Cell

Structure
and
Functions
Mdm Nor Syahida binti Aliahmat
Basic Biology
Foundation In Science

learn .
The Cell theory
Types of cells: Prokaryotic or eukaryotic cells
Cell components
Specialized cells

The Cell Theory

All organisms are made up of similar units of
organization called cells

M. Schleiden

T. Schwann

R. Virchow

The Cell Theory

Cell
theory

Living things
are made up
of cells

The cell is the

basic unit
structure and
function

All cells come

from preexisting cells
by division

Cells contain
hereditary
information
passed on to
new cells
during cell
division

Types of cells

Prokaryotes

Cells with no nucleus

or organelles within
their membranes.

Eukaryotes

Cells that contain

nuclei and organelles
surrounded by a
membrane.

Prokaryotic Cell

Smaller than the eukaryotic cells.

Prokaryotic Before nucleus
Single-celled organism.
Lacks membrane-bound organelles.
DNA located in the cell (nuclear area/nucleoid) No enclosed
by a membrane.
Have cell wall, plasma membrane, flagella, ribosomes

 Obtain energy & carbon from organic

compounds by ingesting organisms.

Chemoheterotrop
hs
Photoautotrophs

Obtain energy from light & carbon from

fxing CO2 (inorganic compound).

Chemoautotroph
s

Obtain energy chemically & carbon

from fxing CO2 (inorganic compound).

Photoheterotrop
hs

Obtain energy from light & carbon from

ingesting other organisms.

Prokaryotic Cell

Cell wall:
Unique cell walls surrounding
their plasma membranes.
It contains peptidoglycan.
It support and maintain its cell
shape.
It also prevent rupture of the
cell.
Plasma membrane:
Made up of phospholipids, fully
permeable.
It controls the exchange of
waste materials and nutrients.
It can also be used as a
receptor
of
hormones,
neurotansmitters
and
other
chemicals.

Naked DNA:
Genetic material (Unit of
inheritance )
Lies freely in the cytoplasm
concentrated in a region
(nucleoid).
Ribosome:
Tiny organelles.
Found in large number in
the cytoplasm.
Made up of equal amounts
of RNA and proteins.
Made in the nucleus
Function: sites of protein
synthesis.

Flagella:
Long fbers that project from
the surface of the cell.
Important in locomotion.

Mesosome:
Invaginating during cell
division.
Organize the separation of
two daughter cells and help
in the formation of the cross
wall between daughter cells.

Eukaryotic Cell
Eukaryotic True nucleus
Membrane-enclosed organelles.
Multiple
biochemical
process
can
occur
simultaneously and independently.
The DNA is located in the membrane-bound
organelle called nucleus.
Have a supporting framework or cytoskeleton.

SIMILARITIES &
Both cells
are enclosed by plasma membrane and
DIFFERENCES
have cytoplasm and ribosomes.
Both have DNA as genetic material.
Feature

Prokaryote

Eukaryote

Organisms

Bacteria

Protists, fungi, plant &

animal

Cell size

Diameter 0.5-10 m

Diameter 10-100 m

Cell
division

By binary fssion, no
spindle formation

By mitosis or meosis
with spindle formation
in both.

Cell walls

Murein is main
strengthening
compound of cell walls

Cellulose is main
strengthening
compound of plant
walls; chitin in fungi

Feature

Prokaryote

Eukaryote

Organelles

No membrane-bound
organelles

Have a membranebound organelles

Genetic
material

No nucleus or
nucleoli.
Lies freely in the
cytoplasm
DNA region is called
nucleoid

Contain in nucleus
True nucleus bounded
by double membrane
DNA is associated with
protein & RNA to form
chromosomes

Flagella

Simple consisting of
only one microtubule

Arrangement of multiple
microtubules

Respiration
(Electron
transport
system)

Mesosomes

Mitochondria

Photosynthe
sis

No chloroplasts

Chloroplasts containing
membrane

Cell

Plant cell

Animal cell

Has cell wall - cellulose

No cell wall

Has fxed, regular shape

Irregular shape that is not fxed

Has chloroplast

No chloroplast

Has large central vacuole

Has small vacuoles

Has plasmodesmata

No plasmodesmata

Centrioles present in lower

plant species

Centrioles always present

Lysosome rarely found

Lysosome usually present

CELL
COMPONENT
S

Cell
Membrane
Complex barrier of lipoprotein layers that surrounds
& separates the cell from its external environment.
It also surrounds the organelles such as the
nucleus, mitochondria & chloroplast.
Selectively permeable where the cell membrane
regulates what passes into & out of the cell.
Some substances, like H2O, move freely through the
cell membrane by a process known as osmosis.

model

1. In 1972: Suggested by S. Jonathan Singer & Garth

Nicolson
2. The components of a plasma membrane: integral
proteins, peripheral protein, glycoproteins, phospholipids,
glycolipids, cholesterol & lipoproteins.
3. Cell membranes are composed of a lipid bilayer with
globular proteins embedded in the bilayer.
4. Mosaic The proteins are embedded in the membrane
like the mosaic tiles embedded in mortar.
5. Fluid The proteins are free to move. They can only

7. Plasma membrane thickness: 7-8 nm.

8. Each molecule of the lipid bilayer has a hydrophilic
(polar or water-loving) end and a hydrophobic
(nonpolar or water-hating) end.
9. The hydrophobic fatty acids of phospholipids (the nonpolar tails) of each layer face each other and form the
centre region of the bilayer.
10. The polar head groups face outside, one to cytosol and
the other to extracellular space.

11. The lipid bilayer of the plasma membrane exhibits

selective permealibility.
o Ions and large uncharged polar molecules, such as
glucose, cannot pass through. Small uncharged
polar molecules, such as water and urea, and
hydrophobic molecules, such as the gases O2 and
CO2, can pass through.
12. On the external surface of the membrane (act as
identity markers):
o Carbohydrate + lipids = Glycolipids.
o Carbohydrate + proteins= Glycoproteins.

13. Membrane protein consist of globular protein:

a. Peripheral protein
o. Confne to the outer and inner surface of the
phospholipid bilayer.
o. Loosely bounded to the surface of the protein.
b. Integral protein (transmembrane protein)
o. Penetrate the hydrophobic core of the lipid bilayer.
Hydrophilic when contact with aqueous environment.

14. The fluid mosaic model proposed that proteins are free to
move in the lipid bilayer.
15. Cholesterol is another component of the lipid bilayer. It
gives mechanical stability to the membrane structure by
restricting the movement of the phospholipids.
16. Cholesterol also gives the membrane flexibility and
permeability and reduce leakage of small polar molecules.

Function of the cell membrane

1. Forms a boundary.
2. Give shape, mechanical strength and protection.
3. Regulate and control the flow of materials in and out of
the cell.
4. Provide the receptor sites to detect the presence of
chemical messenger.
5. Important in cell-cell recognation: Glycoproteins
6. Join cells together: Linking with membrane protein.
7. Attachment to cytoskeleton.
8. Attachment sites for the enzyme.
9. Divide a cell into separate compartments.
10.Act as intracellular transport system.

Cell Wall
Rigid non-living wall located outside the cell membrane of
plant cells.
Composed of middle lamella, primary wall, secondary wall
and plasmodesmata.
Function give support & protection.
In land plants, the cell wall is composed of cellulose &
hardening material such as lignin.
Suberin waxy compound involved in water proofng of
some tissues.
Pores in the cell wall allowing substances to come in
contact with the cell membrane.

Primary cell wall

Found in young cells & cells that are not well differentiated
such as meristem, parenchyma & collenchyma.
Thin, about 1-3 m thick.
Consists of 25-30% cellulose, 15-25% hemicellulose, 35%
pectin & 5-10% protein.
Formed during cell growth.
Composed of loosely arranged microfbrils of cellulose in
matrix, which allow the cell to grow & stretch.
The matrix is built up of pectin & hemicellulose.
Very porous & allows the free passage of small molecules.

Secondary cell wall

The protoplast begins to secrete a secondary wall after the
cell has stopped enlarging.
Composed of tightly arranged fbers of cellulose, which are
often hardened by lignin.
Much thicker than primary walls.
Very strong; it gives plants their woody characteristics.

Middle lamella
Located between adjacent plant cells.
Composed of a gel-like material pectin.
It helps cells adhere to each other.

Plasmodesmata
Extremely thin strands of cytoplasm.
Extend through the walls of adjacent cells so that the
protoplast is connected.
Allow the movement of ions & small molecules from cell to
cell.
Unite many cells of a tissues/plant into 1 functional whole.
Substances can then pass from cell to cell much faster.

Functions of the cell wall

Maintains & determines cell shape
Provides support & mechanical strength
Prevents the cell membrane from bursting in a
hypotonic medium
Controls the rate, direction of cell growth &
regulates cell volume.
Acts as a physical barrier to pathogens
Acts as a carbohydrate storage
As economical products such as paper, wood,
fber, energy etc.

Cytoplasm & Cytosol

Cytoplasm: Jellylike substance contained within the
plasma membrane.

o Made up of: Cytosol (cytoplasmic solution) and

Cell organelles.
Cytosol contain water (80%) and soluble proteins.
Other substance include glucose, amino acids,
vitamins, minerals, oil droplets and food granules.
It is the home of the cytoskeleton, a network of
cytoplasmic flaments that are responsible for the
movement of the cell and give the cell its shape.
Helps the material move around the cell by moving
and churning: Cytoplasmic streaming

Holds together
all of the cells
organelles &
divide them.
Contains
nutrients &
helps in
dissolving
waste
products

Plays a role in
the osmosis
process

Function

Place for the

cell
metabolism &
chemical
reactions.

Provide
movement of
the cell &
gives its
shape

Organelles

Nucleus
The structure inside the cell that directs cell
activities.
Found in all eukaryotic cells except RBC & mature
seive tube cells.
Controls protein synthesis & stored genetic
information.
Spherical in shape, sometimes elongated structure that
contains DNA.
Divided into:
o Nuclear envelope
o Nucleoplasm
o Nucleolus
o Chromosome
It communicates with the cytoplasm via pores.

Nuclear envelope
Nucleus is surrounded by nuclear envelope:
Demarkets the nucleus from cytoplasm.
Has 2 membranes perforated by nuclear pore.
Space between the 2 membranes are called
perinuclear space.

Nucleoplasm
Almost identical to the cytoplasm, inside the
nucleus.
Located within the nuclear membrane.
Jelly-like material, 80% water with crystalloids & colloids
dissolved in it.
The crystalloids are:
o Glucose, ribose, deoxyribose, amino acids, organic
acids, nucleotides, mineral ions.
The colloids are:
o DNA, RNA, protein histone.
Function to connect & support the other solid
organelle structures in the nucleus. It also keeps them
separated from each other.

Nucleolus
Spherical
structure
within
the
nucleus,
composed of DNA, RNA & protein.
The site for ribosome production. Ribosome
are involved in the protein-making process.
Protein synthesized in the cytoplasm enter
through the nuclear pores and become associated
with the newly made rRNA in the nucleolus.
Producing small & large subunits of ribosomes.
Later the ribosomal subunits exit to the
cytoplasm through nuclear pore.

es
The genetic code of the
chromosomes is made
from a chemical called
deoxyribonucleic acid or
DNA.
Each chromosome is a
single very long piece of
DNA and the genes are
coded along this length of
DNA.
The DNA is twisted and
wound over and over again
then looped and attached
to a protein scaffold to
form a chromosome.

es
Chromatin: The form that
chromosome s take up
when the cell is not
dividing.
o Euchromatin: contain
active DNA
o Heterochromatin:
Contain inactive DNA

Stores genes
&
chromosomes

Coils &
uncoils the
DNA

Function
of
nucleus

Produces
ribonucleic
acid (RNA)

Organizes
the
chromosome
s for cell
division

Solid spherical granules with diameter of 20-25 nm.

Each ribosome: 2 ribosomal subunits. Each consist of about
70 protein molecules and several rRNA molecules.
Found in 2 places in the cell:
o Bound ribosome
o Free ribosome
Ribosome is the protein factory of the cell.

Endoplasmic reticulum
Rough ER:
Consists of flattened sacs: Cisternae
The cytoplasmic surface of its cisternae
appears rough because of the presence of
the ribosomes.
Site for protein synthesis to be export from
the cell for intracellular use.
Proteins are modifed within the ER.
Phospholipid synthesis and assembly of
multichain proteins also occur here.
Smooth ER:
Consists of network of membranous tubules
No ribosomes are present.
Necessary for steroid synthesis, metabolism
& detoxifcation of substances in the liver,
phospholipid synthesis & excitationcontraction coupling in skeletal muscles.

Golgi complex

Stack of flatten membranous sacs

(cisternae).
Finishes the post-transitional
modifcations, concentrates & package
proteins for export or storage.
It is also directs the destination of the
protein package.
The proteins made within the rough ER
bud off in vesicles and are transported
to the Golgi where the vesicles fuse
with the membrane.
The components are further modifed,
concentrated and packaged by the
time they bud off as vesicles on the
opposite side of the Golgi.

Mitochondria

Means Thread granule

Rod-shaped structures that vary in
size & shape (2-8 m in length).
It serves as the site for the
production of cellular energy
(ATP) using Krebs cycle.
Surrounded by 2 membranes. The
outer forms the exterior of the
organelle while the inner is
arranged in a series of folds called
cristae.
The space between the inner &
outer
membranes
is
called
intermembrane space while the
compartment enclosed by the inner
membrane is called the matrix.

Lysosome

Spherical membrane bound vesicles containing hydrolytic

enzymes that can digest most biological macrmolecules.
The size ranges from 0.05 to 0.5 micron in length.
Involved in intracellular digestion that are more numerous
in cells performing phagocytosis.
The most common lysosomal enzymes:
o acid
phosphatase,
ribonuclease,
deoxyribonuclease,
proteases, sulfatases & lipases.
These enzymes function optimally at pH 5 and are most inactive
at the pH 7.2.

Lysosome

Lysosomal enzymes, synthesized on the rough ER are

transferred to the Golgi for modifcation and packaging.
Lysosomes also participate in the turnover of old, worn-out
cellular organelles in a process called autophagy.
It can also carry out autolysis where the whole cell is digested.
Lysosomal enzymes are also involved in the process of
inflammation.

Carry out
intracellular
digestion
(phagocytosis)

Function
of
lysosome
s
Carry out
programmed
cell destruction

Recycle the
cells own
organic
materials
(autophagy)

Chloroplast & Plastids

Plastid are group of large organelles found in the
cytoplasm of plant cell but not in animal cells.
o Chloroplast: Green colored plastids containing
chlorophyll
o Chromoplast: Colored plastids rich in pigment
(carotenoids) Give colors to the fruit, flower etc.
o Leucoplast: Non-colored plastid containing no
pigments.

Chloroplast & Plastids

Chloroplast:
Shape of biconvex disc
Consist of an envelope of 2 membranes separated by
narrow intermembrane space.
Stroma: Gel-like matrix
Lamellae: Well-developed system of internal chloroplast
membranes.
Intergranal lamellae: Connect one granum to another.
Thylakoid: Coin-like flatten sac.
Granum: Thylakoid that pile up forming stack.

Vacuole
Fluid-flled sac bounded by single membrane called
tonoplast.
Fluid within the vacuole: cell sap.
Most commonly found in plant cells, vacuoles are
storage sites within a cell.
Site of pigment deposition: Anthocyanins
Plant defence: Tannin
Improving the surface area to volume ratio.
Helps to absorb the water.

Vacuole
Types:
o Food vacuole: formed initially by the engulfng or
phagocytosis of food particles.
o Contractile vacuole: helps to pump excess water out
of the cells in many freshwater algae.
o Central vacuole: most plant cells have a central
vacuole surrounded by a membrane called the
tonoplast, which is part of the endomembrane
system.

Cytoskeleton

Complex network of fne fbrils.

Function: cell shape, cellular movement.
Made up of:
o Microtubules
o Microflament
o Intermediate flament

Microtubules

Fine unbranched tubules with an

outer diameter of 24 nm, a dense 5
nm thick wall and a central hollow
core.
The microtubules comprise of a
helical arrangement of the protein
Tubulin.
Function:
o Provide
the
necessary
intracellular transport system for
the movement of organelles and
vesicles.
o Form the internal skeleton of the
cell and give it its shape.
o Form the main component in cilia
and flagella.
o Draw
the
chromosomes
to
opposite polar of the spindle

Microflaments
Smaller, solid structures of about 6 nm in diameter.
Made of the protein actin and myosin contraction in
muscles.
Arranged helically.
Contracts when these proteins slide one over another.
Form a thin sheath under the cell membrane.
Involved in cellular functions of endocytosis, exocytosis and
cell movement.
Help in the movement of vesicles, granules and cytoplasmic
organelles.

Intermediate flaments
Average diameter = 10 nm.
Bigger than microflaments but smaller than the
microtubules.
Found only in animal cells.
Made of several proteins depending on the cell or
tissue type.
Eg. Keratins found in most epithelial cells.
Function: protect the skin, hair and nails from abrasion
and dehydration.

SPECIALIZ
ED CELLS
Plant Tissue
Animal Tissue

Apical
meristems
Meristematic
tissue

Lateral
meristems
(cambium)
Intercalary
meristems

Plant tissue
Dermal tissue
Permanent
tissue

Ground tissue
Vascular
tissue

Meristematic tissue
Grow and divide to produce new cells, never mature
themselves.
Meristematic cells Mitosis Various type of cell.
Structure of the cell:
o Small, thin-walled, with no central vacuole and no
specialized features.
o Dense cytoplasm and nucleus occupies large part
of the cell.
Location: Divide to generate new cells near the
growing point at the shoot and root tips.

Meristematic tissue
Three types of meristems:
a. Apical meristems
o.Occur at the tips of the root and the shoots
o.Responsible for primary growth
o.Three parts: Protoderm, Procambium, Ground
meristem
b. Lateral meristems (cambium)
o. Located at outer edge of stems and roots.
o. Take part in secondary growth.
o. 2 types: Vascular cambium and Cork cambium
c. Intercalary meristems
o.Present only in monocotyledon plants

Permanent tissue
Form by differentiation of meristematic cells Which
become spcialised to perform specifc function.
Example:
Protection,
support,
storage
and
transport of food and water.
Derma
l
tissue

Permanent
tissue
Vascular
tissue

Ground
tissue

Dermal tissue
Consists of epidermis and periderm
Epidermis
Single layer of closely packed cells
To cover and protect the plant
Secretes cuticle (coating that helps plants to retain
water)
Periderm (Bark)
Replace epidermis in plants that undergo
secondary growth
Consists of cork cells. Cork tissue composed of
dead cells.

Parenchyma
Structure:
o Large, thin-walled and usually have a large
central vacuole.
o Least specialized of all plant cell types.
o Shape is isodiametric with thin cell walls.
o Living cells
Location: Found in all the organs of a plant.
Function: Food storage and photosynthesis.

Collenchyma
Structure: Thick walls especially at the corners.
Location:
o Most often found in areas that are growing rapidly
and need to be strengthened. Eg: stalk of leaves.
o Occurs as bundles of cells just beneath the
epidermis.
Function: Provide mechanical support for the plant.

Sclerenchyma
Structure:
o Thick cell walls and built up in
a uniform layer around the
entire margin of the cell.
o Consists of lignin that make
the cell walls tough and hard.
Location: Found in stems and
also in leaf.
Function:
o Usually found associated with
other cell types, giving them
mechanical support.
o Makes up the hard outer
covering of seeds and nuts.

Vascular tissue: Xylem

Structure: Thick-walled tubes
that can extend vertically through
several feet of xylem tissue.
Walls are thickened with secodary
deposits
of
cellulose

straightened by lignin
Contain tracheids hollow, thin,
long non-living cell, perforated so
that water can flow from one
tracheid to the next.
Function: Passively conducts
water and dissolved minerals
from the roots to all the other
parts of the plant.
Contains sclerenchyma cells to
add support.

Vascular tissue: Phloem

Main components:
o Sieve elements
o Companion cells

Sieve Elements
End walls are perforated, this allows cytoplasmic
connection.
Sieve tube conducts the products of photosynthesis
(sugar and amino acids) from the source (leaves) to
the places where they are consumed/stored (roots,
flowers, fruits)
No nucleus and lack of organelles. They depend on the
companion cells for many function.

Companion Cells
Located beside the sieve tubes.
Built up by compact protoplasma
and mitochondria.
Move sugars and amino acids into
and out of the sieve elements.
Provide energy (ATP) which is
needed to move sugars and amino
acids from the cells into the sieve
tubes by active transport.

Epithelial
cell
Blood
cell

Cartilage
ANIMAL
TISSUES

Muscle
cell

Bone
Nerve
cells

Epithelial Cell
Structure: Composed of closely aggregated cells
arranged in flat sheets.
Location: Tissue consisting of one or more layers of cells
found on the external surfaces covering the body as well
as the internal surfaces that line cavities, tubular organs
and blood vessels of organs.
Generally, the epithelial cells divided into 3 types
depending on the shape of the cells. (squamous, cuboids
& columnar)
Distribution of the cells relates to the function of the cells.
Function: protective covering, as well as in absorption,
secretion, sensation and contractility.

 Maybe present as a single layer (simple) or as multiple

layers (stratifed epithelia).
Single layer: found in barriers that prevent diffusion
such as in the lining of the alveoli of the lungs.
Stratified epithelia: found in areas where protection is
more important such as in the skin or the inside layer of
the mouth.
Epithelial tissue can be divided into 3 types:
o Simple epithelium: One cell thick.
(Squamous, Cuboidal, Columnar)
o Stratified epithelium (Compound epithelium):
Two or more cells thick.
(Stratifed squamous epithelium, stratifed cuboidal
epithelium,
stratifed
columnar
epithelium,
transitional epithelium)
o Pseudostratified epithelium: single layer of cells of
different sizes, giving appearance of multilayerd.

Squamous epithelia
Structure: Consists of thin, smooth and strong sheets
of cells.
Location: Occurs in the endothelium of blood vessels
and the outer layer of the Bowmans Capsule.
Function:
o facilitate diffusion across it very thin structure.
o Smoothens the passage of fluid and lubricates
movements.

Cuboidal epithelia
Lines the villi of the small intestine as well as the
outer borders of microvillis.

Columnar epithelium
Location: Can be found in the
collecting ducts and tubules of
nephrons, salivary glands and
sweat glands.
Function:
secretory
and
absorptive function. Eg: columnar
epithelium of the intestine.
Contains mucus-secreting goblet
cells.
Ciliated epithelia line the oviducts
and respitory surfaces where the
cilia cause movements of liquid
such as the mucus stream to help
clear away dust and bacteria
from the lungs.

Stratifed epithelia

Made of several layers of cells which form a tough

impervious barrier.
The outermost layer of cells known as the generative layer
is in an active state of mitotic cell division.
This structure provides protection from abrasion.
Stratified squamos epithelium can be found in the
epidermis of skin and in the lining of the innermost layer of
the esophagus.
Stratified cubodial epithelium can be found in excretory
ducts of sweat glands.
Stratified columnar epithelium can be found in the
secretory ducts of the mammary glands.
Transitional epithelium can be found only in the urinary
passage.

Pseudostratifed epithelia
Appears to be layered but true layers do not exist
because each cell touches a basement membrane
that joins the epithelium to the underlying connective
tissues.
Found in the innermost layer of the trachea, bronchi
and bronchioles.

Cartilage

Specialized tissue which is hard and flexible to withstand

mechanical stress without permanent distortion.
Can be found in joints such as sliding joints and hinge
joints. It acts as a shock absorber, cushioning bones
during movement.
Produced by chondrocytes that secrete protein matrix
with no calcium carbonate.
Nourished by of nutrients diffused from capillaries in the
adjacent perichondrial connective tissue or synovial
fluid.

Bone
Acts as levers converting muscle contraction into
movement.
Hydroxyapatite:
o the substance that gives bone its hardness
o made from calcium and phosphate
o associated with collagen in bone, giving it its
strength and resistance.
2 forms:
o Spongy bone
o Compact bone

 Spongy bone
o Found in the center of flat bones and the ends of
long bones.
Compact bone
o A dense tissue seen in the shafts of long bones
o Surrounds the spongy bone of flat or short bones.
o Formed by osteocytes located in the lacunae which
are arranged in concentric circles around the
Haversian canals which contain blood vessels and
nerves.
Osteocytes
o Secrete the matrix of calcium phosphate and
carbonate together with proteins.
o Communicate with one another and receive
nutrition through the canaliculi, the thin channels
penetrating the matrix.

Nerve cells
Nervous tissue found in:
o Brain
o Spinal cord
o Nerve
Neurons
Specialized for the conduction of nerve impulses.
Amitotic: If neuron is destroyed it cannot be replaced-No
mitosis
3 common features:
o Cell body contains the nucleus.
o Dendrites short fbers, impulses are brought in
towards the cell body.
o Axon single long fber, takes impulses away from
the cell.
o Axons meet at 3 junctions: other neurons (synapses) ,
muscles (neuromuscular junction), glands.

 3 types of neurons: sensory neurons, motor

neurons, interneuron.
Sensory (afferent) neurons
Carries impulses from the sensory receptors to
the CNS
Motor (efferent) neurons
Carries impulses from CNS to the effectors
(muscle and glands)
Interneuron (associated) neurons
Connects one neuron with another.
Eg. Riflex arcs, interneurons connect the sensory
neurons with the motor neurons.

Neuroglia & Glial cells

Cell that do not transmit impulses but support the activity

of the neurons.
2 types of neuroglia: Schwann cells (CNS), oligodendrocytes
(Peripheral NS)
Produce myelin sheath surround the axons of the neuron.
o Axon with myelin: Myelinated
o Axon without myelin: Unmyelinated
Function of myelin
o Protection and insulation of the nerve fbre
o Increase the rate of transmission of nerve impulses.
Gaps between the myelin sheath

Muscle cell
3 types of muscles:
o Smooth muscles
o Striated muscle
(skeletal muscle)
o Cardiac muscle

Smooth muscles
Called involuntary muscles muscles that cannot be
controlled voluntarily.
Their cells are of variable lengths but are in the order
of 0.1 mm.
Can be found in the digestive tract and in the walls of
the trachea, uterus, artery and bladder.
The contraction is controlled by the brain through the
autonomic nervous system.
It contracts rhythmically, producing wave of
contraction such as in the peristalsis process.

Striated muscles
Also known as skeletal muscles because of their
anatomical location.
Formed from a large number of muscle fbers that
range in length from 1 to 40 mm and diameter from
0.01 to 0.1 mm.
Each fber forms a (muscle) cell and is distinguished
by the presence of alternating dark and light bands.
Attached to the bones via tendons.
Voluntary and form an essential part of the organ of
support and motion.

Cardiac muscles
Only found in the heart.
Also striated.
Differs from skeletal muscle:
o Involuntary muscle
o When agitated, it generates a much longer
electrical impulse and the mechanical contraction
also lasts longer.
o Does not require impulse from the brain
independent nervous control.
o Myogenic, it has its own pacemaker to generate
excitation before it contracts.

Blood cell
Consists of fluid and cells that flow in one direction in
a closed circulatory system.
The bone marrow is the source of all the cells of the
blood.
These includes:
o Red blood cells (RBCs or erythrocytes)
o White blood cells (WBCs or leukocytes) 5 types.
o Platelets (thrombocytes)

Erythrocytes
Formed in the bone marrow.
Do not have a nucleus and are flled with the oxygencarrying protein, hemoglobin.
Biconcave shape and very thin membrane provide a
large surface for oxygen delivery.
Specialized cells for carrying oxygen.
An average RBC survives in circulation for 120 days.

Leukocytes
Found in circulation but may leave the circulatory
system and migrate to the tissues to perform
various functions.
Form the defensive mechanism of the body at
cellular level.
Classifed as granulocytes and agranulocytes,
depending on the presence/absence of visible
granules within the cellular cytoplasm.

Leukocyt
es
Agranulocyt
es
Lymphocyte
s

Monocytes

Granulocyte
s
Neutrophils

Eosinophils

Basophils

Granulocytes
Have granules in their cytoplasm.
Formed in the bone marrow.
3 types:
o Neutrophils have a nonsegmented horseshoeshaped nucleus.
o Eosinophils- presence of many large and
elongated granules that are stained red by eosin.
o Basophils- contain numerous granules that contain
heparin and histamine. These granules stain blue
with the typical hematoxylin/eosin stain.

Agranulocytes
Do not have granules in their cytoplasm.
Formed in the bone marrow and mature in the thymus
gland.
Divided into:
o Lymphocytes
spherical cells and nuclei.
very little cytoplasm.
lymphocyteT cells mature in the thymus gland,
participate in cellular immunity.
lymphocytes-B cells mature in the bone marrow,
produce antibodies.
o Monocytes
oval, horseshoe or kidney shaped nuclei.
more cytoplasm than lymphocytes.
differentiate into macrophages in the connective
tissues.

Thrombocytes
Also known as platelets.
Originate from large cells in the bone marrow called
megakaryocytes.
Have a lifespan of about 10 days and are nonnucleated.
Metabolically active cell.
Promote blood clotting and repair gaps in the walls of
blood vessels.
Mature cell is small and has no nucleus.

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