHLOROPLAST
• Chloroplasts contain the green plant color
chlorophyll.
•They are the places where photosynthesis takes
place. Chloroplasts enable the plants to convert
solar energy into chemical energy. Because of this
process, plants are called primary producers.
• Chloroplasts occur in most cell types
• Chloroplasts are the site of starch production and -
storage
•Contain DNA which codes for chloroplast proteins,
ribosomes, etc.
•Divide when plant cell divides
 Structure of Chloroplast
• Enclosed in a double membrane
envelope.
1. Thylakoid
• Is a third internal membrane
system.
• Contains membrane-bound
photosynthetic pigments.
• Site of photochemistry (the
conversion of light energy to ATP
(site of oxygen generation).
2. Stroma
• Is soluable portion of chloroplast
site of carbon dioxide fixation
• ٍٍSite of sugar synthesis (carbon
metabolism).
• Location of cpDNA.
• Site of chloroplast protein
synthesis.
 2- Chromoplasts

•Red, orange or yellow plastids.

•The color is usually the result of yellow xanthophyll

and yellow to red carotinoids.

•Typical chromoplasts cause the orange color of the

carrot, the red color of tomato as well as the color of
numerous flowers.

•The plastids of the red and brown algae are

traditionally counted among the chromoplasts
although they contain chlorophyll.
 3- Leucoplasts
•Are common, colorless plastids.

•They develop from proplastids.

•Leucoplasts also occur within colorless leaves or

plant parts.

•A second class of leucoplasts occurs within the non-

green tissues of otherwise green plants.

•It is especially common within roots.

•Though these leucoplasts are capable to become

green, they do usually not since they are not exposed
to light.
 Plant Central Vacuole

•The vacuole is found only in plant cells

•The vacuole typically is 50% of the volume of the
cell, yet it can take up to 95% of the cell!
•Major storage space in center of plant cell with many
functions.
• It is responsible for maintaining the shape and
structure of the cell. Plant cells don't increase in size
by expanding the cytosplasm, rather they increase
the size of their vacuoles.
•The vacuole is a large vesicle which is also used to
store nutrients, metabolites, and waste products.
•The pressure applied by the vacuole, called turgor, is
necessary to maintain the size of the cell.
 The cytoplasm (cytosol):
a cell's inner space
Plasma
membrane

Cytoskeleton
cytosol

large fluid-filled space (mostly water + proteins that control most

of the
cell metabolisms):Glycolysis, transcription factors, intracellular
receptors etc.
•The area of the cytoplasm outside of the
individual organelles is called the cytosol.
• The cytosol is the largest structure in the cell.
It composes 54% of the cells total volume.
• The cytosol contains thousands of enzymes
that are responsible for the catalyzation of
glycolysis and for the biosynthesis of sugars,
fatty acids, and amino acids.
 Organelles

• Nucleus
• Protein production machine: the
ribosomes
• Mitochondria and Chloroplasts
• Endoplasmic Reticulum and the
Golgi apparatus
• Lysosomes and Peroxisomes
Adapted and/or specialized for carrying out one or more vital functions
Reminder! Are only found in eukaryotes.
 Nucleus

• The nucleus is the cellular control center

and exists only in eukaryotes .
• The nucleus contains the genetic
information for the cell, in the form of DNA
and RNA.
 Components of nucleus
1- Nuclear envelope ( membrane)-:
• Double membrane which surrounds the nucleus & is continuous with the
endoplasmic reticulum
• Nuclear pores- holes in the envelope formed from embedded protein which allow
certain molecules to pass from cytoplasm to nucleoplasm
2- Nucleolus:-
• Dense area which function in the synthesis of ribosomes
3- Chromatin-
•Regions where genetic material is found Long chains of DNA molecules --
Deoxyribonucleic acids
•Chromosome - condensed chromatin
4- Nucleoplasm: semifluid medium inside the nucleus.
The nucleus and the nuclear envelope
 Mitochondria
•Mitochondria are found in plant and animal cells.

•Mitochondria are bounded by a double membrane

surrounding fluid-filled matrix.

•The inner membranes of mitochondria are cristae.

•The matrix contains enzymes that break down

carbohydrates and the cristae house protein
complexes that produce ATP.
 Ribosomes

•Protein synthesis occurs at tiny organelles called

ribosomes.

•Ribosomes are composed of a large subunit and

a small subunit.

•Ribosomes can be found alone in the cytoplasm,

in groups called polyribosomes, or attached to the
endoplasmic reticulum.
 The endoplasmic reticulum
•The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a system of
membranous channels and saccules.

•Rough ER is studded with ribosomes and is the

site of protein synthesis and processing.

•Smooth ER lacks ribosomes and is the site of

synthesis of phospholipids and the packaging of
proteins into vesicles, among other functions.
 The Golgi apparatus

•The Golgi apparatus consists of a stack of

curved saccules.

•The Golgi apparatus receives protein and also

lipid-filled vesicles from the ER, packages,
processes, and distributes them within the cell.

•This organelle may also be involved in secretion.

Function:
- modification of lipids and proteins
- storage and packaging of materials that will be exported from the cell.

source: http://cellbio.utmb.edu/cellbio/golgi.htm
 Lysosomes and vacuoles

Lysosomes are vesicles produced by the Golgi

apparatus.

Lysosomes contain hydrolytic enzymes and are

involved in intracellular digestion.

Vacuoles (large) and vesicles (small) are

membranous sacs in the cell that store
substances.
 Peroxisomes

Peroxisomes are vesicles than contain enzymes.

The enzymes in these organelles use up oxygen

and produce hydrogen peroxide.

Peroxisomes are abundant in the liver where they

produce bile salts and cholesterol and break down
fats.