Unit 3. Python Programming-15.09.2022

Unit 3 Python Programming
Python is a very simple programming language, developed by Guido van Rossum in 1989. It is
named after the comedy television show Monty Python‘s Flying Circus and not after the Python
snake. It is easy to learn to all who are new to programming.
Python is a dynamic, interpreted (bytecode-compiled) language. It is platform independent, free
and open source, easy to learn, achieve the more tasks through less coding, fast in execution.
There are no type declarations of variables, parameters, functions, or methods in source code.
This makes the code short and flexible.
Python is a general-purpose language, which can be used in various domains including: Web
applications, Big data applications, Data science, Desktop software, Mobile apps, Machine
learning and AI. The SQL can be used for querying data from relational databases.
In our daily life we may require different tools to perform different tasks such as scissor for
cutting paper, screw driver for tightening of screw, removing the hook, scaling the fish or making
use of the scissors. If you can get one tool to perform plenty of task then that will be the most
preferred tool. Swiss knife is such a multi-functional tool having various tools such as blade,
opener, screwdriver, reamer and others one in all. In the same way Python is such a programming
language which is object oriented, functional programming and also declarative programming
language.
Fig. 10.0 (a) Swiss knife Fig. 10.0 (b) Comparison of Swiss knife with Python
Junior Software Developer, Class XI, Unit 3 Python Programming Page 1

Chapter 10. Python Basics
Python is a high-level programming language that makes it easy to learn. It doesn‘t require to
understand the details of the computer to develop programs efficiently. It is the robust
programming language used in many domains from web applications, data analysis, data science,
machine learning, and AI. It is important to understand the syntax and semantics to learn any
programming language.
In this chapter you will understand the basics of Python programming, its features, and
installation of Python. You will also learn the Keywords, Identifiers, and Variables in Python. The
Data Types, Operators, and Statements in Python is also explained. You will be able to run the
sample code in Python interpreter as well as write the programs in IDLE and run to get the
output.
10.1 Features of Python programming
Python is an interpreted, high-level, general-purpose programming language. It allows solving
complex problems in less time and fewer lines of code. It is simple and easy-to-learn. Python can
be used to build all types of applications ranging from small and simple scripts to complex
machine learning algorithms. Python source code is available under the GNU General Public
License (GPL). The latest Python 3 release is Python 3.10.4 comes with the following features:
 Readable and Easy to Learn – Python is a very readable language. Python programs are
easy to understand as they have a clearly defined syntax and relatively simple structure. It
is an interpreted language, as Python programs are executed by an interpreter.
 Case Sensitive – Python is case-sensitive language, means, the variables ―NUMBER‖ and
―number‖ are different in Python. Python uses indentation for blocks and nested blocks.
 Free and Open Source – Python is a free and open source programming language. This
means you can download it for free and use it in your application.
 Cross platform – Python is portable and platform independent. It can run on various
operating systems such as Mac, Windows, Linux, Unix and any hardware platforms. This
makes it a cross platform and portable language.
 Large standard library – Python comes with a large standard library of predefined
functions that has some handy codes and functions which can be used while writing code
in Python. Python is also helpful in web development. Many popular web services and
applications are built using Python.
 Supports exception handling – Python supports exception handling which means we can
write less error prone code and can test various scenarios that can cause an exception
later on.
 Advanced features – Supports generators and list comprehensions. We will cover these
features later.
 Automatic memory management – Python supports automatic memory management
which means the memory is cleared and freed automatically.
Some of the main uses of Python are:
 Used alongside software to create workflows.
 Used on a server to create web applications.
 Rapid prototyping or production-ready to use software development.
 Handle big data and perform complex mathematical calculations.
 Connect to database systems, read and modify files.
Python also has a rich set of libraries that makes it popular among software developers. It has
been widely used in development of software applications for various domains. In addition, Python

has simple easy-to-use syntax. This makes Python an excellent language to learn to program for
beginners also. Let us start working with Python Interpreter.
10.2 Working with Python interpreter
To code and execute a Python program, you need to install Python interpreter. Python interpreter
is available for various operating systems such as Windows, Linux and Mac. It is also available
online in cloud environment. Let us see how to install Python interpreter IDLE under Windows 10
platform in Practical Activity 10.1.
Practical Activity 10.1. Install the Python compiler (binaries)
Resources required
A Desktop or Laptop computer with operating system installed, Internet Connectivity
Procedure
Step 1. Open the official website of Python https://www.python.org/in the web browser. Move to
the Download for Windows section as shown in Figure 10.1.
Fig. 10.1 Official website of Python

Step 2. Choose the latest version Python 3.10 release.
Step 3. Download the installer. Once it is downloaded, run the Python installer.
Step 4. Check the Install launcher for all users check box. Further, you may check the Add
Python 3.10 to path check box to include the interpreter in the execution path as shown in figure
10.2(a).
Step 5. Select Customize installation.
Step 6. After selecting the Advanced options, click Install to start installation.
Step 7. Once the installation is over, a window will appear as shown in Figure 10.2(b) showing
the Python Setup Successful.

Fig. 10.2 (a) Installing Python setup (b) Setup successful
This shows the successful installation of Python 3.10 under Windows 10. You can verify if the
Python installation is successful either through the command line or through the IDLE app that
gets installed along with the installation. Search for the command prompt and type “python” as
shown in Figure 10.3. You can see that Python 3.10 is successfully installed.
Fig. 10.3 Python window after installation

After installing Python, you can start developing Python programs. An alternate way to reach
python is to search for “Python” in the start menu and clicking on IDLE (Python 3.10 64-bit). You
can start coding in Python using the Integrated Development and Learning Environment
(IDLE) as shown in Figure 10.4.
Fig. 10.4 Python IDE

IDLE is Python‘s Integrated Development and Learning Environment. It is coded in 100% pure
Python, using the tkinter GUI toolkit. It is cross-platform i.e. it works mostly same on Windows,
Linux, and MacOS. Python shell window (interactive interpreter) with colorizing of code input,
output, and error messages.
It is multi-window text editor with multiple undo, Python colorizing, smart indent, call tips, auto
completion, and other features. It facilitates search within any window, replace within editor
windows, and search through multiple files (grep). It can be used as debugger with persistent
breakpoints, stepping, and viewing of global and local name spaces. It provides configuration,
browsers, and another dialog boxes.
In the above screen, the symbol >>> is the Python prompt, which indicates that the interpreter is
ready to take instructions. You can type commands or statements on this prompt to execute
using a Python interpreter.
IDLE allows changing the font name, style and size as shown in Figure 10.5. You can change
these using Options->Configure IDLE, from Fonts/Tab, choose Font Face, Size of your own
choice to work with IDLE.

Fig. 10.5 Python IDLE configuration
10.3 Python Interpreter Mode
Python interpreter can be used in two modes – Interactive mode and Script mode. Interactive
mode allows execution of individual statement instantaneously. Whereas, the script mode allows
writing more than one instruction in a file called Python source code file that can be executed.
10.3.1 Interactive Mode
To work in the interactive mode, simply type Python statement on the >>> prompt directly and
press Enter key. The interpreter executes the statement and displays the result(s), as shown in
Figure 10.5. Working in the interactive mode is convenient for testing a single line code for instant
execution. But in the interactive mode, we cannot save the programming code for future use and
we have to retype the statements to run them again.
10.3.2 Script Mode
In the script mode, you have to write a Python program in the editor and save the file with .py
extension. Then use the interpreter to execute it by entering the file name on the python prompt
(>>>). By default, the Python program is saved in the Python installation folder. Let us see steps to
run Python interpreter in script mode
Step 1. Create a new file by clicking on File > New File menu in IDLE as shown in Figure 10.6.
Fig. 10.6 Creating a new file in Python

Step 2. A new file will open in editor. Enter the Python code as shown in Figure 1.7.

Fig. 10.7 Coding a Python program
Step 3. To save the file, click on File > Save menu option. The Save as window will open as
shown in Figure 1.8. Select the folder in which you want to save the file. Type the file name and
click on Save button as shown in Figure 10.8.
Fig. 10.8 Saving a Python program

Step 4. After saving the file, click Run Module from the Run menu as shown in Figure 10.9. You
can also press F5 key to run the program.
Fig. 10.9 Running a Python program

Step 5. The output appears on shell as shown in Figure 10.10.
Fig. 10.10 Showing output of Python program

Now you are familiar with both mode of Python Interpreter, let us see the general structure of
Python Program.
10.4 Structure of a Python program
In general, the interpreter reads and executes the Python statements line by line i.e. sequentially,
however there are some statements that can alter this behavior like conditional statements.

Python statements are written line by line such that one statement end up in that line only. The
interpreter considers the „new line character‟ as the terminator of one instruction. However,
writing multiple statements per line is also possible in script mode of Python IDLE.
10.5. Keywords
Keywords are reserved words. Each keyword has a specific meaning to the Python interpreter. The
keyword can be used in program for the purpose it has been defined. As Python is case sensitive,
keywords must be written exactly as given in Table 10.1.
Table 10.1 Python keywords
false class finally is return
none continue for lambda try
true def from nonlocal while
and del global not with
as elif if or yield
assert else import pass
break except in raise
10.6. Identifiers
In programming languages, identifiers are names used to identify a variable, function, or other
entities in a program. The rules for naming an identifier in Python are as follows:
1. The name should begin with uppercase or lowercase alphabet or an underscore sign (_).
This may be followed by any combination of characters a–z, A–Z, 0–9 or underscore (_).
Thus, an identifier cannot start with a digit.
2. It can be of any length. However, it is preferred to keep it short and meaningful.
3. It should not be a keyword or reserved word.
4. We cannot use special symbols like !, @, #, $, %, in name of an identifier.
For example, to find the average of marks obtained by a student in three subjects, choose the
identifiers as marks1, marks2, marks3 and avg rather than a, b, c, or A, B, C.
avg = (marks1 + marks2 + marks3)/3
Similarly, to calculate the area of a rectangle, use identifier names, such as area, length, breadth
instead of single alphabets as identifiers for clarity and more readability.
area = length * breadth
Program 10.1. Write a program to display welcome message in Python.
The program coded in Python IDLE and its output is shown below.
10.7. Variables

A variable in a program is uniquely identified by a name (identifier). Variable in Python refers to
an object — an item or element that is stored in the memory. Value of a variable can be a string
(e.g., ‗b‘, ‗Global Citizen‘), numeric (e.g., 345) or any combination of alphanumeric characters
(CD67). In Python an assignment statement is used to create new variables and assign specific
values to them.
gender = 'M'
message = "Keep Smiling"
price = 987.9
Program 10.2. Write a program to display values of variables in Python.
The program coded in Python IDLE and its output is shown below.
10.8. Comments
Comments are used to add remarks or note in the source code. Comments are not executed by
interpreter. They are added to understand the source code for others. They are used primarily to
document the meaning and purpose of source code and its input and output requirements, so as
to remember later how it functions and how to use it.
For large and complex software, several programmers are working in teams and sometimes, a
programmer has to work on the program written by other programmer. In such situations,
documentations in the form of comments is useful to understand the logic of program. In Python,
a comment starts with # (hash sign). Everything following the # till the end of that line is treated
as a comment and the interpreter simply ignores it while executing the statement. The example
10.1 shows the first print statement is commented. So it will not print the word ―Hello‖.
Example 10.1
Program 10.3. Write a Python program to find the sum of two numbers.
The following program illustrates to find the sum of two numbers.

10.9. Data Types
Every value belongs to a specific data type in Python. Data type identifies the type of data values a
variable can hold and the operations that can be performed on that data. Figure 10.11 enlists the
data types available in Python.
Figure 10.11: Different data types in Python

10.9.1 Number
Number data type stores numerical values only. It is further classified into three different types:
int, float and complex. Boolean data type (bool) is a subtype of integer. It is a unique data type,
consisting of two constants, True and False. Boolean True value is non-zero, non-null and non-
empty. Boolean False is the value zero.
Table 10.2 Numeric data types
Type/ Class Description Examples
int integer numbers –12, –3, 0, 125, 2
float real or floating-point numbers –2.04, 4.0, 14.23
complex complex numbers 3 + 4i, 2 – 2i
bool Boolean values
Let us execute few statements in interactive mode of Python IDLE to determine the data type of the
variable using built-in function type ().
Example 10.2
Variables of simple data types like integer, float, boolean that hold single value. But such variables are
not useful to hold a long list of information, such as months in a year, student names in a class, names
and numbers in a phone book or the list of artifacts in a museum. For this, Python provides other data
types like tuples, lists, dictionaries and sets.
10.9.2 Sequence
A Python sequence is an ordered collection of items, where each item is indexed by an integer. The three
types of sequence data types available in Python are Strings, Lists and Tuples. We will learn about each
of them in detail in later chapters. A brief introduction to these data types is as follows:
String – String is a group of characters. These characters may be alphabets, digits or special characters

including spaces. String values are enclosed either in single quotation marks (e.g., ‗Hello‘) or in double
quotation marks (e.g., ―Hello‖). The quotes are not a part of the string; they are used to mark the
beginning and end of the string for the interpreter. For example,
>>> str1 = 'Hello Friend'
>>> str2 = "452"
It is not possible to perform numerical operations on strings, even when the string contains a numeric
value, as in str2.
List – List is a sequence of items separated by commas and the items are enclosed in square
brackets [ ].
Example 10.3
Tuple – Tuple is a sequence of items separated by commas and items are enclosed in parenthesis
(). This is unlike list, where values are enclosed in brackets []. Once created, we cannot change the
tuple.
Example 10.4
10.9.3 Set
Set is an unordered collection of items separated by commas and the items are enclosed in curly
brackets { }. A set is similar to list, except that it cannot have duplicate entries. Once created,
elements of a set cannot be changed.
Example 10.5
In the above example, set1 is a collection of 5 integers. The set2 is collection of different data
types of elements. You must have noticed that elements of set2 have been displayed in an order
different from the order in which they have entered. Reason of this is that set is unordered. If you
run the same code again, it is possible that you will get an output with the elements arranged in a
different order. A set does not allow duplicate values, that you may observe for set3. Here, all the

duplicate values have been removed from set3.
10.9.4 None
None is a special data type with a single value. It is used to signify the absence of value in a
situation. None supports no special operations, and it is neither False nor 0 (zero).
Example 10.6
10.9.5 Mapping
Mapping is an unordered data type in Python. Currently, there is only one standard mapping data
type in Python called dictionary.
Dictionary
Dictionary in Python holds data items in key-value pairs. Items in a dictionary are enclosed in
curly brackets { }. Dictionaries permit faster access to data. Every key is separated from its value
using a colon (:) sign. The key: value pairs of a dictionary can be accessed using the key. The keys
are usually strings and their values can be any data type. In order to access any value in the
dictionary, we have to specify its key in square brackets [].
Example 10.7
10.10 Mutable and Immutable Data Types

Sometimes we may require to change or update the values of certain variables used in a program.
However, for certain data types, Python does not allow to change the values once a variable of that
type has been created and values are assigned.
Variables whose values can be changed after they are created and assigned are called mutable.
Variables whose values cannot be changed after they are created and assigned are called
immutable. When an attempt is made to update the value of an immutable variable, the old
variable is destroyed and a new variable is created by the same name in memory. Python data
types can be classified into mutable and immutable as shown in Figure 10.12.

Fig. 10.12: Classification of data types
Let us now see what happens when an attempt is made to update the value of a variable. >>>
num1 = 300 This statement will create an object with value 300 and the object is referenced by
the identifier num1 as shown in Figure 10.13.
Fig. 10.13: Object and its identifier

The statement num2 = num1 will make num2 refer to the value 300, also being referred by num1,
and stored at memory location number, say 1000. So, num1 shares the referenced location with
num2 as shown in Figure 10.14.
Fig. 10.14: Variables with same value have same identifier

In this manner Python makes the assignment effective by copying only the reference, and not the
data:
>>> num1 = num2 + 100
Fig. 10.15: Variables with different values have different identifiers

This statement num1 = num2 + 100 links the variable num1 to a new object stored at memory
location number say 2200 having a value 400. As num1 is an integer, which is an immutable
type, it is rebuilt, as shown in Figure 10.15.
10.11 Usage of Python Data Types
Each data type has some specific properties. Appropriate use of data type is depending on the
situation. It is preferred to use lists for a simple iterative collection of data that may go for
frequent modifications. For example, if we store the names of students of a class in a list, then it
is easy to update the list when some new students join or some leave the course. Tuples are used
when we do not need any change in the data. For example, names of months in a year. When we
need uniqueness of elements and to avoid duplicity it is preferable to use sets, for example, list of
artifacts in a museum. If our data is being constantly modified or we need a fast lookup based on
a custom key or we need a logical association between the key: value pair, it is advised to use
dictionaries. A mobile phone book is a good application of dictionary.
10.12 OPERATORS
An operator is used to perform specific mathematical or logical operation on values are called
operands. For example, in the expression “10 + num”, the value 10, and the variable num are
operands and the + (plus) sign is an operator. Python supports several types of operators as
discussed below.
10.12.1 Arithmetic Operators
Python supports arithmetic operators (+, -, *, /) that are used to perform the four basic arithmetic
operations as well as modulus division (%), floor division (//) and exponentiation (**).
 Addition operator (+) – Adds the two numeric values on either side of the operator. This
operator can also be used to concatenate two strings on either side of the operator.
 Subtraction operator (–) - Subtracts the operand on the right from the operand on the
left.
 Multiplication operator (*) - Multiplies the two values on both side of the operator.
Repeats the item on left of the operator if first operand is a string and second operand is
an integer value.
 Division operator (/) - Divides the operand on the left by the operand on the right and
returns the quotient.
 Modulus operator (%) - Divides the operand on the left by the operand on the right and
returns the remainder.
 Exponent operator (**) - Performs exponential (power) calculation on operands. That is,
raise the operand on the left to the power of the operand on the right.
The following code as shown in figure 10.16 demonstrates the use of Arithmetic Operators in
Python.

Fig. 10.16 Demonstration of Arithmetic Operators
10.12.2 Relational Operators

Relational operator compares the values of the operands on its either side and determines the
relationship among them.
 Equals to (==) - If the values of two operands are equal, then the condition is
True, otherwise it is False.
 Not equal to (!=) - If values of two operands are not equal, then condition is
True, otherwise it is False.
 Greater than (>) - If the value of the left-side operand is greater than the value of
the right- side operand, then condition is True, otherwise it is False.
 Less than (<) - If the value of the left-side operand is less than the value of the
right- side operand, then condition is True, otherwise it is False operand, then
condition is True, otherwise it is False.
 Greater than or equal to (>=) - If the value of the left-side operand is greater than or
equal to the value of the right-side.
 Less than or equal to (<=) - If the value of the left operand is less than or equal to
the value of the right operand, then is True otherwise it is False.
Assume the Python variables num1 = 10, num2 = 20, num3 = 10, str1 = "Hello", str2 = "Students"
and str3 = ―Hello‖.
The following code as shown in figure 10.17 demonstrates the use of Relational Operators in
Python.

Fig. 10.17 Demonstration of Relational Operators
10.12.3 Assignment Operators
Assignment operator assigns or changes the value of the variable on its left. Table 10.3 shows
various assignment operators available in python
Table 10.3 Assignment operators.
= Assigns value from right-side operand to left-side operand.
+= It adds the value of right-side operand to the left-side operand and assigns the result
to the left-side operand.
In other words, x += y is same as x = x + y.
-= It subtracts the value of right-side operand from the left-side operand and assigns the
result to left-side operand.
In other words, x-=y is same as x=x-y.
*= It subtracts the value of right-side operand from the left-side operand and assigns the
result to left-side operand.
In other words, x-=y is same as x=x-y.
/= It multiplies the value of right-side operand with the value of left-side operand and
assigns the result to left-side operand.
In other words, x*=y is same as x=x*y.
%= It performs modulus operation using two operands and assigns the results to left -side
operand.
In other words, x % =y is same as x = x % y.
**= It performs exponential (power) calculation on operators and assigns value to the left-
side operand.

In other words, x **= y is same as x = x ** y.
The following code as shown in figure 10.18 demonstrates the use of Assignment Operators in
Python.
Fig. 10.18 Demonstration of Assignment operators
10.12.4 Logical Operators

There are three logical operators ―and, or, not‖ supported by Python. These are to be written in
lower case only. The logical operator evaluates to either True or False based on the logical
operands on either side. Every value is logically either True or False. By default, all values are
True except None, False, 0 (zero), empty collections "", (), [], {}, and few other special values. So, if

we say num1 = 10, num2 = -5, then both num1 and num2 are logically True. If we have num3 =
0, than num3 is logically False.
 Logical AND (and) - If both the conditions are True, then expression becomes True.
 Logical OR (or) - If any of the two condition is True, then expression becomes True.
 Logical NOT (not) - It is used to reverse the logical state of its operand.
The following code as shown in figure 10.19 demonstrates the use of Logical Operators in
Python.
Fig. 10.19 Demonstration of Logical operators
10.12.5 Identity Operators

Identity operators are used to determine whether the value of a variable is of a certain type or not.
Identity operators can also be used to determine whether two variables are referring to the same
object or not. There are two identity operators explained in table 10.4.
Table 10.4 Identity operators in Python

Operator Description Example
is Evaluates True if the variables on either side of the

operator point towards the same memory location and
False otherwise. var1 is var2 results to True if id(var1) is
equal to id(var2).
is not Evaluates to False if the variables on either side of

the operator point to the same memory location and True
otherwise. var1 is not var2 results to True if id(var1) is not
equal to id(var2).
10.12.6 Membership Operators

Membership operators are used to check if a value is a member of the given sequence or not.
There are two membership operators explained in table 10.5.
Table 10.5 Membership operators in Python
Operator Description Example (Try in Lab)
in Returns True if the variable/value is found in the
specified sequence and False otherwise.
not in Returns True if the variable/value is not found in

the specified sequence and False otherwise.
10.12.7 Bitwise Operators

Bitwise operators are the only operators which works on equivalent binary value of the integer
operands. First of all, integer operands are converted into binary then respected operator works
on bit by bit, hence the name is bitwise operators. The result is also converted into decimal
format.
The code snippet demonstrates in table 10.6 shows the use of various bitwise operators in
Python.
Table 10.6 Bitwise operators in Python
Operator Description Example (Try in Lab)
Bitwise Returns 1 if both the bits are 1 else 0.
& (AND) Here x=10 and y=12.
x = 1 0 1 0 ( 10 in decimal)
y = 1 1 0 0 (12 in decimal)
z=1000 (8 in decimal)
Bitwise Returns 1 if either of the bit is 1 else 0.
| (OR) x = 1 0 1 0 ( 10 in decimal)
y = 1 1 0 0 ( 12 in decimal)
z=1110 (14 in decimal)

Bitwise Returns one‘s complement of the number.
~ (NOT) a = 1010 (Binary)
z = ~a
= ~ 1010
= - (1010 + 1)
= - 11
Bitwise Returns 1 if one of the bits is 1 and the other is 0 else
^ (XOR) returns false.
x = 1 0 1 0 (10 in decimal)
y = 1 1 0 0 (12 in decimal)
z=0110 ( 6 in decimal)
Bitwise Shifts the bits of the number to the right and fills 0 on
>>(RIGHT) voids left (fills 1 in the case of a negative number) as a
result. Similar effect as of dividing the number with
some power of two.
Bitwise Shifts the bits of the number to the left and fills 0 on
<<(LEFT) voids right as a result. Similar effect as of multiplying
the number with some power of two.
10.13 Expressions
An expression is defined as a combination of constants, variables, and operators. An expression
always evaluates to a value. A value or a standalone variable is also considered as an expression
but a standalone operator is not an expression. Some examples of valid expressions are given
below.
(a) 100
(b) num
(c) num – 20.4
(d) 3.0 + 3.14
(e) 23/3 -5 * 7(14 -2)
(f) "Global" + "Citizen"
10.13.1 Precedence of Operators
Evaluation of the expression is based on precedence of operators. When an expression contains
different types of operators, precedence determines which operator should be applied first. Higher
precedence operator is evaluated before the lower precedence operator. Most of the operators
studied till now are binary operators with two operands. The unary operators need only one
operand, and they have a higher precedence than the binary operators. The minus (-) as well as +
(plus) operators can act as both unary and binary operators, but ―not‖ is a unary logical operator.
#Depth is using - (minus) as unary operator
Value = -Depth
#not is a unary operator, negates True print (not (True))
The table 10.7 lists precedence of all operators from highest to lowest.
Table 10.7 Precedence of all operators in Python
Order of Operators Description
Precedence
1 ** Exponentiation (raised to the power)
2 ~ ,+, - Complement, unary plus and unary minus

3 * ,/, %, // Multiply, divide, modulo and floor division
4 +, - Addition and subtraction
5 <= ,< ,> ,>= Relational operators
6 == ,!= Equality operators
7 =, %=, /=, //=, -=, +=, *=, Assignment operators
8 **=
is, is not Identity operators
9 in, not in Membership operators
10 not, or, and Logical operators
Parenthesis can be used to override the precedence of operators. The expression within () is
evaluated first. For operators with equal precedence, the expression is evaluated from left to right.
Example 10.8.
How will Python evaluate the following expression? 20 + 30 * 40
Solution:
= 20 + (30 * 40) #Step 1
#precedence of * is more than that of +
= 20 + 1200 #Step 2
= 1220 #Step 3
Example 10.9.
How will Python evaluate the following expression? 20 – 30 + 40
Solution:
The two operators (–) and (+) have equal precedence. Thus, the first operator, i.e., subtraction is
applied before the second operator, i.e., addition (left to right).
= (20 – 30) + 40 #Step 1
= - 10 + 40 #Step 2
= 30 #Step 3
Example 10.10.
How will Python evaluate the following expression? (20 + 30) * 40
Solution:
= (20 + 30) * 40 # Step 1
#using parenthesis (), we have forced precedence of + to be more than that of *
= 50 * 40 # Step 2
= 2000 # Step 3
Example 10.11.
How will the following expression be evaluated in Python? 15.0 / 4 + (8 + 3.0)
Solution:
15.0 / 4 + (8.0 + 3.0 #Step 1
15.0 / 4.0 + 11.0 #Step 2
3.75 + 11.0 #Step 3
14.75 #Step 4
10.14 STATEMENT
In Python, a statement is a unit of code that the Python interpreter can execute. Example 10.12
illustrate the statements in Python.
Example 10.12

10.15 INPUT AND OUTPUT STATEMENTS
Sometimes, a program needs to interact with the user to receive data which is processed to give
the desired output. In Python, the input () function prompts the user to enter data. It accepts all
user input as string. The user may enter a number or a string but the input () function treats
them as strings only. The syntax for input statement is:
input ([Prompt])
Prompt is the string we may like to display on the screen prior to taking input, and it is optional.
When a prompt is specified, first it is displayed on the screen after which the user can enter data.
The input() takes exactly what is typed from the keyboard, converts it into a string and assigns it
to the variable on left-hand side of the assignment operator (=). Entering data for the input
function is terminated by pressing the enter key.
Example 10.13
In Example 10.13, the variable fname will get the string ‗Aadi‘, entered by the user. Similarly, the
variable age will get the string ‗17‘. We can typecast or change the datatype of the string data
accepted from user to an appropriate numeric value. The code in Example 10.14 convert the
accepted string to an integer. If the user enters any non-numeric value, an error will be generated.
Example 10.14
Python uses the print () function to output data to standard output device — the screen. More
about function will be covered in Chapter 12. The function print () evaluates the expression before
displaying it on the screen. The print () outputs a complete line and then moves to the next line
for subsequent output. The syntax for print () is:
print (value [, ..., sep = ' ', end = '\n'])
sep: The optional parameter sep is a separator between the output values. We can use a
character, integer or a string as a separator. The default separator is space.
end: This is also optional and it allows us to specify any string to be appended after the last value.
The default is a new line.

Example 10.15
In Example 10.15, the third print function is concatenating strings, and we use + (plus) between
two strings to concatenate them. The fourth print function also appears to be concatenating
strings but uses commas (,) between strings. Actually, here we are passing multiple arguments,
separated by commas to the print function. As arguments can be of different types, hence the
print function accepts integer (16) along with strings here. But in case the print statement has
values of different types and ‗+‘ is used instead of comma, it will generate an error as discussed in
the next section under explicit conversion.
10.16 TYPE CONVERSION
Type conversion is used to covert the data type of any variable that is assigned or read using
input statement in Python. Let us take as example to understand it in better way. Consider the
following example.
Example 10.16.
The program was expected to display double the value of the number received and store in
variable num1. So, if a user enters 5 and expects the program to display 10 as the output, but the
program displays 55 in output. This is because the value returned by the input function is a
string ("5") by default. As a result, in statement num1 = num1 * 2, num1 has string value and *
acts as repetition operator which results in output as "55".
To get 10 as output, we need to convert the data type of the value entered by the user to integer.
Thus, we need to modify the program as follows:
Example 10.17

Now, the program displays the expected output as 10 as data type of num1 has been changed to
integer in statement num1= int (num1). This is called type conversion of the variable.
Let us now understand what is type conversion and how it works. As and when required, we can
change the data type of a variable in Python from one type to another. Such data type conversion
can happen in two ways, either explicitly (forced) when the programmer specifies for the
interpreter to convert a data type to another type; or implicitly, when the interpreter understands
such a need by itself and does the type conversion automatically.
10.16.1 Explicit Conversion
Explicit conversion, also called as type casting happens when data type conversion takes place
because the programmer forced it in the program. The general form of an explicit data type
conversion is:
(new_data_type) (expression)
With explicit type conversion, there is a risk of loss of information since we are forcing an
expression to be of a specific type. For example, converting a floating value of x = 20.67 into an
integer type, i.e., int (x) will discard the fractional part .67. Following are some of the functions in
Python that are used for explicitly converting an expression or a variable to a different type.
Table 10.8 Explicit type conversion functions in Python
Function Description
int (x) Converts x to an integer
float (x) Converts x to a floating-point number
str (x) Converts x to a string representation
chr (x) Converts x to a character
Program 10.4. Program of explicit type conversion from int to float.

Program 10.5. Program of explicit type conversion from float to int.
Program 10.6. Example of type conversion between numbers and strings.
On execution, Program 10.6 gives an error as shown in output of the program, informing that the
interpreter cannot convert an integer value to string implicitly. It may appear quite intuitive that
the program should convert the integer value to a string depending upon the usage. However, the
interpreter may not decide on its own when to convert as there is a risk of loss of information.
Python provides the mechanism of the explicit type conversion so that one can clearly state the
desired outcome. Program 10.7 works perfectly using explicit type casting:
Program 10.7. Program to show explicit type casting.

Similarly, type casting is needed to convert float to string. In Python, one can convert string to
integer or float values whenever required.
Program 10.8. Program to show explicit type conversion.
10.16.2 Implicit Conversion

Implicit conversion, also known as coercion, happens when data type conversion is done
automatically by Python and is not instructed by the programmer.
Program 10.9. Program to show implicit conversion from int to float.
In the above program, an integer value stored in variable “num1” is added to a float value stored
in variable “num2”, and the result was automatically converted to a float value stored in variable
sum1 without explicitly telling the interpreter. This is an example of implicit data conversion. You
may wonder that why the float value was not converted to an integer instead? This is due to type
promotion that allows performing operations, whenever possible by converting data into a wider-
sized data type without any loss of information.
10.17 DEBUGGING
A programmer can make mistakes while coding a program. These mistakes are called bugs or
errors in programming language. The program contains bugs may not execute or generate wrong
output. The process of identifying and removing such bugs, errors or mistakes is known as
debugging. The Errors occurring in programs can be categorised as – Syntax errors, Logical errors

and Runtime errors.
10.17.1 Syntax Errors
Like other programming languages, Python has its own rules that determine its syntax. The
interpreter interprets the statements only if it is syntactically (as per the rules of Python) correct.
If any syntax error is present, the interpreter shows error message(s) and stops the execution
there. For example, parentheses must be in pairs, so the expression (10 + 12) is syntactically
correct, whereas (7 + 11 is not due to absence of right parenthesis. Such errors need to be
removed before the execution of the program
10.17.2 Logical Errors
A logical error is a bug in the program that causes it to behave incorrectly. A logical error
produces an undesired output but without abrupt termination of the execution of the program.
Since the program interprets successfully even when logical errors are present in it, it is
sometimes difficult to identify these errors. The only evidence to the existence of logical errors is
the wrong output. While working backwards from the output of the program, one can identify
what went wrong.
For example, if we wish to find the average of two numbers 10 and 12 and we write the code as 10
+ 12/2, it would run successfully and produce the result 16. Surely, 16 is not the average of 10
and 12. The correct code to find the average should have been (10 + 12)/2 to give the correct
output as 11. Logical errors are also called semantic errors as they occur when the meaning of the
program (its semantics) is not correct.
10.17.3 Runtime Error
A runtime error causes abnormal termination of program while it is executing. Runtime error is
when the statement is correct syntactically, but the interpreter cannot execute it. Runtime errors
do not appear until after the program starts running or executing.
For example, we have a statement having division operation in the program. By mistake, if the
denominator entered is zero then it will give a runtime error.
Program 10.10. Program which generates runtime error Division by zero.
Let us look at the output of Program 10.11 showing runtime errors while running the code. In
first attempt when a user enters value ‗0‘ for num2, it gives error ZeroDivisionError: float

division by zero. In 2nd attempt user enters a text value ‗hello‘, it gives error ValueError:
invalid literal for int() with base 10. In 3rd attempt, the program generates correct output
when the user inputs an integer value 4 for num2 as shown in Output.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

A. Multiple Choice Questions
1. Special meaning words of Python, fixed for specific functionality are called (a) identifiers (b)
functions (c) keywords (d) literals
2. Names given to different parts of Python program are (a) Identifiers (b) functions (c)
Keywords (d) literals
3. Data items having fixed value are called (a) Identifiers (b) functions (c) Keywords (d) literals
4. Which of the following is escape sequence for newline character? (a) \a (b) \t (c) \n (d) \b
5. The lines beginning with a certain character, and which are ignored by a compiler and not
executed, are called __________ (a) operators (b) operands (c) functions (d) comments
6. Which of the following functions print the output to the console? (a) Output() (b) Print( ) (c)
Echo( ) (d) print( )
7. The input() returns the value as _________ type. (a) integer (b) string (c) floating point (d)
none of these
8. The default separator character of print () is _________ (a) Tab (b) space (c) newline (d) dot
9. Which of the following cannot be used for naming an identifier in Python (a) Digits (0-9) (b)
Letters(A-Z) (c) Underscore (_) (d) Special symbols(!, @, #, $, %)
10. Which of the following is not a sequence data type (a) String (b) List (c) Tuple (d) Set
11. Which of the following is mapping data type (a) String (b) List (c) Tuple (d) Dictionary
12. Variables whose values can be changed after they are created and assigned are called (a)
mutable (b) immutable (c) static (d) dynamic
13. A mobile phone book is a good application of (a) Set (b) List (c) Tuple (d) Dictionary
14. The output of the following code is (a) 2 (b) 2.5 (c) 3 (d) 3.5
a=10
b=4
print(a/b)
15. The output of the following code is (a) 4 (b) 6 (c) 10 (d) 14
a=10
b=4
a+=b
print(a)
16. The output of the following code is (a) 0 (b) 1 (c) 01 (d) 10
a=0
b=1
print (a and b)
17. The output of the code 15.0 / 3 + (8 + 4.0) is (a) 12.0 (b) 13.0 (c) 15.0 (d) 17.0
18. Which of the following Python statement has syntax error (a) 10+20 (b) (10+20) (c) (10+20
(d) ((10+20))
19. Wrong output are indicators of (a) Syntax errors (b) Logical errors (c) Runtime error (d)
Compile time error
20. Division by zero is a (a) Syntax error (b) Logical error (c) Runtime error (d) Compile error
B. State whether True or False
1. Keywords can be used as identifier names.
2. The identifiers in Python can begin with an underscore.
3. Variables once assigned a value can be given any other value.
4. Python variables support dynamic typing.
5. A keyword can be renamed.

6. String values in Python can be single line strings, and multi-line strings.
7. A variable can contain values of different types at different times.
8. Expressions contain values/variables along with operators.
9. Comments are not executed by interpreter.
10. Set can have duplicate entries.
C. Fill in the Blanks
1. A _____________ is a reserved word carrying special meaning and purpose.
2. Literals are the _______ values.
3. A legal combination of symbols that represents a value is __________.
4. In Python, the comments begin with _________ character.
5. The input( ) function returns the read value as of ________ type.
6. To convert an input( )'s value in integer type, _________ function is used.
7. To convert an input( )'s value in floating-point type _________function is used.
8. Strings can be created with single quotes, double quotes and _______ quotes.
9. Python interpreter can be used in two modes _______ mode and _________ mode.
10. None is a special data type with a ______ value.
D. Programming Questions
1. Which of the following identifier names are invalid and why?
Serial no.
1st_Room
Hundred$
Total Marks
total Marks
total-Marks
_Percentage
2. Write the Python assignment statements to:
a) Assign 10 to variable length and 20 to variable breadth.
b) Assign the average of values of variables length and breadth to a variable sum.
c) Assign a list containing strings ‗Paper‘, ‗Gel Pen‘, and ‗Eraser‘ to a variable stationery.
d) Assign strings ‗Mohandas‘, ‗Karamchand‘, and ‗Gandhi‘ to variables first, middle and last.
e) Assign the concatenated value of string variables first, middle and last to variable full
name. Make sure to incorporate blank spaces appropriately between different parts of the
names.
3. Write logical expressions corresponding to the following statements in Python and evaluate the
expressions, assuming variables num1, num2, num3, first, middle, last are already having
meaningful values:
a) The sum of 20 and –10 is less than 12.
b) num3 is not more than 24.
c) 6.75 is between the values of integers num1 and num2.
d) The string ‗middle‘ is larger than the string ‗first‘ and smaller than the string ‗last‘.
e) List Stationery is empty.
4. Add a pair of parentheses to each expression so that it evaluates to True.
a) 0 == 1 == 2
b) 2 + 3 == 4 + 5 == 7
c) 1 < -1 == 3 > 4
5. Write the output of the following:
a) num1 = 4
num2 = num1 + 1
num1 = 2 print (num1, num2)

b) num1, num2 = 2, 6
num1, num2 = num2, num1 + 2
print (num1, num2)
c) num1, num2 = 2, 3
num3, num2 = num1, num3 + 1
print (num1, num2, num3)
6. Which data type will be used to represent the following data values and why?
Data values Data type Reason
Number of months in a year
Resident of Delhi or not
Mobile number
Pocket money
Volume of a sphere
Perimeter of a square
Name of the student
Address of the student
7. What will be the output of statement print(num1) in the following example when num1 = 4,
num2 = 3, num3 = 2
num1 += num2 + num
num1 = num1 ** (num2 + num3)
num1 **= num2 + num3
num1 = '5' + '5'
num1 = 2+9*((3*12)-8)/10
num1 = 24 // 4 // 2
num1 = float(10)
num1 = int('3.14')
8. What will be the output of following statements
a. print('Bye' == 'BYE')
b. print(10 != 9 and 20 >= 20)
c. print(10 + 6 * 2 ** 2 != 9//4 -3 and 29 >= 29/9)
d. print(5 % 10 + 10 < 50 and 29 <= 29)
e. print((0 < 6) or (not(10 == 6) and 10<0)))
9. Write a Python program to convert temperature in degree Celsius to degree Fahrenheit. If wa-
ter boils at 100°C and freezes as 0°C, use the program to find out what is the boiling point and
freezing point of water on the Fahrenheit scale. (Hint: T(°F) = T(°C) × 9/5 + 32)
10. Write a Python program to calculate the amount payable if money has been lent on simple in-
terest. Principal or money lent = P, Rate of interest = R% per annum and Time = T years. Then
Simple Interest (SI) = (P ×R × T)/ 100.
Amount payable = Principal + SI. P, R and T are given as input to the program.
11. Write a program to calculate in how many days a work will be completed by three persons A, B
and C together. A, B, C take x days, y days and z days respectively to do the job alone. The
formula to calculate the number of days if they work together is xyz/(xy + yz + xz) days where
x, y, and z are given as input to the program.
12. Write a program to enter two integers and perform all arithmetic operations on them.
13. Write a program to enter five subject marks and print the average marks.
14. Write a program to swap two numbers using a third variable.
15. Write a program to swap two numbers without using a third variable.

16. Write a program to repeat the string ‗‗GOOD MORNING‖ n times, n is integer entered by user.
17. Write a program to find average of three numbers.
18. Write a Python program to find the volume of spheres with radius 7cm, 12cm, 16cm, respec-
tively. The volume of a sphere with radius r is 4/3πr 3.
19. Write a program that asks the user to enter their name and age. Print a message addressed to
the user that tells the user the year in which they will turn 100 years old.
20. The formula E = mc2 states that the equivalent energy (E) can be calculated as the mass (m)
multiplied by the speed of light (c = about 3×10 m/s) squared. Write a program that accepts
the mass of an object and determines its energy.

Chapter 11. Control Structures
In our daily life there are some situations where we have to follow a fixed sequence of steps to
complete a task and in other situations we have choices of steps to complete a task. For example,
in air travel every passenger has to follow the following steps to board on an airplane.
1. Show ticket and identity proof at the main entrance of the Airport.
2. Scanning of luggage.
3. Take your boarding pass.
4. Pass security check.
5. Finally, board on plane.
Passenger don‘t have choice to change the sequence of above written steps to board on the
airplane. On the other hand, Passengers can take their boarding pass from airline‘s check-in
counter or they can also get boarding pass at an electronic kiosk nearby as shown in Figure 11.1.
Similarly, In programming generally statements are executed from beginning to end as in the
sequence they are written. But we may encounter some situations in programming also where
statements are required to change the normal sequence of execution.
Fig. 11.1: Steps to board on airplane

In this chapter, you will understand the control structures, their syntax and use in Python
programming. The break and continue statements are also discussed.
11.2 Control structures
The order of execution of the statements in a program is known as flow of control. The flow of
control can be implemented using control structures. Python supports two types of control
structures—selection and repetition. Let us discuss both types of control structures in detail one
by one.
11.3 Selection
Now suppose we have Rs.10 to buy a pen. On visiting the stationery shop, there are a variety of
pens priced at Rs.10 each. Here, we have to decide which pen to buy. Similarly, when we use the
direction services of a digital map, to reach from one place to another, we notice that sometimes it
shows more than one path like the least crowded path, shortest distance path. We decide the path
as per our priority. A decision involves selecting from one of the two or more possible options.
In programming, the concept of decision making or selection is implemented with the help of
if...else statement. Now, suppose to display the positive difference of the two numbers num1 and
num2 given in program 11.2. For that, we need to modify our approach. Look at the flowchart
shown in Figure 11.2, first check the condition that num1 is greater than num2. If we num1 is
greater than num2, difference calculated by diff = num1 – num2 otherwise diff = num2 – num1. In
other words, subtract smaller number from the bigger number so that the result is always a
positive difference. This selection is based upon the values that are input for the two numbers
num1 and num2.

Fig. 11.2: Flow chart depicting decision making
The syntax of if statement is:
if condition:
statement(s)
Let us take an example to understand if control structure
Example 11.1
age = int(input("Enter your age "))
if age >= 18:
print("Eligible to vote")
In the above example, if the age entered by the user is greater than 18, then print that the user is
eligible to vote. If the condition is true, then the indented statement(s) are executed otherwise not.
The indentation implies that its execution is dependent on the condition. There is no limit on the
number of statements that can appear as a block under the if statement.
A variant of if statement called if....else statement that allows to write two alternative paths and
the control condition determines which path gets executed. The syntax for if....else statement is as
follows.
if condition:

statement(s)
else:
statement(s)
Let us now modify the Example 11.1 on voting to illustrate the use of if else structure.
age = int(input("Enter your age: "))
if age >= 18:
print("Eligible to vote")
else:
print("Not eligible to vote")
In above example, user will be asked to enter age. If the age entered by the user is greater than
18, then to display that the user is eligible to vote, otherwise display that the user is not eligible to
vote.
Now let us use the same concept to modify the Program 11.1, so that it always gives a positive
difference as the output. From the flowchart in Figure 11.2, it is required to decide whether num1
> num2 or not and take action accordingly.
We have to specify two blocks of statements since num1 can be greater than num2 or vice-versa as
shown in Program 11.2.
In above example, condition num1 > num2 holds False for the values of num1 and num2 entered
by user. Therefore, the statement after else will be executed.
There may be a situation, when you have multiple conditions to check and these all conditions are
independent to each other. You can use elif statement to include multiple conditional expressions
after the if condition or between the if and else control structure.
The syntax for a selection structure using elif is as shown below.
if condition1:
statement1
elif condition2:
statement2
elif condition3:
statement3
else:

statement4
In elif structure, if condition1 is true then statement1 will be executed. If condition1 is false then
control will go to condition2. If condition2 is True then statement2 will be executed. Similarly, if
condition2 is false then condition3 will be checked and found true, then statement3 will be
executed. Now, if none of the conditions is true then only statement4 will be executed. Here,
statement1, statement2, statement3, statement4 can be a single statement or block of statements.
Example 11.2 Check whether a number is positive, negative, or zero.
Three different numbers are checked in the above program. In Output1, the entered number 5 is
greater than 0. Here, the condition associated with if structure is true, so the statement to print
“Number is positive” is executed. In Output 2, the entered number –2 is less than 0. Here, the
condition associated with elif structure is true, so the statement to print “Number is negative” is
executed. In Output 3, the entered number 0 is neither greater than nor less than 0. Here, the
condition associated with both if and elif is false, so the statement just after else keyword to print
“Number is zero” is executed.
Example 11.3. Display the appropriate message as per the colour of signal at the road
crossing.

Number of elif is dependent on the number of conditions to be checked. If the first condition is
false, then the next condition is checked, and so on. If one of the conditions is true, then the
corresponding indented block executes, and the if statement terminates.
Let us write a program to create a simple calculator to perform basic arithmetic operations on two
numbers. The program should do the following:
 Accept two numbers from the user.
 Ask user to input any of the operator (+, -, *, /).
 An error message is displayed if the user enters anything else.
 Display only positive difference in case of the operator "-".
 Display a message ―Please enter a value other than 0‖ if the user enters the second
number as 0 and operator ‗/‘ is entered.

In above program, for the operators "-" and "/", there exists an if...else condition within the elif
block. This is called nested if. There can be many levels of nesting inside if...else statements.
It is possible to use if elif structure as illustrated in Program 11.3. In Python 3.10 a much more
powerful and flexible construct called Structural Pattern Matching is available. It can be used as a
simple switch statement but is capable of much more.
Structural pattern matching
Structural pattern matching introduces the match…case statement and the pattern syntax to
Python. The match…case statement follows the same basic outline as switch...case in other
programming language. It takes an object, tests it against one or more match patterns, and takes
an action if it finds a match.
Python performs matches by going through the list of cases from top to bottom. On the first
match, Python executes the statements in the corresponding case block, then skips to the end of
the match block and continues with the rest of the program. There is no “fall-through” between
cases, but it‘s possible to design your logic to handle multiple possible cases in a single case
block. Let us take an example to use structural pattern matching.
Example 11.4. Example to use structural pattern matching
In above program, value entered by user is stored in variable digit. The values written after case
will be matched with value of digit one by one. If digit = 0 as specified in case 0 then statement to
print zero will be executed. If digit is not equal to 0, control will go to next case statement
specified as case 1. If digit =1, statement to print one will be executed. Similarly, it will go on for
case 2 to case 9. For last case, if digit is anything except digits 0 to 9, It will print “Invalid input”.
Assignment
1. Write a program to check whether a number is divisible by 7 or not.
2. Write a program to check whether an alphabet is a vowel or consonant.
3. Write a program to input month number and print the month name.
4. Write a program to check a triangle is equilateral, isosceles or scalene on the
basis of the length of the sides provided by user.

11.3 Indentation
In most programming languages, the statements within a block are put inside curly brackets.
However, Python uses indentation for block as well as for nested block structures. Leading
whitespace (spaces and tabs) at the beginning of a statement is called indentation. In Python, the
same level of indentation associates statements into a single block of code. The interpreter checks
indentation levels very strictly and throws up syntax errors if indentation is not correct. It is a
common practice to use a single tab for each level of indentation.
In the program 11.4, the if-else statement has two blocks of statements and the statements in
each block are indented with the same amount of spaces or tabs.
In above program, as the condition num 1 > num 2 is false for the values of num1 and num2
taken in program. Therefore, the block of statements associated with else will be executed as
shown in output.
11.4 Repetition
Sometimes we need to repeat the tasks such as payment of electricity bill is to be paid every
month. Let us take an example which illustrates iterative process in nature also. Figure 11.3
shows the phases of the day like morning, midday and evening. These phases are repeated every
day in the same order.
Fig. 11.3: Phases of the day

Another example where we repeat step, is calculation of mean marks for each student of the class
separately. First, we list the steps to calculate mean of the marks scored in 5 subjects by a
student

1. Read the marks scored by the student in five subjects.
2. Calculate sum of the marks of all 5 subjects.
2. Divide the sum by 5.
3. Result will be stored as mean.
Above steps will be repeated for each student of the class to get mean marks. This kind of
repetition is also called iteration. Repetition of a set of statements in a program is made possible
using looping constructs. To understand further, let us look at the program 11.5.
In the above program, print () function is used 5 times to print 5 different natural numbers. But
in the situation to print the first 100,000 natural numbers, it will not be efficient to write 100,000
print statements. In such case it is better to use loop or repetition in the program.
Looping constructs provide the facility to execute a set of statements in a program repetitively,
based on a condition. The statements in a loop are executed again and again as long as particular
logical condition remains true. This condition is checked based on the value of a variable called
the loop control variable. When the condition becomes false, the loop terminates. It is the
responsibility of the programmer to ensure that this condition eventually does become false so
that there is an exit condition and it does not become an infinite loop. For example, if we did not
set the condition count <= 100000, the program would have never stopped. There are two looping
constructs in Python - for and while. Let us learn these looping constructs in detail.
11.4.1 For Loop
The for statement is used to iterate over a range of values or a fixed number of sequences. The for
loop is executed for each of the items in the range. These values can be numeric, string, list, or
tuple. The flowchart depicting the execution of a for loop is given in Figure 11.4.

Fig. 11.4: Flow chart of for loop
Syntax of the For Loop
for <control-variable> in <sequence/items in range>:
<statements inside body of the loop>
With every iteration of the loop, the control variable checks whether each of the values in the
range have been traversed or not. When all the items in the range are exhausted, the control is
then transferred to the statement immediately following the for loop. While using for loop, it is
known in advance the number of times the loop will execute.
In the above program, letter variable represents a character of string ―PYTHON‖. For each iteration
of for loop, it prints a character of string ―PYTHON‖.

In above program, count is a sequence of 5 integers. Variable num represents different integers in
different iterations of for loop. So, it prints all the elements of count.
We discussed the programs that are example of using a for loop in Python. Let us also take a look
at how range function can be used with for loop.
The Range() Function
The range () is a built-in function in Python. Syntax of range () function is:
range (start, stop, step)
It is used to create a list containing a sequence of integers from the given start value upto stop
value (excluding stop value), with a difference of the given step value.
#Creating a list of first 10 natural numbers using range function.
>>>list(range(1,11,1))
[1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10]
#Creating a list of first 10 even numbers using range function.
>>> list(range(2,21,2))
[2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20]
#step value is 5
>>> list(range(0, 30, 5))
[0, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25]
In function range (), start, stop and step are parameters. More on functions is covered in next
chapter 12. The start and step parameters are optional. If start value is not specified, by default
the list starts from 0. If step is also not specified, by default the value increases by 1 in each
iteration. Let us take an example to understand this.
#start and step not specified
>>> list(range(11))
[0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10]
In the above example, value of only step parameter of range() function has been provided. It will
take start=0 and step=1 by default.

All parameters of range() function must be integers. The step parameter can be a positive or a
negative integer excluding zero.
# Negative value of step parameter
>>> list(range(10,0,-1))
[10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1]
Negative value of step parameter of range () function will generate a decreasing sequence as
illustrated in the above example. The function range () is often used in for loops for generating a
sequence of numbers as illustrated below.
>>> for x in range (11):
print(x)
Output:
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
In above python code, function range (11) will generate a sequence of numbers [0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6,
7, 8, 9, 10]. Variable x will hold the elements of this sequence one by one for different iterations of
for loop. In each iteration of for loop print(x) statement will be executed. Therefore, all the elements
of the sequence will be printed one by one as shown in output.
In above program, range (5) function will generate a sequence of numbers [0,1,2,3,4]. Variable
num will hold the elements of this sequence one by one for different iterations of for loop. In each
iteration of for loop condition num>0 will be evaluated. Condition num>0 is false for first element
of the sequence where num=0. Therefore, print(num*10) will not be executed only for first element
that is 0. For rest of the elements, condition num>0 holds true. So, print(num*10) will be executed
to get output as shown above.
Assignment
1. Write a program to print first 10 natural number in reverse order.

2. Write a program to print only odd numbers from the given list using for loop.
3. Write a program to display a list that stores squares of the elements of a given list.
4. Write a program using for loop that prompts the user for a hobby 3 times, then appends each
one to a list named hobbies. Display the elements of list hobbies.
11.4.2 While Loop
The while statement executes a block of code repeatedly as long as the control condition of the
loop is true. The control condition of the while loop is executed before any statement inside the
loop is executed. After each iteration, the control condition is tested again and the loop continues
as long as the condition remains true. When this condition becomes false, the statements in the
body of loop are not executed and the control is transferred to the statement immediately
following the body of while loop. If the condition of the while loop is initially false, the body is not
executed even once. The flowchart of while loop is shown in Figure 11.5.
Fig. 11.5: Flow chart of while Loop

Syntax of while Loop
while test condition:
body of while
The statements within the body of the while loop must ensure that the condition eventually
becomes false, otherwise the loop will become an infinite loop, leading to a logical error in the
program.

In the above program, body of the loop is indented with respect to while statement. Similarly, the
statements within if are indented with respect to positioning of if statement.
Assignment
1. Write a program to print first 10 even numbers using while loop.
2. Write a program to find the sum of the digits of a number accepted from the user.
3. Write a program to reverse the number accepted from user using while loop.
4. Write a program to check the input number is Palindrome or not.
5. Write a program to check the input number is Armstrong or not.
11.5 Break and Continue Statement
Looping constructs allow programmers to repeat tasks efficiently. In certain situations, when
some particular condition occurs, we may want to exit from a loop (come out of the loop forever) or
skip some statements of the loop before continuing further in the loop. These requirements can be
achieved by using break and continue statements, respectively. Python provides these statements
as a tool to give more flexibility for the programmer to control the flow of execution of a program.
11.5.1 Break Statement
The break statement alters as it terminates the current loop and resumes execution of the
statement following that loop.

Fig. 11.6: Flowchart for using break statement in loop
Let us take a program to demonstrate use of break in for loop.
In the above program, when value of num becomes 8, the break statement is executed and the for
loop terminates.

Assignment
1. Write a program to find location of a particular item in a list.
2. Find output of the following Python code:
for val in "string":
if val == "i":
break
print(val)
print("The end")
11.5.2 Continue Statement
When a continue statement is encountered, the control skips the execution of remaining
statements inside the body of the loop for the current iteration and jumps to the beginning of the
loop for the next iteration. If the loop‘s condition is still true, the loop is entered again, else the
control is transferred to the statement immediately following the loop. Figure 11.7 shows the
flowchart of continue statement.
Fig. 11.7: Flow chart of continue statement

Observe that the value 3 is not printed in the output, but the loop continues after the continue
statement to print other values till the for loop terminates.
Assignment
1. Write a program to print values from 1 to 20 except multiples of 3.
2. Write a program to print all the prime numbers from 1 to 50.
11.6 Nested Loops
A loop may contain another loop inside it. A loop inside another loop is called a nested loop. The
inner or outer loop can be any type, such as a while loop or for loop. For example, the outer for
loop can contain a while loop and vice versa. The outer loop can contain more than one inner
loop. There is no limitation on the chaining of loops.
Nested loops are typically used for working with number and star pattern programs. These are
also useful to work with multidimensional data structures, such as printing two-dimension
arrays, iterating a list that contains a nested list. You will learn about these array, multi
dimension array and list in next chapters.

Assignment
1. Write a program using nested loops to produce a rectangle of * with 6 rows and 20 * per row.
2. Write a program to print a pattern like:

a. b. c. d. e.
1 1 A 1 5 4321
2 2 2 1 A B 1 2 4 321
3 33 3 21 A BC 1 2 3 3 21
4 444 4 321 A BCD 1 2 3 4 2 1
5 5555 5 4321 A BCDE 1 2 3 4 5 1
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. Python supports two types of control structures (a) permutation and combination (b) mod-
ule and library (c) built-in and user-defined (d) selection and repetition
2. In programming, the concept of decision making or selection is implemented with the help
of (a) if else statement (b) for loop (c) while loop (d) Functions
3. In Python, the same level of indentation associate statements into (a) a single block of code
(b) a single loop (c) a single function (d) a single control structure
4. Which key is used for each level of indentation (a) \t (b) \n (c) @ (d) #
5. Repetition of a set of statements in a program is made possible using (a) if-else (b) loops (c)
data types (d) functions
6. When the condition associated with a loop becomes false, the loop (a) terminates (b) contin-
ues (c) fails (d) produce error
7. Which function is used to create a list containing a sequence of integers from the given
start value up to stop value (excluding stop value), with a difference of the given step value
(a) range() (b) random() (c) maths() (d) int()
8. The start and step parameters of range() function are (a) optional (b) mandatory (c) default
(d) invalid
9. All parameters of range() function must be (a) integer (b) float (c) list (d) tuple
10. The step parameter of range() function can be a positive or a negative integer excluding (a) 0
(b) 1 (c) -1 (d) -2
11. Function range(x) will generate a sequence of numbers [0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10]. Then x=? (a)
10 (b) 11 (c) -10 (d) -11
12. Which of the following is not used as loop in Python? (a) for loop (b) while loop (c) do-while
loop (d) None of the above
13. In a Python program, a control structure: (a) defines program-specific data structures (b)
directs the order of execution of the statements in the program (c) dictates what happens
before the program starts and after it terminates (d) None of the above
14. How many times will the loop run? (a) 2 (b) 3 (c) 1 (d) 0
i=2
while(i>0):
i=i-1
15. What will be the output of the following code? (a) 12 (b) 1, 2 (c) 0 (d) Error
x = 12
for i in x:
print(i)
1. There is no limit on the number of statements that can appear as a block under the if
statement.

2. The statements in a loop are executed again and again as long as particular logical condi-
tion remains false.
3. The range () is a built-in function in Python.
4. The while statement executes a block of code repeatedly as long as the control condition of
the loop is true.
5. There is no limitation on the chaining of loops.
6. Keyword "break" can be used to bring control out of the current loop.
7. A loop becomes infinite loop if a condition never becomes FALSE.
8. If the condition is TRUE the statements of if block will be executed otherwise the state-
ments in the else block will be executed.
9. Do-while is a valid loop a in Python.
10. Break and continue are jump statements.
1. The order of execution of the statements in a program is known as _________.
2. Python uses _________ for block as well as for nested block structures.
3. The interpreter checks indentation levels very strictly and throws up _________ errors if in-
dentation is not correct.
4. The _________ clause can occur with an if as well as with loops.
5. The break statement _________ the current loop and resumes execution of the statement
following that loop.
6. When a continue statement is encountered, the control _________ the execution of remain-
ing statements inside the body of the loop for the current iteration and jumps to the be-
ginning of the loop for the next iteration.
7. A loop inside another loop is called a _________ loop.
8. Common use of nested loop is to print various _________ and _________ pattern.
9. For working with _________ data structures, such as printing two-dimensional arrays,
nested loops are typically used.
10. The statement to check if a is equal to b is if _________.
1. Write a program that takes the input name and age and displays a message whether the
user is eligible to apply for a driving license or not. The eligible age is 18 years.
2. Write a program to print the table of a given number entered by the user.
3. Write a program that prints minimum and maximum of five numbers entered by the user.
4. Write a program to check if the year entered by the user is a leap year or not.
5. Write a program to generate the sequence: –5, 10, –15, 20, –25… up to n, where n is an in-
teger input by the user.
6. Write a program to find the sum of 1+ 1/8 + 1/27......1/n, where n is entered by the user.
7. Write a program to find the sum of digits of an integer number, input by the user.
8. Write a function that checks whether an input number is a palindrome or not.
9. Write a program to find largest number of a list of numbers entered through keyboard.
10. Write a program to input N number and then print the second largest number.

Chapter 12. Functions
In a marriage ceremony, a lot of work has to be done related to catering, decoration and other
things. In general, we assign these different tasks to particular group of people who is service
provider to complete the work smoothly. For example, catering work is assigned to caterers and
decoration work is assigned to decorators. This makes the process easy to manage. Similarly, in
programming also we use functions to do a specific task to make our program modular and easy
to read.
Fig. 12.1: Different tasks in a wedding ceremony

Suppose a factorial of a number can be calculated by simply executing the logic to calculate a
factorial. But what to do it ten times in a day, writing the same logic again and again is going to
be a long task. Instead of that it is better to write a function of that logic and that can be used
whenever by calling that function. This will reduce the complexity of code and save the time.
Till now we have written some programs and might have realized that as the problem gets
complex, the number of lines in a program increase, which makes the program look bulky and
difficult to manage.
Consider a problem of finding maximum of two numbers a and b. Let us take a simple Python
program for this problem.
In above program, a built-in function print () is used to print the value. Another approach to solve
the above problem is to divide the program into different blocks of code and keep the block of code
in a function which is used to do some specific task. The process of dividing a computer program

into separate independent blocks of code or separate sub-problems with different names and
specific functionalities is known as modular programming.
In this chapter, you will understand the concept of functions and the benefits of using functions.
We will discuss about user defined functions, flow of execution, scope of a variable and standard
libraries in Python programming.
12.2 Functions
In programming, the use of function is one of the means to achieve modularity and re-usability.
Function can be defined as a named group of instructions that accomplish a specific task when it
is invoked. Once defined, a function can be called repeatedly from different places of the program
without writing all the codes of that function every time, or it can be called from inside another
function, by simply writing the name of the function and passing the required parameters, if any.
The programmer can define as many functions as desired while writing the code.
The program 12.1 has rewritten using user defined functions as shown in program 12.2.
If we compare program 12.1 and 12.2, it is evident that program 12.2 looks more organised and
easier to read. Function max () used in this program, is a user defined function. Another function
used in this program is print () which is a built-in function. In general, we have two types of
functions in Python – User defined functions and Built-in functions.
The Advantages of Function
Following are the advantages of using functions in a program:
 Increases readability, particularly for longer code as by using functions, the program is
better organized and easy to understand.
 Reduces code length as same code is not required to be written at multiple places in a
program. This also makes debugging easier.
 Increases reusability, as function can be called from another function or another program.
Thus, we can reuse or build upon already defined functions and avoid repetitions of
writing the same piece of code.
 Work can be easily divided among team members and completed in parallel.
12.3 User defined Functions
Taking advantage of reusability feature of functions, there are large number of functions already
available in Python under standard library. We can directly call these functions in our program
without defining them. However, in addition to the standard library functions, we can define our

own functions while writing the program. Such functions are called user defined functions. Thus,
a function defined to achieve some tasks as per the programmer's requirement is called a user
defined function.
12.3.1 Creating User Defined Function
A function definition begins with def (short for define). The syntax for creating a user defined
function is as shown in Figure 12.2.
Fig. 12.2: Syntax of User defined Function

The items enclosed in "[ ]" are called parameters and they are optional. Hence, a function may or
may not have parameters. Also, a function may or may not return a value. Function header
always ends with a colon (:). Function name should be unique. Rules for naming identifiers also
apply for function naming. The statements outside the function indentation are not considered as
part of the function.
In above program, addnum() is a user-defined function that takes two integer numbers a s input,
calculate sum of two numbers and display it. In order to execute the function, we need to call it.
The function can be called in the program by writing function name followed by () as shown for
addnum() function in the last line of Program 12.3.
The def is the keyword used to define a function and function name is written following def
keyword. When it runs, it creates a new function object and assigns it a new name. As it is a
statement, so there is no issue in using it inside any control structures like if else. Let us take an
example to understand this:
Example 12.1:

Assignment 12.1
1. Write a program to find the maximum of three numbers using a user-defined function.
2. Write a program to Find Factorial of Number using a user-defined function.
3. Write a program to print the sum of digit of a user entered number using user-defined
function.
4. Write a program to print the day name by reading day number from user using a user-
defined function.
12.3.2 Arguments and Parameters
In the above example, the numbers were accepted from the user within the function itself, but it is
also possible for a user defined function to receive values at the time of being called. An argument
is a value passed to the function during the function call which is received in corresponding
parameter defined in function header.
Let us assume that the user has input 5 during the execution of the Program 12.4. So, num refers
to the value 5. It is then used as an argument in the function.

sumSquares(num)
Since the function is called, the control is transferred to execute the function
def sumSquares(n):
where parameter n also refers to the value 5 which num is referring to as shown in Figure 12.3.
Since both num and n are referring to the same value, they are bound to have the same identity.
We can use the id() function to find the identity of the object that the argument and parameter are
referring to. Let us understand this with the help of the following example.
Argument
num
Parameter 5
n
Fig. 12.3: Both argument and parameter refer to the same value
In above program output, number and num have the same id before value of num is incremented.
After increment, the id of num has changed. After running this program code, you will get the
different memory location as per your computer configuration.
Let us understand the above output through illustration as depicted in Figure 12.4.

Fig. 12.4: ID of argument and parameter before and after increment

In above program, when function calcFact() is called; Control is transferred to the line where
function is defined. Initially, value 1 is assigned to the variable fact. Then in for loop, variable i
holds the value from the list [5, 4, 3, 2, 1] one by one for above output in which user entered 5. In
each iteration, product of variable fact and i is assigned to fact as shown below in Table 12.1.
Table 12.1: Iterations of factorial( ) function
iteration fact i fact = fact*i
1 1 5 5
2 5 4 20
3 20 3 60
4 60 2 120
5 120 1 120
Sometimes, we need to pass strings also as parameter to a function. In some cases, we want to set
default values also for parameters. Next, we will learn to handle these situations in which we use the
following approaches – String as Parameters and Default Parameter.
String as Parameters – In programs 12.4 to 12.7, the arguments passed are of numeric type only.
However, in some programs, user may need to pass string values as an argument, as shown in Program
12.8.
Default Parameter
Python allows assigning a default value to the parameter. A default value is a value that is pre-
decided and assigned to the parameter when the function call does not have its corresponding
argument.

In the above program, the denominator entered is 3, which is passed to the parameter "deno" so
the default value of the argument deno is overwritten. Let us consider the following function call:
mixedFraction(9). Here, num will be assigned 25 and deno will use the default value 1.
A function argument can also be an expression, such as
mixedFraction(num+5, deno+5)
In such a case, the argument is evaluated before calling the function so that a valid value can be
assigned to the parameter. The parameters should be in the same order as that of the arguments.
The default parameters must be the trailing parameters in the function header that means if any
parameter is having default value then all the other parameters to its right must also have default
values. For example,
def mixedFraction(num,deno = 1)
def mixedFraction(num = 2,deno = 1)
Let us consider few more function definition headers:
def calcInterest(principal = 1000, rate, time = 5):
Above header is incorrect as default must be the last #parameter. So, the correct function header
should be as follows.
def calcInterest(rate, principal = 1000, time = 5):
One more point is important to note that a function header cannot have expressions. Therefore,
following function headers will give error:
def mixedFraction(num+5,deno):
def mixedFraction(num+5,deno+5):
Variable Number of Arguments
In cases where you don‘t know the exact number of arguments that you want to pass to a
function, you can use the following syntax with *args:

Example 12.2
Pass-by-object-reference:
Python utilizes a system, which is known as “Call by Object Reference” or “Call by assignment” to
pass arguments to a function. In the event that you pass arguments like whole numbers, strings
or tuples to a function, the passing is like call-by-value because you can‘t change the value of the
immutable objects being passed to the function as illustrated in Example 12.2. Whereas passing
mutable objects can be considered as call by reference because when their values are changed
inside the function, then it will also be reflected outside the function as illustrated in Example
12.3.
Example 12.3
Python code to demonstrate
Example 12.4
# Python code to demonstrate call by reference

12.3.3 Functions Returning Value
A function may or may not return a value when called. The return statement returns the values
from the function. In the examples given so far, the function performs calculations and display
result(s). They do not return any value. Such functions are called void functions. But a situation
may arise, wherein we need to send value(s) from the function to its calling function. This is done
using return statement. The return statement does the following:
• returns the control to the calling function.
• return value(s) or None.
The return statement takes zero or more values, separated by commas. Using commas actually
returns a single tuple. To return multiple values, use a tuple or list. Returning multiple items
separated by commas is equivalent to returning a tuple. Next, we will take examples where a
function returns more than one values.
Example 12.5

Example 12.6
Let us take a Program using function which returns two values area and perimeter of rectangle
using tuple.
So far, we have learnt that a function may or may not have parameter(s) and a function may or
may not return any value(s). In Python, as per our requirements, we can have the function in
either of the following ways:
• Function with no argument and no return value

• Function with no argument and with return value(s)
• Function with argument(s) and no return value
• Function with argument(s) and return value(s)
12.3.4 Flow of Execution
Flow of execution can be defined as the order in which the statements in a program are executed.
The Python interpreter starts executing the instructions in a program from the first statement.
The statements are executed one by one, in the order of appearance from top to bottom.
When the interpreter encounters a function definition, the statements inside the function are not
executed until the function is called. Later, when the interpreter encounters a function call, there
is a little deviation in the flow of execution. In that case, instead of going to the next statement,
the control jumps to the called function and executes the statement of that function. After that,
the control comes back the point of function call so that the remaining statements in the program
can be executed. Therefore, when we read a program, we should not simply read from top to
bottom. Instead, we should follow the flow of control or execution. It is also important to note that
a function must be defined before its call within a program.
Let us take an example to understand the flow of execution in a program where a function is
used.
Example 12.7
On executing the above code the following error is produced:

The error „function not defined‟ is produced even though the function has been defined. When a
function call is encountered, the control has to jump to the function definition and execute it. In
the above program, since the function call precedes the function definition, the interpreter does
not find the function definition and hence an error is raised.
That is why, the function definition should be made before the function call as shown below:
def helloPython(): #Function definition
print("I love Programming")
helloPython() #Function Call
Fig. 12.5: Order of execution of statements

Figure 12.5 explains the flow of execution for the above program. The number in square brackets
shows the order of execution of the statements.
12.4 Scope of a variable
A variable defined inside a function cannot be accessed outside it. Every variable has a well-
defined accessibility. The part of the program where a variable is accessible can be defined as the
scope of that variable. A variable can have one of the following two scopes: A variable that can be
accessed anywhere in the program is known as a global variable and a variable that has a local
scope within a function or a block is known as a local variable.
Fig. 12.6: Scope of a variable

Global Variable – In Python, a variable that is defined outside any function or any block is known
as a global variable. It can be accessed in any functions defined onwards. Any change made to the
global variable will impact all the functions in the program where that variable can be accessed.
Local Variable – A variable that is defined inside any function or a block is known as a local
variable. It can be accessed only in the function or a block where it is defined. It exists only till the
function executes.

Any modification to global variable is permanent and affects all the functions where it is used. If a
variable with the same name as the global variable is defined inside a function, then it is
considered local to that function and hides the global variable. If the modified value of a global
variable is to be used outside the function, then the keyword global should be prefixed to the
variable name in the function.
In above program‘s output, Global variable num is accessed as the ambiguity is resolved by
prefixing keyword global to it.
Anonymous Functions in Python
Anonymous functions are also called lambda functions in Python because instead of declaring
them with the standard def keyword, you use the lambda keyword.
Example 12.8

The pass Statement in Function definition
Function definitions cannot be empty, but if you for some reason have a function definition with
no content, put in the pass statement to avoid getting an error.
Def myfunction():
pass
Assignment 12.2
1. Write a program using function that takes a positive integer and returns the one‘s position
digit of the integer.
2. Write a program using function that takes two numbers n and returns the number that has
minimum one‘s digit.
12.5 Standard Library

Python has a very extensive standard library. It is a collection of many built- in functions that can
be called in the program as and when required, thus saving programmer‘s time of creating those
commonly used functions every time. A function can belong to a standard library if it is a built-in
function or in a module otherwise it may be user-defined function as shown in Figure 12.7.
Fig. 12.7: Types of functions

12.5.1 Built-in functions
Built-in functions are the ready-made functions in Python that are frequently used in programs.
Let us inspect the following Python program:
#Program to calculate square of a number
a = int(input("Enter a number: ")
b=a*a
print(" The square of ", a, "is", b)
In the above program input(), int() and print() are the built-in functions. The set of instructions to
be executed for these built-in functions are already defined in the Python interpreter.
Let us consider the following Python program consisting of function call to a various built-in
function.

In the above program, input () and print () are built-in functions. Here, print () function accepts a
string "Enter your name" as argument. The function also returns a value here. Since there is an
assignment (=) operator preceding the function name, it means that the function returns a value
which is stored in the variable name. Hence, the function input () accepts a value and returns a
value. Another built-in function print () is used in the above program to display ―Hello‖ as it is as
and value in string name.
Similarly, there are so many built-in functions in Python. For more examples of built-in functions
refer to Appendix 1 (Table 12.2) in the end of this chapter.
Assignment 12.3
1. Write a program that reads a number, than converts it into octal and hexadecimal equivalent
numbers using built-in functions of Python.
2. Write a program that inputs a real number and converts it to nearest integer using built-in
functions. It also displays the given number rounded off to 3 places after decimal.
12.5.2 Module
Other than the built-in functions, the Python standard library also consists of a number of
modules. While a function is a grouping of instructions, a module is a grouping of functions. As
we know that when a program grows, functions are used to simplify the code and to avoid
repetition. For a complex problem, it may not be feasible to manage the code in one single file.
Then, the program is divided into different parts under different levels, called modules. Also,
suppose we have created some functions in a program and we want to reuse them in another
program. In that case, we can save those functions under a module and reuse them. A module is
created as a Python (.py) file containing a collection of function definitions.
To use a module, we need to import the module. Once we import a module, we can directly use all
the functions of that module. The syntax of import statement is as follows:
import modulename1 [, modulename2, …]
This gives us access to all the functions in the module(s). To call a function of a module, the
function name should be preceded with the name of the module with a dot(.) as a separator. The
syntax is as shown below:
modulename.functionname()
Built-in Modules
Python library has many built-in modules that are really handy to programmers. Let us explore
some commonly used modules and the frequently used functions that are available in those
modules – math, random, statistics.
math Module – It contains different types of mathematical functions. Most of the functions in this
module return a float value. To use a module, it must be imported only once anywhere in the
program. So import math module it using the following statement.

import math
Let us take an example of function gcd() that is used to find greatest common divisor of two
numbers.
>>> import math
>>> math.gcd(10,6)
2
In function gcd(x,y), both the input parameters x and y are positive integers. Some of the
commonly used functions in math module are given in Appendix 1 (Table 12.2) in the end of this
chapter.
random Module – This module contains functions that are used for generating random numbers.
For using this module, we can import it using the following statement:
import random
Let us take random() function that is used to Random Real Number (float) in the range 0.0 to 1.0.
>>> import random
>>> random.random()
0.011035221592589295
Some of the commonly used functions in random module are given in Appendix 1 (Table 12.3) in
the end of this chapter.
statistics Module – This module provides functions for calculating statistics of numeric (Real-
value) data. It can be included in the program by using the following statements.
Let us take mean () function that is used to calculate arithmetic mean of given numbers.
>>> import statistics
>>> statistics.mean([1,2,3,4,5])
3
Some of the commonly used functions in statistics module are given in Appendix 1 (Table 12.4) in
the end of this chapter.
from Statement
Instead of loading all the functions into memory by importing a module, from statement can be
used to access only the required functions from a module. It loads only the specified function(s)
instead of all the functions in a module. Its syntax is
>>> from module_name import function_name [, function_name,...]
To use the function when imported using "from statement" we do not need to precede it with the
module name. Rather we can directly call the function as shown in the following examples:
Example 12.9
Example 12.10

In Example 12.10, the ceil value of 624.7 is stored in the variable "value" and then sqrt function is
applied on the variable "value". The above example can be rewritten as:
>>> sqrt (ceil (624.7))
The execution of the function sqrt () is dependent on the output of ceil () function.
To extract the integer part of 624.7, use trunc () function from math module.
#ceil and sqrt already been imported above
>>> from math import trunc
>>> sqrt ( trunc (625.7))
The above code will give result as 25.0.
A programming statement wherein the functions or expressions are dependent on each other‘s
execution for achieving an output is termed as composition, here are some other examples of
composition:
a = int (input ("First number: "))
print ("Square root of ", a , " = ", math.sqrt(a))
print(floor(a+(b/c)))
math.sin (float(h)/float(c))
Importing user defined module

Besides the available modules in Python standard library, we can also create our own module
consisting of our own functions. All you need to do is create a file that contains legitimate Python
code and then give the file a name with .py extension. To use a module, we need to import the
module using import statement. Once we import a module, we can directly use all the functions of
that module. Let us learn how to create a module and importing the module to use it‘s function.
Note: Save this module with file name as p12_16.py instead of p12.16 as practiced in naming the
file name in this book. Because .(dot) has the special meaning in Python which can not be used for
naming the module which has to be referred in another Python program.
Save the above code in a separate file name as p12_16.py. Now write the following below code in a
new file. Save it as p12.17 and then Run to get output.

Assignment 12.4
Create a module length_conversion.py that stores functions for various lengths conversion like
mile_to_km (), km_to_mile (), feet_to_inches () and inches_to_feet (). Write a program to use the
above module.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. A named group of instructions that accomplish a specific task when it is invoked is called
a (a) string (b) control (c) tuple (d) Function
2. Which keyword is used for function? (a) fun (b) define (c) def (d) function
3. What are the two main types of functions? (a) Custom function (b) Built-in function & User
defined function (c) User function (d) System function
4. Which of the following is the use of id () function in Python? (a) Id returns the identity of
the object (b) Every object doesn‘t have a unique id (c) All of the mentioned (d) None of the
mentioned
5. Which of the following refers to mathematical function? (a) sqrt (b) rhombus (c) add (d)
minus
6. Python supports the creation of anonymous functions at runtime, using a construct called
__________ (a) lambda (b) pi (c) anonymous (d) none of the mentioned
7. What will be the output of the following Python code? (a) 12 (b) 14 (c) 27 (d) 64
y = 4
z = lambda x: x * y
print (z(3))
8. What will be the output of the following Python code? (a) 27, 81, 343 (b) 6, 9, 12 (c) 9, 27,
81 (d) 64, 27,343
L = [lambda x: x ** 2, lambda x: x ** 3, lambda x: x ** 4]
for f in L:
print(f(3))

9. Which one of the following is not a function of statistics module? (a) fabs() (b) mean() (c)
median() (d) mode()
10. A function by user in one program can be reused in another program. Such function can
be stored under (a) string (b) control (c) tuple (d) module
1. Use of function is one of the means to achieve modularity and reusability.
2. Function header always ends with a semi-colon (;).
3. Lambda function contains return statements.
4. Lambda is an anonymous function in Python.
5. Module is a grouping of functions.
6. Once we import a module, we can directly use all the functions of that module.
7. To use the function when imported using "from statement" we do not need to precede it
with the module name.
8. It is not possible to create your own function, besides the available modules in Python
standard library.
9. randrage () is a function of random module.
10. fmod () is a function of statistics module.
1. The process of dividing a computer program into separate independent blocks of code or
separate sub-problems with different names and specific functionalities is known as
_________ programming.
2. A function defined to achieve some tasks as per the programmer's requirement is called a
_________ function.
3. An _________ is a value passed to the function during the function call which is received in
corresponding parameter defined in function header.
4. The _________ statement returns the values from the function.
5. A collection of many built- in functions that can be called in the program as and when
required is known as _________.
6. A module is created as a Python file with extension _________ containing a collection of
function definitions.
7. To use a module, we need to import the module using _________ statement.
8. To call a function of a module, the function name should be preceded with the name of the
module with a _________ as a separator.
9. Functions that are used for generating random numbers are containing in _________
module.
10. Instead of loading all the functions into memory by importing a module, _________
statement can be used to access only the required functions from a module.
1. Identify the errors if any in the following code.
(a) def create (text, freq):
for i in range (1, freq):
print text
create (5) #function call
(b) from math import sqrt,ceil
def calc ():
print cos (0)

calc () #function call
(c) mynum = 9 def add9():
mynum = mynum + 9
print mynum
add9() #function call
(d) def findValue( vall = 1.1, val2, val3):
final = (val2 + val3)/ vall
print(final)
findvalue () #function call
(e) def greet ():
return ("Good morning")
greet () = message #function call
2. Write a program to check the divisibility of a number by 7 that is passed as a parameter to
the user defined function.
3. Write a program that uses a user defined function that accepts name and gender (as M for
Male, F for Female) and prefixes Mr./Ms. on the basis of the gender.
4. Write a Program that uses two user defined function to convert temperatures to and from
Celsius, Fahrenheit and Fahrenheit to Celsius.
5. Write a program that has a user defined function to accept the coefficients of a quadratic
equation in variables and calculates its determinant. For example: if the coefficients are
stored in the variables a, b, c then calculate determinant as b 2-4ac. Write the appropriate
condition to check determinants on positive, zero and negative and output appropriate
result.
6. ABC School has allotted unique token IDs from (1 to 600) to all the parents for facilitating
a lucky draw on the day of their annual day function. The winner would receive a special
prize. Write a program using Python that helps to automate the task. (Hint: use random
module)
7. Write a program that implements a user defined function that accepts Principal Amount,
Rate, Time, Number of Times the interest is compounded to calculate and displays
compound interest. (Hint: CI = NT
8. Write a program that has a user defined function to accept 2 numbers as parameters, if
number 1 is less than number 2 then numbers are swapped and returned, i.e., number 2
is returned in place of number 1 and number 1 is reformed in place of number 2,
otherwise the same order is returned.
9. Write a program that contains user defined functions to calculate area, perimeter or
surface area whichever is applicable for various shapes like square, rectangle, triangle,
circle and cylinder. The user defined functions should accept the values for calculation as
parameters and the calculated value should be returned. Import the module and use the
appropriate functions.
10. Write a program that creates a GK quiz consisting of any five questions of your choice. The
questions should be displayed randomly. Create a user defined function score () to
calculate the score of the quiz and another user defined function remark (score value) that
accepts the final score to display remarks as follows:
Marks Remarks
5 Outstanding
4 Excellent
3 Good
2 Read more to score more
1 Needs to take interest
0 General knowledge will always help you. Take it seriously.

Appendix 1
Table 12.2 Commonly used functions in math module
Function Syntax Arguments Returns Example Output
math.ceil(x) x may be an integer or floating- ceiling value of x >>> math.ceil(-9.7)

point number -9
>>> math.ceil (9.7)
10
>>> math.ceil(9) 9
math.floor(x) x may be an integer or floating- floor value of x >>> math.floor(-4.5)
point number -5
>>> math.floor(4.5)
4
>>> math.floor(4)
4
math.fabs(x) x may be an integer or floating- absolute value of >>> math.fabs(6.7) 6.7
point number x >>> math.fabs(-6.7) 6.7
>>> math.fabs(-4) 4.0
math.factorial(x) x is a positive integer factorial of x >>> math.factorial(5)

120
math.fmod(x,y) x and y may be an integer or x % y with sign >>> math.fmod(4,4.9)
floating-point number of x 4.0
>>> math.fmod(4.9,4.9)
0.0
>>> math.fmod(-4.9,2.5)
-2.4
>>> math.fmod(4.9,-4.9)
0.0
math.gcd(x,y) x, y are positive integers gcd (greatest >>> math.gcd(10,2) 2
common divisor)
of x and y
math.pow(x,y) x, y may be an integer or y >>> math.pow(3,2)

x (x raised to
floating-point number 9.0
the power y)
>>> math.pow(4,2.5)
32.0
>>> math.pow(6.5,2) 42.25
>>> math.pow(5.5,3.2)
233.97
math.sqrt(x) x may be a positive integer or square root of x >>> math.sqrt(144) 12.0

floating-point number >>> math.sqrt(.64)
0.8
math.sin(x) x may be an integer or floating- sine of x in >>> math.sin(0)
point number in radians radians 0
>>> math.sin(6)
-0.279
Table 12.3 Commonly used functions in random module

Function Argument Return Example Output
Syntax
random. No argument (void) Random Real >>> random. random()

random() Number (float) in the 0.65333522
range
0.0 to 1.0
random. x and y are positive integers Random integer >>> random.randrange(2,7)
randrange(x,y) signifying the start and stop between x and y 2
value
random. y is a positive integer Random integer >>> random.randrange(5)
randrage(y) signifying the stop value between 0 and y 4
Table 12.4 Some of the function available through statistics module
Function Syntax Argument Return Example Output
statistics.mean(x) x is a numeric sequence arithmetic mean >>> statistics.

mean([11,24,32,45,51]) 32.6
statistics.median(x) x is a numeric sequence median (middle >>>statistics.
value) of x median([11,24,32,45,51]) 32
statistics.mode(x) x is a sequence mode (the most >>> statistics.

repeated value) mode([11,24,11,45,11]) 11
>>> statistics.
mode(("red","blue","red")) 'red'

Chapter 13. Strings
Alok was filling his details like Name, Mobile Number and Address in an online application form.
But by mistake, he typed his Mobile number in the field of Name. So, he got a message of invalid
input for this. Then his father Mr. Sinha explained this issue. He told Alok that Name will always
consist only characters, not any digit. Similarly, Mobile number of the applicant will consist only
digits. Further Mr. Sinha explained that in computerized system, every field is being validated for
proper data input in Python. He elaborated that in computer based online application forms, a
data-type validation is used to prevent user to enter invalid inputs. His father also told that the
specific data types are used to store the input value as per the requirement to do specific
operation on it. In Python programming, string data type is used to store characters. If any digit
exists in a string, it will also be treated as a character.
Fig. 13.1: Use of strings in our daily life

We have studied that a sequence is an orderly collection of items and each item is indexed by an
integer. String, List and Tuple are sequence data types in Python. In this chapter, you will
understand the basic concepts of string, string operations, traversing a string, string methods &
built-in functions and string as argument to a function.
13.2 Strings
String is a sequence which is made up of one or more UNICODE characters. UNICODE was
introduced to include every character in all languages and bring uniformity in encoding. Here the
character can be a letter, digit, whitespace or any other symbol. A string can be created by
enclosing one or more characters in single, double or triple quote. Let us take examples of
creating strings using different type of quotes.
>>> str1 = 'Hello World!'
>>> str2 = "Hello World!"
>>> str3 = """Hello World!"""
>>> str4 = '''Hello World!'''
str1, str2, str3, str4 are all string variables having the same value 'Hello World!'. Values stored in
str3 and str4 can be extended to multiple lines using triple quotes as can be seen in the following
example:
>>> str3 = """Hello World!
welcome to the world of Python"""
>>> str4 = '''Hello World!
welcome to the world of Python'''
13.2.1 Accessing Characters in a String

Each individual character in a string can be accessed using a technique called indexing. The
index specifies the character to be accessed in the string and is written in square brackets. The
index of the first character (from left) in the string is 0 and the last character is n-1 where n is the
length of the string. If we give index value out of this range then we get an IndexError message.
The index must be an integer (positive, zero or negative).
#initializes a string str1
#gives the first character of str1
>>> str1[0]
'H'
#gives seventh character of str1
>>> str1[6]
'W'
#gives last character of str1
>>> str1[11]
'!'
#gives error as index is out of range
>>> str1[15]
IndexError: string index out of range
The index can also be an expression including variables and operators but the expression must
evaluate to an integer.
#an expression resulting in an integer index
#so gives 6 character of str1
>>> str1[2+4]
'W'
#gives error as index must be an integer
>>> str1[1.5]
TypeError: string indices must be integers
Python allows an index value to be negative also. Negative indices are used to access the
characters of the string from right to left. Starting from right hand side, the first character has the
index as -1 and the last character has the index –n where n is the length of the string. Table 13.1
shows the indexing of characters in the string „Hello World!‟ in both the cases, i.e., positive and
negative indices.
>>> str1[-1] #gives first character from right
'!'
>>> str1[-12] #gives last character from right
'H'
Table 13.1 Indexing of characters in string 'Hello World!'
Positive 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Indices
String H e l l o W o r l d !
Negative -12 -11 -10 -9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1
Indices
An in-built function len() in Python returns the length of the string that is passed as parameter.
For example, the length of string str1 = 'Hello World!' is 12.
#gives the length of the string str1
>>> len(str1)
12
#length of the string is assigned to n

>>> n = len(str1)
>>> print(n)
12
#gives the last character of the string
>>> str1[n-1]
'!'
#gives the first character of the string
>>> str1[-n]
'H'
13.2.2 String is Immutable
A string is an immutable data type. It means that the contents of the string cannot be changed
after it has been created. An attempt to do this would lead to an error.
>>> str1 = "Hello World!"
#if we try to replace character 'e' with 'a'
>>> str1[1] = 'a'
TypeError: 'str' object does not support item Assignment
In above program, in-built function len() is used to find the length of the string str1.
Assignment
1. Write a program to find length of the name of the city entered by user. Display its first and
last character also.
2. Write a program to display character at index -1 of a given string.
3. Write a program to display character at index (2+3) of string ―Python Learners‖.
13.3 String Operations
As we know that string is a sequence of characters. Python allows certain operations on string
data type, such as concatenation, repetition, membership and slicing. These operations are
explained in the following subsections with suitable examples.
13.3.1 Concatenation
To concatenate means to join. Python allows to join two strings using concatenation operator plus
which is denoted by symbol +.
>>> str1 = 'Hello' #First string
>>> str2 = 'World!' #Second string
>>> str1 + str2 #Concatenated strings
'HelloWorld!'
#str1 and str2 remain same after this operation.
>>> str1
'Hello'

>>> str2
'World!'
13.3.2 Repetition
Python allows to repeat the given string using repetition operator which is denoted by symbol *.
#assign string 'Hello' to str1
>>> str1 = 'Hello'
#repeat the value of str1 2 times
>>> str1 * 2
'HelloHello'
#repeat the value of str1 5 times
>>> str1 * 5
'HelloHelloHelloHelloHello'
An important point to note here is that str1 still remains the same after the use of repetition
operator.
13.3.3 Membership
Python has two membership operators 'in' and 'not in'. The 'in' operator takes two strings and
returns True if the first string appears as a sub-string in the second string, otherwise it returns
False.
>>> 'W' in str1
True
>>> 'Wor' in str1
True
>>> 'My' in str1
False
The 'not in' operator also takes two strings and returns True if the first string does not appear as a
sub-string in the second string, otherwise returns False.
>>> 'My' not in str1
True
>>> 'Hello' not in str1
False
13.3.4 Slicing
In Python, to access some part of a string or sub-string, we use a method called slicing. This can
be done by specifying an index range. Given a string st r1, the slice operation st r1[n:m]
returns the part of the string str1 starting from index n (inclusive) and ending at m (exclusive).
In other words, we can say that st r1[n:m] returns all the characters starting from st r1[n] till st
r1[m-1]. The numbers of characters in the sub-string will always be equal to difference of two
indices m and n, i.e., (m-n).
#gives substring starting from index 1 to 4
>>> str1[1:5]
'ello'
#gives substring starting from 7 to 9
>>> str1[7:10]
'orl'
#index that is too big is truncated down to
#the end of the string
>>> str1[3:20]

'lo World!'
#first index > second index results in an
#empty '' string
>>> str1[7:2]
If the first index is not mentioned, the slice starts from index.
#gives substring from index 0 to 4
>>> str1[:5]
'Hello'
If the second index is not mentioned, the slicing is done till the length of the string.
#gives substring from index 6 to end
>>> str1[6:]
'World!'
The slice operation can also take a third index that specifies the ‗step size‘. For example,
str1[n:m:k], means every k character has to be extracted from the string str1 starting from n and
ending at m-1. By default, the step size is one.
>>> str1[0:10:2]
'HloWr'
>>> str1[0:10:3]
'HlWl'
Negative indexes can also be used for slicing.
#characters at index -6,-5,-4,-3 and -2 are
#sliced
>>> str1[-6:-1]
'World'
If we ignore both the indexes and give step size as -1
#str1 string is obtained in the reverse order
>>> str1[::-1]
'!dlroW olleH'

In above program, operator + is used to concatenate the strings. Symbol * is used with value 2 to
print str1 twice. The membership operator in is used to check str1 is part of str2 or not. The
concept of slicing is used to print first two characters of string1.
Assignment
1. Write a program to input two strings and do following operations on them
(a) Concatenate strings and print them.
(b) Print the second string twice.
(c) Check second string is part of first string or not.
(d) Print substring which consists of first two characters of second string.
(e) Print first string in reverse order.
2. Write a Python program to get a string made of the first 2 and the last 2 characters from a
given string. If the string length is less than 2, return instead of the empty string.
13.4 Traversing a String
We can access each character of a string or traverse a string using for loop and while loop.
(a) String Traversal Using for Loop:

>>> for ch in str1:
print(ch, end = '')
Hello World! #output of for loop

In the above code, the loop starts from the first character of the string str1 and automatically
ends when the last character is accessed.
(b) String Traversal Using while Loop:

>>> index = 0
#len(): a function to get length of string
>>> while index < len(str1):
print(str1[index], end = '')
index += 1
Hello World! #output of while loop

Here while loop runs till the condition index < len(str) is True, where index varies from 0 to
len(str1) – 1.
13.5 String Methods and Built-In Functions
Python has several built-in functions that allow us to work with strings. Table 13.2 describes
some of the commonly used built-in functions for string manipulation.
Table 13.2 Built-in functions for string manipulations

Method Description Example
title() Returns the string with first >>> str1 = 'hello WORLD!'
letter of every word in the string >>> str1.title()
in uppercase and rest in 'Hello World!'
lowercase.
lower() Returns the string with all >>> str1 = 'hello WORLD!'
uppercase letters converted to >>> str1.lower()
lowercase 'hello world!'
upper() Returns the string with all >>> str1 = 'hello WORLD!' >>> str1.upper()
lowercase letters converted to 'HELLO WORLD!'
uppercase
count Returns number of times >>> str1 = 'Hello World! Hello Hello'
(str,start, end) substring str occurs in the >>> str1.count('Hello',12,25)
given string. If we do not give 2
start index and end index then >>> str1.count('Hello')
searching starts from index 0 3
and ends at length of the string
find(str,start, Returns the first occurrence of >>> str1 = 'Hello World! Hello Hello'
end) index of substring str occurring >>> str1.find('Hello',10,20)
in the given string. If we do not 13
give start and end then >>> str1.find('Hello',15,25)
searching starts from index 0 19
and ends at length of the string. >>> str1.find('Hello')
If the substring is not present in 0
the given string, then the >>> str1.find('Hee')
function returns -1. -1
index(str, Same as find () but raises an >>> str1 = 'Hello World! Hello Hello'
start, end) exception if the substring is not >>> str1.index('Hello')
present in the given string 0
>>> str1.index('Hee')
ValueError: substring not found
endswith() Returns True if the given string >>> str1 = 'Hello World!'
ends with the supplied >>> str1.endswith('World!')
substring otherwise returns True
False >>> str1.endswith('!')
True
>>> str1.endswith('lde')
False
startswith() Returns True if the given string >>> str1 = 'Hello World!'
starts with the supplied >>> str1.startswith('He')
substring otherwise returns True
False >>> str1.startswith('Hee')
False
isalnum() Returns True if characters of >>> str1 = 'HelloWorld'
the given string are either >>> str1.isalnum()
alphabets or numeric. If True
whitespace or special symbols >>> str1 = 'HelloWorld2'
are part of the given string or >>> str1.isalnum()
the string is empty it returns True
False >>> str1 = 'HelloWorld!!'
>>> str1.isalnum()
False
islower() Returns True if the string is >>> str1 = 'hello world!' >>> str1.islower()
non-empty and has all True

lowercase alphabets, or has at >>> str1 = 'hello 1234' >>> str1.islower()
least one character as lowercase True
alphabet and rest are non- >>> str1 = 'hello ??' >>> str1.islower()
alphabet characters True
>>> str1 = '1234'
>>> str1.islower()
False
>>> str1 = 'Hello World!' >>> str1.islower()
False
isupper() Returns True if the string is >>> str1 = 'HELLO WORLD!'
non-empty and has all >>> str1.isupper()
uppercase alphabets, or has at True
least one character as >>> str1 = 'HELLO 1234'
uppercase character and rest >>> str1.isupper()
are non-alphabet characters True
>>> str1 = 'HELLO ??' >>> str1.isupper()
True
>>> str1 = '1234'
>>> str1.isupper()
False
>>> str1 = 'Hello World!' >>> str1.isupper()
False
isspace() Returns True if the string is >>> str1 = ' \n \t \r'
non-empty and all characters >>> str1.isspace()
are white spaces (blank, tab, True
newline, carriage return) >>> str1 = 'Hello\n'
>>> str1.isspace()
False
istitle() Returns True if the string is >>> str1 = 'Hello World!'
non-empty and title case, i.e., >>> str1.istitle()
the first letter of every word in True
the string in uppercase and rest >>> str1 = 'hello World!'
in lowercase >>> str1.istitle()
False
lstrip() Returns the string after >>> str1 = 'Hello World! '
removing the spaces only on the >>> str1.lstrip()
left of the string 'Hello World!'
rstrip() Returns the string after >>> str1 = 'Hello World!'
removing the spaces only on the >>> str1.rstrip()
right of the string 'Hello World!'
strip() Returns the string after >>> str1 = 'Hello World!'
removing the spaces both on >>> str1.strip()
the left and the right of the 'Hello World!'
string
Replace Replaces all occurrences of old >>> str1 = 'Hello World!'
(oldstr, string with the new string >>> str1.replace('o','*')
newstr) 'Hell* W*rld!'
>>> str1.replace('World','Country')
'Hello Country!'
>>> str1 = 'Hello World! Hello' >>>
str1.replace('Hello','Bye')
'Bye World! Bye'
join() Returns a string in which the >>> str1 = ('HelloWorld!')
characters in the string have >>> str2 = '-' #separator

been joined by a separator >>> str2.join(str1)
'H-e-l-l-o-W-o-r-l-d-!'
partition() Partitions the given string at the >>> str1 = 'India is a Great Country'
first occurrence of the substring >>> str1.partition('is')
(separator) and returns the ('India ', 'is', ' a Great Country')
string partitioned into three >>> str1.partition('are')
parts. ('India is a Great Country',' ',' ')
1. Substring before the
separator
2. Separator
3. Substring after the separator
If the separator is not found in
the string, it returns the whole
string itself and two empty
strings
split() Returns a list of words >>> str1 = 'India is a Great Country'
delimited by the specified >>> str1.split()
substring. If no delimiter is ['India','is','a','Great',
given then words are separated 'Country']
by space. >>> str1 = 'India is a Great Country'
>>> str1.split('a')
['Indi', ' is ', ' Gre', 't Country']
capitalize() Return a copy of the string with >>>str3="Bhopal is My favorite city"
its first character capitalized >>> str3.capitalize()
and the rest lowercased. 'Bhopal is my favorite city'
swapcase() Return a copy of the string with >>> str1="Bhopal"
uppercase characters converted >>> str1.swapcase()
to lowercase and vice versa. 'bHOPAL'
Let us take a program to demonstrate the use of built-in functions for string manipulations.
In above program, upper () function is used to print the string str1 in uppercase letters. The
function lower () is used to print the string str2 in lowercase letters. The function replace () is used
to replace all occurrences of ‗a‘ with ‗*‘ in str1. The function swapcase() is used to print the string
str2 with uppercase characters converted to lowercase and vice versa.

Assignment
Write a program to input two strings (str1 and str2) and do following manipulations on them
(i) Print the string str1 with all uppercase letters converted to lowercase.
(ii) Print the string str2 with all lowercase letters converted to uppercase.
(iii) Replace all occurrences of ‗a‘ with ‗*‘ in str1.
13.6 String as argument to function
A string can be used as argument to a function. Let us take some programs consisting user
defined functions in Python to perform different operations on strings.
In below program, an user-defined function charCount() takes a character ch that has to be
searched and a string as an argument. Now, each character of the string is compared with the
given character ch using if structure. If character is matched, a counter variable is increased by 1.
Final value of counter gives the number of occurrences of character ch in the given string.

In above program, an user-defined function replaceVowel()takes a string as an argument and
check each character of that string is vowel or not. If the character is vowel, this character of the
string is replaced with ‗*‘. This is a simple and easy example of passing a string as argument to a
function.
In the above program, the string is printed in reverse order without using a user defined function.
In the above program, the string is printed in reverse order with the help of a using a user defined
function.

In above program, an user-defined function checkPalin() takes a string as an argument. This
function compares first character with last character of the string, second character is compared
with second last character and so on for the whole string. If at the end all the characters from first
is same as characters from last it means entered string is a palindrome otherwise not.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. The index of the first character (from left) in the string of (a) 0 (b) 1 (c) n-1 (d) n
2. Which type of quotes are used for multi-line string? (a) Single (b) Double (c) Triple (d) None
of the above
3. Which data type is suitable to store a sequence of characters (a) String (b) List (c) Tuple (d)
Dictionary
4. What will be the output of Python code str1="10/4"? (a) 2 (b) ‗10/4‘ (c) 2.5 (d) str1
5. What will be the output of below Python code? (a) oca (b) ocat (c) cat (d) cati
str1="Vocational"
print(str1[2:5])
6. Which of the following is not a legal string operator? (a) in (b)+ (c) * (d)/
7. Which of the following functions will return the total number of characters in a string? (a)
count () (b) index () (c) len() (d) all of these
8. Which of the following code will return the last two characters of a string str? (a) str [2:] (b)
str [:2] (c) str [-2:] (d) str [: -2]
9. Which of the following functions will return the string in all caps? (a) upper () (b) toupper()
(c) isupper() (d) to-upper()
10. Which of the following functions will return a list containing all words of the string? (a)
find () (b) index () (c) partition () (d) split ()
11. Which of the following functions will always return a tuple of 3 elements? (a) find() (b)
index() (c) partition() (d) split()
12. What is the output of the following code? (a) False True (b) False False (c) True False (d)

True True
str1 = "Bhopal 462002"
str2 = "462002"
print (str1.isdigit(), str2.isdigit())
13. Which method should be used to convert String "Python programming is fun" to "Python
Programming Is Fun"? (a) capitalize () (b) title () (c) istitle() (d) upper()
14. What will be the output of the following String operations (a) BhopalBhopal (b) TypeError:
unsupported operand type(s) for *: 'str' and 'int' (c) BBhhooppaall (d) Bhopal2
str1 = 'Bhopal'
print(str1*2)
15. Select the correct output of the following String operations. (a) 'I am from india.' (b) 'i Am
From India.' (c) 'I Am From India.' (d) TypeError: unsupported operand type(s) for * : 'str'
and 'int'
str = "i am from India."
print(str.capitalize())
16. Which of the following functions will raise an error if the given substring is not found in
the string? (a) find() (b) index() (c) replace() (d) all of these
17. Which of the following code will return the string s in reverse order? (a) s[: : 1] (b) s[: : -1]
(c) s[: : 0] (d) str[:-2]
18. Which of the following arithmetic operators cannot be used with strings in Python? (a) + (b)
* (c) – (d) not in
1. Strings have both positive and negative indexes.
2. In Python a single character is treated as strings of length one.
3. Strings are immutable in Python, which means a string cannot be modified.
4. Like '+', all other arithmetic operators are also supported by strings.
5. Functions capitalize() and title() return the same result.
6. Functions partition() and split() work identically.
7. The find() and index() are similar functions.
8. The find() does not raise an exception if the substring is not found.
9. The split() returns always a 3-element list.
10. A string can be used as argument to a function.
1. The string indexes begin ____ onwards.
2. For strings, ________ operator performs concatenation.
3. For strings, _________ operator performs replication.
4. The in and __________ in are membership operators for strings.
5. If a string contains letters and digits, function ___________ will return true.
6. 'ab'.isalpha() will return value as ________.
7. To get each word's first letter capitalized, _________ function is used.
8. Function _____________divides a line of text into individual words.
9. Function _____________ returns a copy of the string with uppercase characters converted to
lowercase and vice versa.
10. s[ : :-1] will result the string s in _______________ order.

1. The string mySubject = "Computer Science". What will be the output of the following string
operations.
a) print(mySubject[0:len(mySubject)])
b) print(mySubject[-7:-1])
c) print(mySubject[::2])
d) print(mySubject[len(mySubject)-1])
e) print(2*mySubject)
f) print(mySubject[::-2])
g) print(mySubject[:3] + mySubject[3:])
h) print(mySubject.swapcase())
i) print(mySubject.startswith('Comp'))
j) print(mySubject.isalpha())
2. Consider the string myAddress = "WZ-1, New Ganga Nagar, New Delhi". What will be the
output of following string operations?
a) print(myAddress.lower())
b) print(myAddress.upper())
c) print(myAddress.count('New'))
d) print(myAddress.find('New'))
e) print(myAddress.rfind('New'))
f) print(myAddress.split(','))
g) print(myAddress.split(' '))
h) print(myAddress.replace('New','Old'))
i) print(myAddress.partition(','))
j) print(myAddress.index('Agra'))
3. Write a program to input line(s) of text from the user until enter is pressed. Count the total
number of characters in the text including white spaces, total number of alphabets, total
number of digits, total number of special symbols and total number of words in the
given text.
4. Write a user defined function to convert a string with more than one word into title case
string where string is passed as parameter.
5. Write a function deleteChar() which takes two parameters, one is a string and other is a
character. The function should create a new string after deleting all occurrences of
the character from the string and return the new string.
6. Input a string having some digits. Write a function to return the sum of digits present in this
string.
7. Write a function that takes a sentence as an input parameter where each word in the
sentence is separated by a space. The function should replace each blank with a hyphen
and then return the modified sentence.

Chapter 14. Lists
Alok‘s mom told him to fetch few things of daily use from market. He made a list of items to be
purchased and went to nearest local market. When he reached supermarket, he got a call from
her mom. His mom told few more items to buy from supermarket and also told to skip one item as
it was available at home. Alok added new items in the list and stroked out the item to be skipped.
Generally we use this type of lists to record the details about different items and we can change in
items at any time in lists. Similar type of facility is available in Python in the form of list data
type.
Fig. 14.1 Shopping List

Such shopping list is prepared on a piece of paper, which makes it easier to use. In the same way,
when we make a program that works with many separate but similar items, it is possible to make
a bunch of variables. However, it‘s often far easier to make a list.
In this chapter you will understand the basic concepts of list data type including list operations,
list methods and built-in functions, nested lists, copying lists, list as argument to a function and
list manipulation.
14.1 List
The data type list is an ordered sequence which is mutable and made up of one or more elements.
Unlike a string which consists of only characters, a list can have elements of different data types,
such as integer, float, string, tuple or even another list. A list is very useful to group together
elements of mixed data types. Elements of a list are enclosed in square brackets and are
separated by comma. Let us take some examples of lists in Python programming.
#list1 is the list of five numbers
>>> list1 = [10,20,30,40,50]
>>> print(list1)
[10,20,30,40,50]
#list2 is the list of vowels
>>> list2 = ['a', 'e', 'i', 'o', 'u']
>>> print(list2)
['a', 'e', 'i', 'o', 'u']
#list3 is the list of mixed data types
>>> list3 = [100, 23.5, 'Hello']
>>> print(list3)
[100, 23.5, 'Hello']
#list4 is the list of lists called nested #list
>>> list4 =[['Physics',101], ['Chemistry',202], ['Maths',303]]
>>> print(list4)
[['Physics', 101], ['Chemistry', 202], ['Maths', 303]]
14.1.1 Accessing Elements in a List

The elements of list are accessed in the same way as characters are accessed in string. Like string
indices, list indices also start from 0. Let us take some examples of accessing element of a list
using its index.
#initializes a list list1
>>> list1 = [2,4,6,8,10,12]
>>> list1[0] #return first element of list1
2
>>> list1[3] #return fourth element of list1
8
#return error as index is out of range
>>> list1[15]
IndexError: list index out of range
>>> list1[1+4]
12
>>> list1[-1] #return first element from right
12
#length of the list list1 is assigned to n
>>> n = len(list1)
>>> print(n)
6
#return the last element of the list1
>>> list1[n-1]
12
#return the first element of list1
>>> list1[-n]
2
14.1.2 Lists are Mutable
In Python, lists are mutable. It means that the contents of the list can be changed after it has
been created. Let us take an example of changing a particular element of a list in Python
programming.
#List list1 of colors
>>> list1 = ['Red', 'Green', 'Blue', 'Orange']
#change/override the fourth element of list1
>>> list1[3] = 'Black'
>>> list1 #print the modified list list1
['Red', 'Green', 'Blue', 'Black']
14.2 List Operations
The data type list allows manipulation of its contents through various operations as shown below.
Python allows us to join two or more lists using concatenation operator depicted by the symbol +.
#list1 is list of first five odd integers
>>> list1 = [1,3,5,7,9]
#list2 is list of first five even integers
>>> list2 = [2,4,6,8,10]
#elements of list1 followed by list2
>>> list1 + list2
[1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10]
>>> list3 = ['Red', 'Green', 'Blue']
>>> list4 = ['Cyan', 'Magenta', 'Yellow', 'Black']

>>> list3 + list4
['Red', 'Green', 'Blue', 'Cyan', 'Magenta', 'Yellow', 'Black']
Note that, there is no change in ongoing lists, i.e., list1, list2, list3, list4 remain the same after
concatenation operation. To merge these two lists, use an assignment statement to assign the
merged list to another new list. The concatenation operator '+‘ requires that the operands should
be of list type only. Concatenating a list with elements of some other data type will give TypeError.
>>> list1 = [1,2,3]
>>> str1 = "abc"
>>> list1 + str1
TypeError: can only concatenate list (not "str") to list
14.2.2 Repetition
Python allows to replicate a list using repetition operator depicted by symbol *.
>>> list1 = ['Hello']
#elements of list1 repeated 4 times
>>> list1 * 4
['Hello', 'Hello', 'Hello', 'Hello']
14.2.3 Membership
Like strings, the membership operators “in” checks if the element is present in the list and
returns True, else returns False.
>>> 'Green' in list1
True
>>> 'Cyan' in list1
False
The not in operator returns True if the element is not present in the list, else it returns False.
>>> 'Cyan' not in list1
True
>>> 'Green' not in list1
False
14.2.4 Slicing
Like strings, the slicing operation can also be applied to lists.
>>> list1 =['Red', 'Green', 'Blue', 'Cyan', 'Magenta', 'Yellow', 'Black']
>>> list1[2:6]
['Blue', 'Cyan', 'Magenta', 'Yellow']
#list1 is truncated to the end of the list
>>> list1[2:20] #second index is out of range
['Blue', 'Cyan', 'Magenta', 'Yellow', 'Black']
#First index > second index so it results in an empty list.
>>> list1[7:2]
[]
#return sublist from index 0 to 4
>>> list1[:5] #first index missing
['Red', 'Green', 'Blue', 'Cyan', 'Magenta']
#slicing with a given step size
>>> list1[0:6:2]
['Red', 'Blue', 'Magenta']
#negative indexes
#elements at index -6,-5,-4,-3 are sliced

>>> list1[-6:-2]
['Green', 'Blue', 'Cyan', 'Magenta']
#both first and last index missing
>>> list1[::2] #step size 2 on entire list ['Red', 'Blue', 'Magenta', 'Black']
#negative step size to print the list in reverse order
>>> list1[::-1]
['Black', 'Yellow', 'Magenta', 'Cyan', 'Blue', 'Green', 'Red']
14.3 Traversing a List
We can access each element of the list or traverse a list using for loop or while loop.
(A) List Traversal Using for Loop:
>>> list1 = ['Red', 'Green', 'Blue', 'Yellow', 'Black']
>>> for item in list1:
print(item)
Output:
Red
Green
Blue
Yellow
Black
Another way of accessing the elements of the list is using range() and len() functions:
>>> for i in range(len(list1)):
print(list1[i])
Output:
Red
Green
Blue
Yellow
Black
(B) List Traversal Using while Loop:
>>> list1 = ['Red', 'Green', 'Blue', 'Yellow', 'Black']
>>> i = 0
>>> while i < len(list1):
print(list1[i])
i += 1
Output:
Red
Green
Blue
Yellow
Black

In above program, index 0 is used to access the first element of list1. Operator + is used to
concatenate the lists. Symbol * is used with value 3 to print list2 thrice and the concept of
slicing is used to print last two elements of list1.
Assignment
1. Write a Python program to sum all the items in a list.
2. Write a Python program to print the average of list item.
3. Write a Python program to get the largest and smallest number from a list.
4. Write a Python program to print the difference between maximum and minimum
number of a list.
14.4 List Methods and Built-In Functions
The data type list has several built-in methods that are useful in programming. Some of them are
listed in Table 14.1.
Table 14.1 Built-in functions for list manipulations
len() Returns the length of the list passed as >>> list1 = [10,20,30,40,50]
>>> len(list1)
5
list() Creates an empty list if no argument is >>> list1 = list()
passed. Creates a list if a sequence is >>> list1
passed as an argument []
>>> str1 = 'aeiou'
>>> list1 = list(str1)
>>> list1
['a', 'e', 'i', 'o', 'u']
append() Appends a single element passed as an >>> list1 = [10,20,30,40]
argument at the end of the list. The single >>> list1.append(50)
element can also be a list. >>> list1
[10, 20, 30, 40, 50]
>>> list1 = [10,20,30,40]
>>> list1.append([50,60])
>>> list1
[10, 20, 30, 40, [50, 60]]
extend() Appends each element of the list passed >>> list1 = [10,20,30]

as argument to the end of the given list >>> list2 = [40,50]
>>> list1.extend(list2)
>>> list1
[10, 20, 30, 40, 50]
insert() Inserts an element at a particular index >>> list1 = [10,20,30,40,50]
>>> list1.insert(2,25)
>>> list1
[10, 20, 25, 30, 40, 50]
>>> list1.insert(0,5)
>>> list1
[5, 10, 20, 25, 30, 40, 50]
count() Returns the number of times a given >>> list1 = [10,20,30,10,40,10]
element occurs in list >>> list1.count(10)
3
>>> list1.count(90)
0
index() Returns index of the first occurrence of >>> list1 = [10,20,30,20,40]
>>> list1.index(20)
1
>>> list1.index(90)
ValueError: 90 is not in list
remove() Removes the given element from the list. If >>> list1 = [10,20,30,40,50,30]
the element is present multiple times, >>> list1.remove(30)
only the first occurrence is removed. If the >>> list1
element is not present, then ValueError is [10, 20, 40, 50, 30]
generated. >>>list1.remove(90)
ValueError:list.remove(x):x not in list
pop() Returns the element whose index is >>> list1 = [10,20,30,40,50,60]
passed as parameter to this function and >>> list1.pop(3)
also removes it from the list. If no 40
parameter is given, then it returns and >>> list1
removes the last element of the list. [10, 20, 30, 50, 60]
>>> list1 = [10,20,30,40,50,60]
>>> list1.pop()
60
reverse() Reverses the order of elements in the >>> list1 = [34,66,12,89,28,99]
given list >>> list1.reverse()
>>> list1
[ 99, 28, 89, 12, 66, 34]
>>> list1 = ['Tiger', 'Zebra', 'Lion', 'Cat' ,
'Elephant', 'Dog']
>>> list1.reverse()
>>> list1
['Dog', 'Elephant', 'Cat', 'Lion', 'Zebra',
'Tiger']
sort() Sorts the elements of the given list in- >>> list1 = ['Tiger', 'Zebra', 'Lion', 'Cat' ,
place 'Elephant', 'Dog']
>>> list1.sort()
>>> list1 ['Cat', 'Dog', 'Elephant', 'Lion',
'Tiger', 'Zebra']

>>> list1 = [34, 66, 12, 89, 28, 99]
>>> list1.sort(reverse = True)
>>> list1
[99, 89, 66, 34, 28, 12]
sorted() It takes a list as parameter and creates a >>> list1=[23, 45, 11, 67, 85, 56]
new list consisting of the same elements >>> list2 = sorted(list1)
arranged in sorted order. >>> list1
[23, 45, 11, 67, 85, 56]
>>> list2
[11, 23, 45, 56, 67, 85]
min() Returns minimum or smallest element of >>> list1= [34, 12, 63, 39, 92, 44]
the list >>> min(list1)
12
max() Returns maximum or largest element of >>> list1 = [34, 12, 63, 39, 92, 44]
the list >>> max(list1)
92
sum() Returns sum of the elements of the list >>> list1 = [34, 12, 63, 39, 92, 44]
>>> sum(list1)
284
In above program, insert() function is used to insert an element ‗D‘ at second index in the list
list1. The function extend() is used to append each element of the list2 passed as argument to the
end of the list1. The function sort () is used to sort the elements of the list1. The function min() is
used to find the minimum value among elements of list2.
Assignment
Write a program to input two lists list1 and list2 and do following manipulations on them using
built-in functions
1. Append a single element passed as an argument at the end of the list1.
2. Appends each element of the list2 passed as argument to the end of the list1.
3. Find the number of times a given element occurs in list2.

4. Removes the last element from list2.
14.5 Nested Lists

When a list appears as an element of another list, it is called a nested list.
Example 14.2
>>> list1 = [1, 2, 'a', 'c', [6, 7, 8], 4, 9]
#fifth element of list is also a list
>>> list1[4]
[6, 7, 8]
To access the element of the nested list of list1, you have to specify two indices list1[i][j]. The first
index i will take us to the desired nested list and second index j will take us to the desired element
in that nested list.
>>> list1[4][1] 7
#index i gives the fifth element of list1 #which is a list
#index j gives the second element in the #nested list
14.6 Copying Lists
Given a list, the simplest way to make a copy of the list is to assign it to another list.
>>> list1 = [1, 2, 3]
>>> list2 = list1
>>> list1
[1, 2, 3]
>>> list2
[1, 2, 3]
The statement list2 = list1 does not create a new list. Rather, it just makes list1 and list2 refer to
the same list object. Here list2 actually becomes an alias of list1. Therefore, any changes made to
either of them will be reflected in the other list.
>>> list1.append(10)
>>> list1
[1, 2, 3, 10]
>>> list2
[1, 2, 3, 10]
We can also create a copy or clone of the list as a distinct object by three methods. The first
method uses slicing, the second method uses built-in function list() and the third method uses
copy() function of Python library copy.
Method 1 : We can slice our original list and store it into a new variable as follows:
newList = oldList[:]
Let us take an example to use slicing to copy a list
>>> list1 = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
>>> list2 = list1[:]
>>> list2
[1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
Method 2: We can use the built-in function list () as follows:
newList = list(oldList)
Let us take an example to use list() function to copy a list
>>> list1 = [10,20,30,40]
>>> list2 = list(list1)
>>> list2
[10, 20, 30, 40]

Method 3
First of all, we will import the library copy as follows:
import copy
Now, we can use the copy () function of copy library as follows:
newList = copy.copy(oldList)
Let us take an example to use copy() function to copy a list
>>> import copy
>>> list1 = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
>>> list2 = copy.copy(list1)
>>> list2
[1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
14.7 List as Argument to a Function
Whenever a list is passed as an argument to a function, we have to consider two scenarios:
Elements of the original list may be changed, i.e. changes made to the list in the function are
reflected back in the calling function.
In above program, list list1 of numbers is passed as an argument to function increment(). This
function increases every element of the list by 5.
Assignment
1. Write a program to decrement the elements of a list. The list is passed as an argument to a
function.
2. Write a program to get square of the elements of a list containing first ten natural numbers.
The list is passed as an argument to a function.
Observe that, when we pass a list as an argument, we actually pass a reference to the list. Hence
any change made to list2 inside the function is reflected in the actual list list1.
(2). If the list is assigned a new value inside the function, then a new list object is created and it
becomes the local copy of the function. Any changes made inside the local copy of the function are
not reflected back to the calling function.

14.8 List Manipulation
In this chapter, we have learnt to create a list and the different ways to manipulate lists. In the
following programs, we will apply the various list manipulation methods.

Output:

In above program, a number and a list are the two arguments of the function linearSearch (). The
number is compared with each element of the list one by one. If any element of the list is equal to
the number, the position of that element is returned.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. Python code to get the first element of list list1 is (a) list1[n] (b) list1[n-1] (c) list1[-n] (d)
list1[1]
2. Output of the following code is (a) ['India'], ['India'] (b) ['India', 'India'] (c) ['India*2'] (d)
['IndiaIndia']
list1 = ['India']
print(list1*2)
3. Which function is used to append each element of the list passed as argument to the end
of the given list (a) append () (b) insert () (c) extend () (d) add ()
4. Code to insert x at index y in a list is (a) append(x,y) (b) append(y,x) (c) insert(x,y) (d)
insert(y,x)
5. Code to get sum of the elements of the list list1 (a) sum(list1) (b) sum (). list1 (c) list1.sum
() (d) list1(). sum
6. When a list appears as an element of another list, it is called a (a) nested list (b) singly list
(c) empty list (d) doubly list
7. Which of the following will create an empty list L? (a) L = list (b) L = list (0) (c) L = list () (d)
L = List(empty)
8. If L1 = [1, 3, 5] and L2 = [2, 4, 6] then L1 + L2 will yield (a) [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6] (b) [1, 3, 5, 2, 4,
6] (c) [3, 7, 11] (d) [1, 3, 5, [2, 4, 6]]
9. Given a list L= [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7], what would L [1: 5] return? (a) [1, 2, 3, 4] (b) [2, 3, 4, 5]
(c) [2, 3, 4] (d) [1,2, 3, 4, 5]
10. Given a list L= [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7], what would L [2: -2] return? (a) [1, 2, 3, 4] (b) [2, 3, 4, 5]
(c) [2, 3, 4] (d) [3, 4, 5]
11. Given a list L= [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7], what would L [-3: 99] return? (a) [2, 3, 4] (b) [3, 4, 5] (c)
[5, 6, 7] (d) Error
12. What is printed by the Python code? print (list (range (3))) (a) [0, 1, 2, 3] (b) [1, 2, 3] (c) [0,
1, 2] (d) 0, 1, 2
13. What is the output when we execute list("hello")? (a) ['h', 'e', 'l', 'l', 'o'] (b) ['hello'] (c) ['llo'] (d)
['olleh']
14. What is the output of following code? (a) H (b) a (c) Hasan (d) Dia
names = ['Hasan', 'Balwant', 'Sean', 'Dia']
print (names [-1] [-1])
15. Which of the following will always return a list? (a) max () (b) min () (c) sort () (d) sorted ()
1. List data type in Python is mutable.
2. A list can have elements of different data types, such as integer, float, string, tuple or even
another list.
3. A = [ ] and A = list () will produce the same result.
4. Lists once created cannot be changed.
5. To sort a list, sort () and sorted (), both can be used.
6. The extend () adds a single element to a list.
7. The append () can add an element in the middle of a list.
8. The insert () can add an element in the middle of a list.
9. The del statement can only delete list slices and not single elements from a list.
10. The del statement can work similar to the pop () function.
C. Fill-in the blanks
1. List is an __________ sequence.
2. Elements of a list are enclosed in __________ brackets.
3. List indices start from ______.
4. If no parameter is given, then pop () function returns and removes the __________ element
of the list.
5. To create an empty list, function __________can used.
6. The _____ operator adds one list to the end another list.
7. The _____ operator replicates a list.
8. To check if an element is in list, __________ operator is used.
9. To delete a list slice from a list, __________ statement is used
10. A __________ list contains another list as its member.
11. The __________ function is used to insert element at a designated position in a list.
12. The __________ function is used to delete element to remove an element from designated
index in a list.
13. The __________ function can append a list element to a list.
14. The __________ function sorts a list and makes changes in the list.
15. The __________ function sorts a list and returns another list.
1. What will be the output of the following statements?
(a) list1 = [12,32,65,26,80,10]
list1.sort()
print(list1)
(b) list1 = [12,32,65,26,80,10]
sorted(list1)
print(list1)
(c) list1 = [1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10]
list1[: -2]
list1[:3] + list1[3:]
(d) list1 = [1,2,3,4,5]
list1[len(list1)-1]
2. Consider the following list myList. What will be the elements of myList after the following
two operations:
myList = [10,20,30,40]
myList.append([50,60])
myList.extend([80,90])
3. What will be the output of the following code segment:
myList = [1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10]
for i in range (0, len(myList)):
if i%2 == 0:
print(myList[i])
4. What will be the output of the following code segment:
a. myList = [1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10]
del myList[3:]
print(myList)
b. myList = [1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10]
del myList[:5]
print(myList)
c. myList = [1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10]
del myList[::2]
print(myList)
5. The record of a student (Name, Roll No., Marks in five subjects and percentage of marks) is
stored in the following list:
stRecord = ['Raman','A-36‘, [56,98,99,72,69], 78.8]
Write Python statements to retrieve the following information from the list stRecord.
a) Percentage of the student
b) Marks in the fifth subject
c) Maximum marks of the student
d) Roll no. of the student
e) Change the name of the student from ‗Raman‘ to ‗Raghav‘
6. Write a program to find the number of times an element occurs in the list.
7. Write a program to read a list of n integers (positive as well as negative). Create two new
lists, one having all positive numbers and the other having all negative numbers from the
given list. Print all three lists.
8. Write a function that returns the largest element of the list passed as parameter.
9. Write a function to return the second largest number from a list of numbers.
10. Write a program to read a list of n integers and find their median.
11. Write a program to read a list of elements. Modify this list so that it does not contain any
duplicate elements, i.e., all elements occurring multiple times in the list should appear
only once.
12. Write a program to read a list of elements. Input an element from the user that has to be
inserted in the list. Also input the position at which it is to be inserted. Write a user
defined function to insert the element at the desired position in the list.
13. Write a program to read elements of a list.
(a) The program should ask for the position of the element to be deleted from the list.
Write a function to delete the element at the desired position in the list.
(b) The program should ask for the value of the element to be deleted from the list. Write a
function to delete the element of this value from the list.
14. Read a list of n elements. Pass this list to a function which reverses this list in-place
without creating a new list.
Chapter 15. Tuples and Dictionaries
Alok was helping her younger sister Alka in preparing her school assignment. This assignment
was regarding to fill name of days in a week and name of months in a year. Alok told Alka to write
the assignment by herself first. There were some mistakes in Alka‘s answers. Then, Alok explained
Alka that name of days in a week are fixed and we cannot make changes in that. Same in the case
with all 12 months in year. Then he helped Alka in writing the exact name of seven days of the
week and 12 month‘s name of the year. Similarly, In programming also sometimes we require a
sequence where elements can‘t be changed. In Python programming, tuples restrict the changes
in its elements.
Fig. 15.1: Real life example of Tuple

If our data is being constantly modified or we need a fast lookup based on a custom key or we
need a logical association between the key: value pair, it is advised to use dictionaries. A mobile
phone book is a good application of dictionary.
Fig. 15.2: Example of Dictionary

In this chapter, you will understand the basic concepts of data types tuples and dictionaries.
Tuple includes various Operations, Methods, Built-In Functions, Assignment, Nested Tuples and
its Handling. Dictionary is another data type which is mutable and includes Creation, various
operations, like Traversing, various Methods and Built-In Functions for Manipulation.
15.2 Tuples
A tuple is an ordered sequence of elements of different data types, such as integer, float, string,
list or even a tuple. Elements of a tuple are enclosed in parenthesis (round brackets) and are
separated by commas. Like list and string, elements of a tuple can be accessed using index
values, starting from 0. Let us take few examples of tuple
#tuple1 is the tuple of integers
>>> tuple1 = (1,2,3,4,5)
>>> tuple1
(1, 2, 3, 4, 5)
#tuple2 is the tuple of strings
>>> tuple2 = ("Monday", "Tuesday", "Wednesday", "Thursday", "Friday", "Saturday", "Sunday")
>>> tuple2
('Monday', 'Tuesday', 'Wednesday', 'Thursday', 'Friday', 'Saturday', 'Sunday')
#tuple3 is the tuple of mixed data types
>>> tuple3 = ('Economics', 87, 'Accountancy', 89.6)
>>> tuple3
('Economics', 87, 'Accountancy', 89.6)
#tuple4 is the tuple with list as an element
>>> tuple4 = (10, 20, 30, [40, 50])
>>> tuple4
(10, 20, 30, [40, 50])
#tuple5 is the tuple with tuple as an element
>>> tuple5 = (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, (10,20))
>>> tuple5
(1, 2, 3, 4, 5, (10, 20))
If there is only a single element in a tuple then the element should be followed by a comma. If we
assign the value without comma it is treated as integer. It should be noted that a sequence
without parenthesis is treated as tuple by default.
#incorrect way of assigning single element to #tuple
#tuple5 is assigned a single element
>>> tuple5 = (20)
>>> tuple5
20
>>>type(tuple5) #tuple5 is not of type tuple
<class 'int'> #it is treated as integer
#Correct Way of assigning single element to
#tuple
#tuple5 is assigned a single element
>>> tuple5 = (20,) #element followed by comma
>>> tuple5
(20,)
>>>type(tuple5) #tuple5 is of type tuple
<class 'tuple'>
#a sequence without parentheses is treated as
#tuple by default
>>> seq = 1,2,3 #comma separated elements
>>> type(seq) #treated as tuple
<class 'tuple'>
>>> print(seq) #seq is a tuple
(1, 2, 3)
15.1.1 Accessing Elements in a Tuple
Elements of a tuple can be accessed in the same way as a list or string using indexing and slicing.
Let us take few examples to illustrate this.
>>> tuple1 = (2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12) #initializes a tuple tuple1
#returns the first element of tuple1
>>> tuple1[0]
2
#returns fourth element of tuple1
>>> tuple1[3]
8
#returns error as index is out of range
>>> tuple1[15]
IndexError: tuple index out of range
>>> tuple1[1+4]
12
#returns first element from right
>>> tuple1[-1]
12
15.1.2 Tuple is Immutable
Tuple is an immutable data type. It means that the elements of a tuple cannot be changed after it
has been created. An attempt to do this would lead to an error as illustrated in the example given
below:
>>> tuple1 = (1, 2, 3, 4, 5)
>>> tuple1[4] = 10
TypeError: 'tuple' object does not support item assignment
However, an element of a tuple may be of mutable type, e.g., a list.
#4th element of the tuple2 is a list
>>> tuple2 = (1, 2, 3, [8, 9])
#modify the list element of the tuple tuple2
>>> tuple2[3][1] = 10
#modification is reflected in tuple2
>>> tuple2
(1, 2, 3, [8, 10])
In above example, parentheses are used to create an empty tuple tuple1. Assignment operator in
the statement tuple2 = (1, 2, 3, 4, 5) is used to initialize tuple2 with first five natural numbers.
Next statement, (s1, s2, s3, s4, s5) = tuple2 is used to assign first element of tuple2 to s1, second
element of tuple2 to s2 and so on.
15.2 Tuple Operations
A number of operations like concatenation, repetition, membership and slicing can be performed
on tuples. Let us learn these tuple operations one by one.
Python allows us to join tuples using concatenation operator depicted by symbol +. We can also
create a new tuple which contains the result of this concatenation operation. Let us take few
examples to illustrate this.
>>> tuple1 = (1, 3, 5, 7, 9)
>>> tuple2 = (2, 4, 6, 8, 10)
>>> tuple1 + tuple2 #concatenates two tuples
(1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10)
>>> tuple3 = ('Red', 'Green', 'Blue')
>>> tuple4 = ('Cyan', 'Magenta', 'Yellow' , 'Black')
#tuple5 stores elements of tuple3 and tuple4
>>> tuple5 = tuple3 + tuple4
>>> tuple5
('Red', 'Green', 'Blue', 'Cyan', 'Magenta', 'Yellow', 'Black')
Concatenation operator can also be used for extending an existing tuple. When we extend a tuple
using concatenation a new tuple is created.
>>> tuple6 = (1, 2, 3, 4, 5)
#single element is appended to tuple6
>>> tuple6 = tuple6 + (6,)
>>> tuple6
(1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6)
#more than one elements are appended
>>> tuple6 = tuple6 + (7, 8, 9)
>>> tuple6
(1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9)
15.2.2 Repetition
Repetition operation is depicted by the symbol *. It is used to repeat elements of a tuple. We can
repeat the tuple elements. The repetition operator requires the first operand to be a tuple and the
second operand to be an integer only.
>>> tuple1 = ('Hello', 'World')
>>> tuple1 * 3
('Hello', 'World', 'Hello', 'World', 'Hello', 'World')
#tuple with single element
>>> tuple2 = ("Hello",)
>>> tuple2 * 4
('Hello', 'Hello', 'Hello', 'Hello')
15.2.3 Membership
The in operator checks if the element is present in the tuple and returns True, else it returns
False.
>>> 'Green' in tuple1
True
The not in operator returns True if the element is not present in the tuple, else it returns False.
>>> 'Green' not in tuple1
False
15.2.4 Slicing
Like string and list, slicing can be applied to tuples also. Let us take few examples to illustrate
this.
#tuple1 is a tuple
>>> tuple1 = (10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80)
#elements from index 2 to index 6
>>> tuple1[2:7]
(30, 40, 50, 60, 70)
#all elements of tuple are printed
>>> tuple1[0:len(tuple1)]
(10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80)
#slice starts from zero index
>>> tuple1[:5]
(10, 20, 30, 40, 50)
#slice is till end of the tuple
>>> tuple1[2:]
(30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80)
#step size 2
>>> tuple1[0:len(tuple1):2]
(10, 30, 50, 70)
#negative indexing
>>> tuple1[-6:-4]
(30, 40)
#tuple is traversed in reverse order
>>> tuple1[::-1]
(80, 70, 60, 50, 40, 30, 20, 10)
In above program, operator + is used to concatenate the tuples. Symbol * is used with value 2 to
print tuple1 twice. Membership operator is used check that ‗b‘ exists in tuple2 or not. The concept
of slicing is used to print elements of tuple1 in reverse order.
15.3 Tuple Methods and Built-In Functions
Python provides many functions to work on tuples. Table 15.1 list some of the commonly used
tuple methods and built-in functions.
Table 15.1 Built-in functions and methods for tuples
len() Returns the length or the number of >>> tuple1 = (10,20,30,40,50)
elements of the tuple passed as the >>> len (tuple1)
argument 5
tuple() Creates an empty tuple if no argument >>> tuple1 = tuple ()
is passed. Create a tuple if a sequence is >>> tuple1
passed as argument ()
>>> tuple1 = tuple (‗aeiou‘) #string
>>> tuple1
(‗a‘, ‗e‘, ‗i‘, ‗o‘, ‗u‘)
>>> tuple2 = tuple ([1,2,3]) #list
>>> tuple2
(1, 2, 3)
>>> tuple3 = tuple(range(5))
>>> tuple3
(0,1,2,3,4)
count() Returns the number of times the given >>> tuple1 =(10,20,30,10,40,10,50)
element appears in the tuple >>> tuple1.count(10)
3
>>>tuple1.count (90)
0
index() Returns the index of the first occurrence >>> tuple1 = (10,20,30,40,50)
of the element in the given tuple >>> tuple1.index(30)
2
>>> tuple1. index(90)
ValueError: tuple.index(x) : x not in tuple
sorted() Takes elements in the tuple and returns >>> tuple1 = (―Rama‖, ―Heena‖, ―Raj‖,
new sorted list. It should be noted that, ―Mohsin‖, ―Aditya‖)
sorted() does not make any change to >>> sorted (tuple1)
the original tuple [‗Aditya‘, ‗Heena‘, ‗Mohsin‘, ‗Raj‘, ‗Rama‘]
min() Returns minimum or smallest element >>> tuple1=(19,12,56,18,9,87,34)

of the tuple >>> min(tuple1)
9
max() Returns maximum or largest element of >>> tuple1=(19,12,56,18,9,87,34)
the tuple >>> max (tuple1)
87
sum() Returns sum of the elements of the >>> tuple1=(19,12,56,18,9,87,34)
tuple >>> sum (tuple1)
235
In above program, len() function is used to find length of the tuple1. The function min() is used to
find minimum of the tuple2. The function sum() is used to get sum of the elements of tuple1.
15.4 Tuple Assignment
Assignment of tuple is a useful feature in Python. It allows a tuple of variables on the left side of
the assignment operator to be assigned respective values from a tuple on the right side. The
number of variables on the left should be same as the number of elements in the tuple. Let us
take an example to illustrate this.
#The first element 10 is assigned to num1 and
#the second element 20 is assigned to num2.
>>> (num1,num2) = (10,20)
>>> print(num1)
10
>>> print(num2)
20
>>> record = ("Pooja",40,"CS")
>>> (name, rollNo, subject) = record
>>> name
'Pooja'
>>> rollNo
40
>>> subject
'CS'
>>> (a, b, c, d) = (5,6,8)
ValueError: not enough values to unpack
(expected 4, got 3)
If there is an expression on the right side then first that expression is evaluated and finally
the result is assigned to the tuple. Let us take an example to illustrate this.
#15 is assigned to num3 and
#25 is assigned to num4
>>> (num3, num4) = (10+5,20+5)
>>> print(num3)
15
>>> print(num4)
25
15.5 Nested Tuples
A tuple inside another tuple is called a nested tuple. In a nested tuple, each tuple is considered as
an element. Loop control structures can be used to access the elements in a nested tuple. Let us
take few examples of nested tuple.
>>> tuple1 = (1,2,3, (4,5))
>>> tuple1
(1, 2, 3, (4, 5))
>>> tuple2 = ((1,2), (3,4), (5,6))
>>> tuple2
((1, 2), (3, 4), (5, 6))
Here, (4,5) is a nested tuple as it an element of another tuple tuple1. Similarly, (1, 2), (3, 4) and (5,
6) are nested tuples as these tuples are elements of another tuple tuple2.
Nested tuple can be used to represent a specific data record. For example, records of many
students consisting RollNo, Name and Marks can be stored in a nested tuple. Let us do an activity
to demonstrate the use of nested tuples to store records of students and print them.
In the above program, details like roll number, name and marks of students are saved in a tuple.
To store details of many such students we created nested tuples using for loop.
15.6 Tuple Handling
15.7 Introduction to Dictionaries
The data type dictionary falls under mapping. It is a mapping between a set of keys and a set of
values. The key-value pair is called an item. A key is separated from its value by a colon (:) and
consecutive items are separated by commas. Items in dictionaries are unordered, so we may not
get back the data in the same order in which we had entered the data initially in the dictionary.
15.7.1 Creating a Dictionary
To create a dictionary, the items entered are separated by commas and enclosed in curly braces.
Each item is a key value pair, separated through colon (:). The keys in the dictionary must be
unique and should be of any immutable data type like number, string or tuple. The values can be
repeated and can be of any data type. Let us take few examples of creating dictionaries.
#dict1 is an empty Dictionary created
#curly braces are used for dictionary
>>> dict1 = {}
>>> dict1
{}
#dict2 is an empty dictionary created using
#built-in function
>>> dict2 = dict()
>>> dict2
{}
#dict3 is the dictionary that maps names
#of the students to respective marks in #percentage
>>> dict3 = {'Mohan':95, 'Ram':89, 'Suhel':92, 'Sangeeta':85}
>>> dict3
{'Mohan': 95, 'Ram': 89, 'Suhel': 92, 'Sangeeta': 85}
15.7.2 Accessing Items in a Dictionary
We have already seen that the items of a sequence (string, list and tuple) are accessed
using a technique called indexing. The items of a dictionary are accessed via the keys rather
than via their relative positions or indices. Each key serves as the index and maps to a
value.
The following example shows how a dictionary returns the value corresponding to the
given key:
>>> dict3['Ram']
89
>>> dict3['Sangeeta']
85
#the key does not exist
>>> dict3['Shyam']
KeyError: 'Shyam'
In the above examples the key 'Ram' always maps to the value 89 and key 'Sangeeta' always
maps to the value 85. So, the order of items does not matter. If the key is not present in
the dictionary we get KeyError.
15.8 Dictionaries are mutable
Dictionaries are mutable which implies that the contents of the dictionary can be changed after it
has been created.
15.8.1 Adding a new item
We can add a new item to the dictionary as shown in the following example:
>>> dict1['Meena'] = 78
>>> dict1
{'Mohan': 95, 'Ram': 89, 'Suhel': 92,'Sangeeta': 85, 'Meena': 78}
15.8.2 Modifying an Existing Item
The existing dictionary can be modified by just overwriting the key-value pair. Example to modify
a given item in the dictionary:
#Marks of Suhel changed to 93.5
>>> dict1['Suhel'] = 93.5
>>> dict1
{'Mohan': 95, 'Ram': 89, 'Suhel': 93.5, 'Sangeeta': 85}
15.9 Dictionary Operations
Except membership, other operations like concatenation, repetition and slicing are not supported
by dictionaries. Let us learn membership operation on dictionary data type in Python
programming.
Membership
The membership operator ‘in’ checks if the key is present in the dictionary and returns True, else
it returns False.
>>> 'Suhel' in dict1
True
The not in operator returns True if the key is not present in the dictionary, else it returns False.
>>> 'Suhel' not in dict1
False
15.10 Traversing A Dictionary
We can access each item of the dictionary or traverse a dictionary using for loop.
Method 1
In this method we use key of the dictionary to get corresponding value among all the elements of
dictionary as illustrated below:
>>> for key in dict1:
print(key, ':', dict1[key])
Mohan: 95
Ram: 89
Suhel: 92
Sangeeta: 85
Method 2
In this method we use both key and value of each element to access elements of the dictionary as
illustrated below:
>>> for key, value in dict1.items():
print(key, ':', value)
Mohan: 95
Ram: 89
Suhel: 92
Sangeeta: 85
In above program, the function keys() is used to print all the keys of dict1.
The function values () is used to print all the values of dict1.
The statement print(dict1[‗Suhel‘]) is used to print the value for key = ‗Suhel‘.
The statement dict1[‗Sangeeta‘] =95 is used to update the value to 95 for key = ‗Sangeeta‘.
15.11 Dictionary Methods and Built-In Functions
Python provides many functions to work on dictionaries. Table 15.2 lists some of the commonly
used dictionary methods.
Table 15.2 Built-in functions and methods for dictionary
len() Returns the length or the >>> dict1 = {‗Mohan‘ :95, ‗Ram‘ :89,
number of key: value pairs of ‗Suhel‘:92,‗Sangeeta‘ :85}
the dictionary passed as the >>> len (dict1)
argument. 4
dict() Create a dictionary from a Pair1 = [(‗Mohan‘,95), (‗Ram‘,89),
sequence of key-value pairs. (‗Suhel‘,92),(‗Sangeeta‘,85)]
>>> pair1
[(‗Mohan‘,95), (‗Ram‘,89), (‗Suhel‘,92), (‗Sangeeta‘,85)]
>>> dict1 = dict (pair1)
>>> dict1
{‗Mohan‘: 95, ‗Ram‘: 89, ‗Suhel‘: 92, ‗Sangeeta‘: 85}
key() Returns a list of keys in the >>> dict1 = {‗Mohan‘: 95, ‗Ram‘: 89, ‗Suhel‘: 92,
dictionary. ‗Sangeeta‘: 85}
>>> dict1.keys()
dict_keys ([‗Mohan‘, ‗Ram‘, ‗Suhel‘, ‗Sangeeta‘])
values() Returns a list of values in the >>> dict1 = {‗Mohan‘: 95, ‗Ram‘: 89, ‗Suhel‘: 92,
dictionary. ‗Sangeeta‘: 85}
>>> dict1.values()
dict_values ([95,89,92,85])
items() Returns a list of tuples(key- >>> dict1 = {‗Mohan‘: 95, ‗Ram‘: 89, ‗Suhel‘: 92,
value) pair. ‗Sangeeta‘: 85}
>>> dict1.items()
dict_items([(‗Mohan‘,95), (‗Ram‘,89), (‗Suhel‘,92),
(‗Sangeeta‘,85)])
get() Returns the value >>> dict1 = {‗Mohan‘: 95, ‗Ram‘: 89, ‗Suhel‘: 92,
corresponding to the key ‗Sangeeta‘: 85}
passed as the argument. If the >>> dict1.get(‗Sangeeta‘)
key is not present in the >>> 85
dictionary it will return None
update() Appends the key-value pair of >>> dict1 = {‗Mohan‘: 95, ‗Ram‘: 89, ‗Suhel‘: 92,
the dictionary passed as the ‗Sangeeta‘: 85}
argument to key-value pair of >>> dict2 = {‗Sohan‘ :79, ‗Geeta‘ :89}
the given dictionary >>> dict1.update(dict2)
>>> dict1
{‗Mohan‘: 95, ‗Ram‘: 89, ‗Suhel‘: 92, ‗Sangeeta‘: 85,
‗Sohan‘ :79, ‗Geeta‘: 89}
>>> dict2
{‗Sohan‘ :79, ‗Geeta‘ :89}
del() Deletes the item with the given >>> dict1 = {‗Mohan‘: 95, ‗Ram‘: 89, ‗Suhel‘: 92,
key. To delete the dictionary ‗Sangeeta‘: 85}
from the memory we write: >>> del dict1 [‗Ram‘]
del Dict_name >>> dict1
{‗Mohan‘: 95, ‗Suhel‘: 92, ‗Sangeeta‘: 85}
>>> del(dict1 [‗Mohan‘])
>>> dict1
{‗Suhel‘: 92, ‗Sangeeta‘: 85}
>>> del dict1
>>> dict1
NameError: name ‗dict1‘ is not defined
clear() Deletes or clear all the items of >>> dict1 = {‗Mohan‘: 95, ‗Ram‘: 89, ‗Suhel‘: 92,
the dictionary. ‗Sangeeta‘: 85}
>>> dict1.clear()
>>> dict1
{}
In above program, the function items() is used to print all the elements of dict1. The function del()
is used to delete the item with key Suhel. The function clear() is used to delete all the elements of
dict1.
15.12 Manipulating Dictionaries
In this chapter, we have learnt how to create a dictionary and apply various methods to
manipulate it. The Program 15.10 shows the application of those manipulation methods on
dictionaries.
In above Program, dictionary emp is created which stores names of the employee as key and their
salary as values.
In above program, numberNames is a dictionary holding digits (0 to 9) as key and their Name as
corresponding values in a user-defined function convert(). Now name of each digit of the number
entered by user is stored in the variable result by accessing the value from the dictionary using
that digit as key of the dictionary.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. Elements of a tuple are enclosed in ( a) round brackets ( ) (b) square brackets [ ] (c) flower
brackets { } (d) bar brackets | |
2. What will be the output of the following code (a) 10 (b) 20 (c) 30 (d) 10,20,30
t=(10,20,30,40)
print(t[-3])
3. Which of the following statement creates an empty tuple? (a) t = Empty () (b) t = () (c) t =
tuple () (d) t = empty_tuple()
4. What will be the output of the following code (a) <class 'int'> <class 'tuple'> (b) <class
'tuple'> <class 'tuple'> (c) <class 'tuple'> <class 'int'> (d) <class 'int'> <class 'int'>
t1 = (10)
t2 = (10,)
type(t1)
type(t2)
5. What will be the output of the following code(a) <class 'int'> (b) <class 'string'> (c) <class
'tuple'> (d) <class 'float'>
s = '10','20','30'
type(s)
6. What will be the output of the following code (a) 3 (b) 7 (c) 9 (d) 13
tuple1 = (3,5,7,9,11,13,15)
tuple1[5-2]
7. What will be the output of the following code (a) (1,2,3,4,5) (b) (1,2,8,4,5) (c) (1,8,3,4,5) (d)
TypeError
tuple1 = (1,2,3,4,5)
tuple1[2] = 8
print(tuple1)
8. What will be the output of the following code (a) True (b) False (c) Error (d) Index=1
City = ('Bhopal','Patna','Lucknow')
'Patna' in City
9. What will be the output of the following code (a) ('Bhopal', 'Patna', 'Lucknow') (b)
('Lucknow', 'Patna', 'Bhopal') (c) True (d) False
City = ('Bhopal','Patna','Lucknow')
City[::-1]
tuple1 = (1,2,3,1,4,1,5,1,7)
tuple1.count(1)
11. What will be the output of the following code (a) 0 (b) 3 (c) 4 (d) 0,3,5,7
tuple1 = (1,2,3,1,4,1,5,1,7)
tuple1.index(1)
12. What will be the output of the following code (a) 0 (b) 6 (c) '1','2','3' (d) TypeError
tuple1 = ('1','2','3')
sum(tuple1)
13. What will be the output of the following code (a) 1 (b) (1,2,3) (c) ValueError (d) TypeError
(a,b,c,d) = (1,2,3)
14. What will be the output of the following code (a) 5 (b) 10 (c) ValueError (d) TypeError
(a,b) = (10-5,10+5)
print(b-a)
15. A tuple inside another tuple is called a (a) nested tuple (b) singly tuple (c) doubly tuple (d)
complex tuple
16. Which of the following statement creates an empty dictionary? (a) d = empty ( ) (b) d = { } (c)
d = dict[ ] (d) d = empty_dict{ }
Dict1 = {'M':95,'R':89,'S':92,'T':85}
Dict1['R']
18. What will be the output of the following code (a) 0 (b) 89 (c) 100 (d) ValueError
Dict1 = {'M':95,'R':89,'S':92,'T':85}
Dict1['R'] =100
print(Dict1['R'])
19. What will be the output of the following code (a) True (b) False (c) ‗R‘ (d) ValueError
Dict1 = {'M':95,'R':89,'S':92,'T':85}
‗R‘ in dict3
20. What will be the output of the following code (a) True (b) False (c) ‗R‘ (d) ValueError
Dict3 = {'M':95,'R':89,'S':92,'T':85}
100 in dict3

1. A tuple is an ordered sequence.
2. Repetition operation for Tuples is depicted by the symbol +.
3. The not in operator returns True if the element is not present in the tuple.
4. Slicing cannot be applied to tuples.
5. Loop control structures can be used to access the elements in a nested tuple.
6. Tuples can‘t be made keys of a dictionary.
7. In Python, a dictionary can have two same values with different keys.
8. The value of a dictionary can be accessed with the help of indices.
9. Dictionaries aren‘t ordered.
10. Keys of a dictionary may be any data type that is immutable.
C. Fill in the blanks:
1. Tuple is an _________ data type.
2. Elements of a tuple can be accessed using index values, starting from ___.
3. The ________ operator is used to check whether particular element is a part of tuple or
not.
4. Python allows us to join tuples using _________ operator depicted by symbol +.
5. In dictionary, each key serves as the _________ and maps to a value.
6. Function _________ returns a list of tuples(key-value) pair of a dictionary.
7. Function clear () returns an _________ dictionary.
8. Dictionaries are _________.
9. The method _________ removes a random key-value pair from a dictionary.
10. Except _________, other operations like concatenation, repetition and slicing are not
supported by dictionaries.
1. Consider the following tuples, tuple1 and tuple2:
tuple1 = (23,1,45,67,45,9,55,45)
tuple2 = (100,200)
Find the output of the following statements:
(a) print(tuple1.index(45))
(a) print(tuple1.count(45))
(b) print(tuple1 + tuple2)
(c) print(len(tuple2))
(d) print(max(tuple1))
(e) print(min(tuple1))
(f) print(sum(tuple2))
(g) print(sorted (tuple1)) print(tuple1)
2. Consider the following dictionary stateCapital:
stateCapital = {"MadhyaPradesh":"Bhopal", Bihar":"Patna", "Maharashtra":"Mumbai",
"Rajasthan":"Jaipur"}
Find the output of the following statements:
a. print(stateCapital.get("Bihar"))
b. print(stateCapital.keys())
c. print(stateCapital.values())
d. .print(stateCapital.items())
e. .print(len(stateCapital))
f. .print("Maharashtra" in stateCapital)
g. .print(stateCapital.get("Assam"))
h. .del stateCapital["MadhyaPradesh"]
1. print(stateCapital)
3. Write a program to read email IDs of n number of students and store them in a tuple.
Create two new tuples, one to store only the usernames from the email IDs and second to
store domain names from the email IDs. Print all three tuples at the end of the program.
[Hint: You may use the function split ()]
4. Write a program to input names of n students and store them in a tuple. Also, input a
name from the user and find if this student is present in the tuple or not. We can
accomplish these by:
a. writing a user defined function
b. using the built-in function
5. Write a Python program to find the highest 2 values in a dictionary.
6. Write a Python program to create a dictionary from a string.
7. Write a program to input your friends‘ names and their Phone Numbers and store them in
the dictionary as the key-value pair. Perform the following operations on the dictionary:
a. Display the name and phone number of all your friends
b. Add a new key-value pair in this dictionary and display the modified dictionary
c. Delete a particular friend from the dictionary
d. Modify the phone number of an existing friend
e. Check if a friend is present in the dictionary or not
f. Display the dictionary in sorted order of names

Unit 3. Python Programming-15.09.2022

Uploaded by

Unit 3. Python Programming-15.09.2022

Uploaded by

Unit 3 Python Programming

Junior Software Developer, Class XI, Unit 3 Python Programming Page 1

Junior Software Developer, Class XI, Unit 3 Python Programming Page 2

Fig. 10.1 Official website of Python

Junior Software Developer, Class XI, Unit 3 Python Programming Page 3

Fig. 10.3 Python window after installation

Fig. 10.4 Python IDE

Junior Software Developer, Class XI, Unit 3 Python Programming Page 4

Fig. 10.6 Creating a new file in Python

Junior Software Developer, Class XI, Unit 3 Python Programming Page 5

Fig. 10.8 Saving a Python program

Fig. 10.9 Running a Python program

Fig. 10.10 Showing output of Python program

Junior Software Developer, Class XI, Unit 3 Python Programming Page 6

Junior Software Developer, Class XI, Unit 3 Python Programming Page 7

Junior Software Developer, Class XI, Unit 3 Python Programming Page 8

Figure 10.11: Different data types in Python

Junior Software Developer, Class XI, Unit 3 Python Programming Page 9

Junior Software Developer, Class XI, Unit 3 Python Programming Page 10

10.10 Mutable and Immutable Data Types

Junior Software Developer, Class XI, Unit 3 Python Programming Page 11

Fig. 10.13: Object and its identifier

Fig. 10.14: Variables with same value have same identifier

Fig. 10.15: Variables with different values have different identifiers

Junior Software Developer, Class XI, Unit 3 Python Programming Page 12

Junior Software Developer, Class XI, Unit 3 Python Programming Page 13

10.12.2 Relational Operators

Junior Software Developer, Class XI, Unit 3 Python Programming Page 14

Junior Software Developer, Class XI, Unit 3 Python Programming Page 15

Fig. 10.18 Demonstration of Assignment operators

10.12.4 Logical Operators

Junior Software Developer, Class XI, Unit 3 Python Programming Page 16

Fig. 10.19 Demonstration of Logical operators

10.12.5 Identity Operators

Junior Software Developer, Class XI, Unit 3 Python Programming Page 17

is Evaluates True if the variables on either side of the

is not Evaluates to False if the variables on either side of

10.12.6 Membership Operators

not in Returns True if the variable/value is not found in

10.12.7 Bitwise Operators

Junior Software Developer, Class XI, Unit 3 Python Programming Page 18

Junior Software Developer, Class XI, Unit 3 Python Programming Page 19

Junior Software Developer, Class XI, Unit 3 Python Programming Page 20

Junior Software Developer, Class XI, Unit 3 Python Programming Page 21

Junior Software Developer, Class XI, Unit 3 Python Programming Page 22

Junior Software Developer, Class XI, Unit 3 Python Programming Page 23

Program 10.6. Example of type conversion between numbers and strings.

Junior Software Developer, Class XI, Unit 3 Python Programming Page 24

10.16.2 Implicit Conversion

Junior Software Developer, Class XI, Unit 3 Python Programming Page 25

Junior Software Developer, Class XI, Unit 3 Python Programming Page 26

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Junior Software Developer, Class XI, Unit 3 Python Programming Page 27

Junior Software Developer, Class XI, Unit 3 Python Programming Page 28

Junior Software Developer, Class XI, Unit 3 Python Programming Page 29

Junior Software Developer, Class XI, Unit 3 Python Programming Page 30

Fig. 11.1: Steps to board on airplane

Junior Software Developer, Class XI, Unit 3 Python Programming Page 31

Junior Software Developer, Class XI, Unit 3 Python Programming Page 32

Junior Software Developer, Class XI, Unit 3 Python Programming Page 33

Junior Software Developer, Class XI, Unit 3 Python Programming Page 34

Junior Software Developer, Class XI, Unit 3 Python Programming Page 35

Junior Software Developer, Class XI, Unit 3 Python Programming Page 36

Fig. 11.3: Phases of the day

Junior Software Developer, Class XI, Unit 3 Python Programming Page 37

Junior Software Developer, Class XI, Unit 3 Python Programming Page 38

Junior Software Developer, Class XI, Unit 3 Python Programming Page 39

Junior Software Developer, Class XI, Unit 3 Python Programming Page 40

Junior Software Developer, Class XI, Unit 3 Python Programming Page 41

Fig. 11.5: Flow chart of while Loop

Junior Software Developer, Class XI, Unit 3 Python Programming Page 42

Junior Software Developer, Class XI, Unit 3 Python Programming Page 43

Junior Software Developer, Class XI, Unit 3 Python Programming Page 44

Fig. 11.7: Flow chart of continue statement

Junior Software Developer, Class XI, Unit 3 Python Programming Page 45

Junior Software Developer, Class XI, Unit 3 Python Programming Page 46