Introduction to Microbiology

Most important fungal taxons and their

characteristics
Fungi
Morphological distribution:
1. Molds (GB: moulds)
 Multicellular, forming a network of
branching, filaments from tubular cell,
surrounded by walls, called hypha

2
Fungi
Morphological distribution:
1. Mold
2. Yeasts
 grow as single-celled forms

3
Fungi
Morphological distribution:
1. Mold
2. Yeasts
3. Mushrooms

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Fungal morphology
Hypha (plural: hyphae)
a) Septate fungal hyphae: have cross-walls
b) Coenocytic hypha: no cross-walls

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Fungal proliferation
1. Hyphal growth: Hyphae
typically grow together forming a
visible tuft called a mycelium

Rhizopus rot development on (A) strawberry, and (B)

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tomato (Source: Postharvest Decay book)
Fungal proliferation
2. Asexual spores: formed without fusion of gametes or meiosis
 Have several types
 Functions to disperse the fungus to new habitats

Asexual spores: formed without fusion of gametes or meiosis. 7

Sexual spores: formed following fusion of gametes or meiosis.
 i

Fungal proliferation
2. Asexual spores:
i. Conidia
 Formed on conidiophores Penicillium digitatum on orange
(Source: Postharvest Decay book)
 Often pigmented
 Give the mycelium a dusty appearance ii

ii. Sporangiospores
 formed inside the sporangium

Rhizopus nigricans (Source: Science source)

 i

Fungal proliferation
3. Sexual spores:
i. Zygospores
ii. Ascospores
iii. Basidiospores

ii iii

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Fungal taxonomy
 Markedly changed in the past decades
 Earlier predominant morphological identification has been refined
with DNA-based methods
 rRNA sequence: most important phylogenetic molecular marker
 Multigene analysis is preferred in species identification

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Fungal taxonomy
The major phylogenetic groups of fungi Bruns (2006)

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 Fungal taxonomy

https://mycocosm.jgi.doe.
gov/mycocosm/home

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 Fungal taxonomy

https://mycocosm.jgi.doe.
gov/mycocosm/home

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Groups of fungal postharvest pathogens

MUCOROMYCOTA

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Mucoromycotina
Former Zygomycota taxon does not exist any more
New: Mucoromycota phylum
 Mucoromycotina subphylum:
 Rhizopus sp.
 Mucor sp.
 Thamnidium sp.

(singular: genus, plural: genera)

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Mucoromycotina
 Coenocitic hyphae
 Asexual sporangiospores
 Sexual zygospores
 Widespread in soil, dead plant
materials and foods

Rhizopus stolonifer morphology:

(A) in Petri plate,
(B) optical photomicrography showing
(B1) branched rhizoid,
(B2) columnella (columella)
zygospores (B3) sporangiophores and sporangiospores 16
Source: Postharvest Decay ISBN : 978-0-12-411552-1
Fungal taxonomy - Mucoromycotina
 Mucoromycotina subphylum:
 Rhizopus stolonifer is one of the
most common species in foods.
It is also referred to as “bread
mold”, and produces watery soft
rot of fruits (apples, pears, stone
fruits, grapes, figs).

Rhizopus rot development on (C) papaya (1, 3 and

6 days) fruit during ambient storage (20–25°C).
Source: Postharvest Decay ISBN : 978-0-12-411552-1 17
 Mucoromycotina
life cycle
1. Fragmentation
2. Asexual spores:
 Sporangiospore formation
 Chalmydospore formation
3. Sexual method: gamentagial
copulation

The chlamydospore has been defined as a thick-walled, non-

deciduous, intercalary or terminal, asexual spore formed by the
rounding of a cell or cells (Ainsworth 1971).

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Source: Online Biology Notes
Mucoromycotina life cycle
1. Fragmentation
Disjoining of hyphae e new organism
2. Asexual method:
 Chlamydospore formation:
 During unfavorable condition
 Septum formation in mycelium
 Each intercalary mycelium give rise
to thick resting spore
(chlamydospore)

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Source: Online Biology Notes
Mucoromycotina life cycle
2. Asexual method:
 Sporangiospore formation:
 During favorable condition
 Aerial hyphae develop
 The apex of the aerial hyphae
swells up, enlarges and develops
into a large round sporangium
 Nucleus in sporoplasm divides
rapidly, and each nuclei gather
some cytoplasm and transform into
spongiospore
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Source: Online Biology Notes
Mucoromycotina life cycle
2. Asexual method:
 Sporangiospore
 Columella collapse, releasing
sporangiospores in atmosphere
 Sporangiospore attached to
substratum and germinates to
mycellium

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Source: Online Biology Notes
Sexual reproduction - phases
Phases:
1. Plasmogamy (P) (gametes or gametangia)

2. Karyogamy (K)

3. Meiosis (R – reduction)

3.
n n
1.
2.
n n 2n
diploid cels n
haploid cells n n
haploid cells
n+n
dikaryotic cell
Mucoromycotina life cycle
3. Sexual method: gamentagial
copulation
 During unfavorable condition
 Two mycelium of opposite strain
(heterothallic) come close to R
each other, each mycelium
produce small outgrowth, called
progametangia
2n
 The apical region of the two P+K
progametangia in close contact

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Source: Online Biology Notes
Mucoromycotina life cycle
3. Sexual method: gamentagial
copulation
 The apical region is known as n
gametangia and basal region is
known as suspensor R
 The protoplasm in gametangia P
fuses to from zygospore
(resting spore)
2n
K

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Source: Online Biology Notes
Mucoromycotina life cycle
3. Sexual method: gamentagial
copulation
 During favorable condition,
spore wall rupture and form
germ tube R
 Germ tube elongates to form
promycellium
 Nucleus divides by meiosis e
2n
haploid nuclei - gather P+K
cytoplasm
 Haploid spore are released and
germinates to give mycelium Source: Online Biology Notes 25
Groups of fungal postharvest pathogens

DIKARYA

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Fungal taxonomy - Dikarya
 New subkingdom
 Contains the Ascomycota and Basydiomycota phyla
 Former Deuteromycota (or Fungi Imperfecti) taxon of asexual
fungi does not exist anymore;
 Species have been integrated to the Ascomycota and Basidiomycota
 Referred as conidial fungi

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singular: phylum, plural: phyla
Fungal taxonomy - Dikarya
 Hyphae have septae
 Dikaryotic cell forms can be detected

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Sexual reproduction - phases
Phases:
1. Plasmogamy (P) (gametes or gametangia)

2. Karyogamy (K)

3. Meiosis (R – reduction)

3.
n n
1.
2.
n n 2n
diploid cels n
haploid cells n n
haploid cells
n+n
dikaryotic cell
Fungal taxonomy - Ascomycota
 Species produce sexual
ascospores in asci
 In some ascomycetes the asci
are formed within a fruiting
body called an ascocarp.
 Asexual spores called conidia

singular: ascus, plural: asci

singular: conidium, plural: conidia 30

 Ascocarps
1. Cleistothecium
2. Perithecium
3. Apothecium

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Source: https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-012088483-4/50009-3
Ascomycota life cycle
Reproduction by the three
methods:
1. Vegetative
2. Asexual spores
3. Sexual spores

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Ascomycota life cycle
Reproduction by the three methods:
1. Vegetative
 Fragmentation: a vegetative hypha breaks into
few fragments which then develops into a new
vegetative body
2. Asexual spores
1. Conidiophore formation (aerial mycelium)
2. Form conidia
3. Conidiospores gets detached from the
hyphae
4. Spores germination (form a germ tube) at
favorable conditions and undergo to form
new vegetative hyphae

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 Ascomycota conidia
Fruiting structures associated with
asexual fungal spores (conidia).

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Source: https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-012088483-4/50009-3
Ascomycota life
cycle
3. Sexual reproduction
 Gametangia
 female gamentangium: Ascogonium
 male gametangium Anthredium
i. First, the female and the male
hyphae contacts with each other.
ii. After that fusion occurs between the
female and male hyphae where the
transfer of the anthredium contents
transfer to the Ascogonium through the
point of junction. Plasmogamy occurs in
the ascogonium where cytoplasmic
division takes place.

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Ascomycota life
cycle
3. Sexual reproduction
iii. After Plasmogamy, the ascogonium
develops into the fruiting body refers
to Ascocarp where the karyogamy
occurs. After karyogamy occurs by
which 8 ascospores forms inside
the Asci (Saclike structure).
iv. Then by the maturation of the asci,
the ascospores release out by
the lysis of asci.

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Ascomycota life
cycle

3. Sexual reproduction
v. The ascospore may remains dormant in
the environment
vi. On favourable conditions,
ascospores germinate new vegetative
hyphae by the formation of a germ tube.
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Fungal taxonomy - Ascomycota
 There are three subphyla in
Ascomycota:
1. Taphrinomycotina
2. Saccharomycotina
3. Pezizomycotina.

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Fungal taxonomy - Ascomycota
2. Saccharomycotina subphylum
 Majority of yeasts
 Contains budding yeasts: they multiply by budding
 Saccharomycetaceae
 Saccharomyces sp.
 Pineapple yeasty rot

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Fungal taxonomy - Ascomycota
3.Pezizomycotina subphylum
Contains the moulds with septate hyphae
Conidial (imperfect) genera are :
 Alternaria  Penicillium
 Aspergillus  Phoma
 Botrytis  Phomopsis
 Cladosporium  Stibella
 Colletotrichum  Thielaviopsis
 Fusarium  Verticillium
 Monilia
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 Fungal taxonomy - Ascomycota
3. Pezizomycotina subphylum
The shape of the conidiophores and the way of conidia production
are characteristic to genera.

Alternaria Aspergillus Botrytis Cladosporium Colletotrichum Fusarium Monilia Penicillium

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 Fungal taxonomy - Basidiomycota
 Species produce sexual basidiospores on basidium

Basidiospore
Basidium

Scanning electron micrograph showing various

stages of basidial developement of Athelia Sclerotium rofsii on tomato fruits. Annals Biol
rofsii. Phytopathology 73:1273-1278. Res 6:78-89.

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 Fungal taxonomy - Basidiomycota
1. Species produce sexual basidiospores on basidium
2. A long-lived dikaryon
3. Clamp connections are a kind of hyphal outgrowth that is
unique to Basidiomycota, although they are not present in all
Basidiomycota.

Clamp connections on the hyphae of Athelia Diagram of clamp cell formation: 43

rofsii. Phytopathology 73:1273-1278. Illustrations © E. Swann 1997.
Fungal taxonomy - Basidiomycota
1. Karyogamy and meiosis occur in basidium
2. Haploid basidiospores are formed
3. Mating involves fusion of haploid cells (somatic
cells)
4. Dominant phase of the life cycle in most
Basidiomycota is a dikaryon
P
5. Fusion of the nuclei is usually delayed until the
basidia are formed.

R K

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Groups of fungal („sensu lato”) postharvest pathogens

OOMYCETES

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Oomycetes
 Also known as water molds
 NO Fungi
 Kingdom Chromalveolata
(phylum Heterokontophyta, the
'stramenopiles') with brown and
golden algae and diatoms.
 Cell walls contain cellulose, not contain chitin.
 The vegetative state of Oomycetes is diploid.
 Different metabolic pathways e different fungicide susceptibility

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Oomycetes
Resemble fungi:
 Mycelial growth – coenocitic
(nonseptate) hypha
 Mode of nutrition –
extracellular enzymatic
degradation of large
molecules

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Oomycetes
Asexual reproduction
 Formation sporangium that arises on a specialized
hypha termed a sporangiophores
 Phytophtora sporangiophores are branched and tree-like,
with a single sporangium at the tip of each branch
 Sporangia germinating
i. By direct germ tube formation Sporangiophores and sporangia of
Phytophtora infestans Source:
ii. Indirectly by zoospore formation (zoospores has two internet
flagellae)

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Oomycetes
Asexual reproduction
 Formation sporangium that arises
on a specialized hypha termed a
sporangiophores
 Sporangia germinating
i. By direct germ tube formation
ii. Indirectly by zoospore formation
iii. Both - the species and environment
Disease cycle of late blight of potato and tomato caused
dependent (e.g. Phytophthora by Phytopthora infestans (Agrios: Plant pathology)
infestans cooler temperatures favor
the formation of zoospores

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Oomycetes
Sexual reproduction
 Between two dissimilar gametangia
i. Large round oogonium containing one to several eggs
ii. Smaller antheridium that fertilizes the oogonium
Sexual spore:
 Thick-walled oospore - function as resting spores.
 Germinate
a) Directly by a germ tube with or without a sporangium on the end
b) Indirectly by the formation of a vesicle with zoospores
The type of germination is species and environment dependent.

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 Oomycetes

Phytopthora infestans (Source: internet)

Disease cycle of late blight of potato and tomato caused

by Phytopthora infestans (Agrios: Plant pathology) 51