1

Fluid Mechanics Notes

By

F.M. Maregesi
 2

1.1 Preliminary Remarks

Fluid mechanics is the study of fluids either in motion (fluid

dynamics) or at rest (fluid statics) and the subsequent effects
of the fluid upon the boundaries, which may be either solid
surfaces or interfaces with other fluids.

Both gases and liquids are classified as fluids, and the number
of fluids engineering applications is enormous: breathing,
blood flow, swimming, pumps, fans, turbines, airplanes,
ships, rivers, windmills, pipes, missiles, icebergs, engines,
filters, jets, and sprinklers, to name a few.

When you think about it, almost everything on this planet

either is a fluid or moves within or near a fluid. The essence
of the subject of fluid flow is a judicious compromise between
theory and experiment. Since fluid flow is a branch of
mechanics, it satisfies a set of welldocumented basic laws,
and thus a great deal of theoretical treatment is available.

However, the theory is often frustrating, because it applies

mainly to idealized situations which may be invalid in
practical problems. The two chief obstacles to a workable
 3

theory are geometry and viscosity. The basic equations of

fluid motion are too difficult to enable the analyst to attack
arbitrary geometric configurations. Thus most textbooks
concentrate on flat plates, circular pipes, and other easy
geometries.

It is possible to apply numerical computer techniques to

complex geometries, and specialized textbooks are now
available to explain the new computational fluid dynamics
(CFD) approximations and methods. These notes will present
many theoretical results while keeping their limitations in
mind.

The second obstacle to a workable theory is the action of

viscosity, which can be neglected only in certain idealized
flows. First, viscosity increases the difficulty of the basic
equations, although the boundary-layer approximation found
by Ludwig Prandtl in 1904 has greatly simplified viscous-
flow analyses. Second, viscosity has a destabilizing effect on
all fluids, giving rise, at frustratingly small velocities, to a
disorderly, random phenomenon called turbulence. The theory
of turbulent flow is crude and heavily backed up by
experiment, yet it can be quite serviceable as an engineering
estimate.
 4

From the point of view of fluid mechanics, all matter consists of

only two states, fluid and solid. The difference between the two
is perfectly obvious to the layperson, and it is an interesting
exercise to ask a layperson to put this difference into words. The
technical distinction lies with the reaction of the two to an
applied shear or tangential stress.

A solid can resist a shear stress by a static deformation; a fluid

cannot. Any shear stress applied to a fluid, no matter how small,
will result in motion of that fluid. The fluid moves and deforms
continuously as long as the shear stress is applied. As a
corollary, we can say that a fluid at rest must be in a state of zero
shear stress,

Given the definition of a fluid above, every layperson also

knows that there are two classes of fluids, liquids and gases.

Again the distinction is a technical one concerning the effect of

cohesive forces. A liquid, being composed of relatively close-
packed molecules with strong cohesive forces, tends to retain its
volume and will form a free surface in a gravitational field if
unconfined from above.

Free-surface flows are dominated by gravitational effects since

gas molecules are widely spaced with negligible cohesive
forces; a gas is free to expand until it encounters confining
walls.

A gas has no definite volume, and when left to itself without

 5

confinement, a gas forms an atmosphere which is essentially

hydrostatic. Gases cannot form a free surface, and thus gas flows
are rarely concerned with gravitational effects other than
buoyancy.

We have already used technical terms such as fluid pressure and

density without a rigorous discussion of their definition. As far
as we know, fluids are aggregations of molecules, widely spaced
for a gas, closely spaced for a liquid. The distance between
molecules is very large compared with the molecular diameter.

The molecules are not fixed in a lattice but move about freely
relative to each other. Thus fluid density, or mass per unit
volume, has no precise meaning because the number of
molecules occupying a given volume continually changes.

A dimension is the measure by which a physical variable is

expressed quantitatively. A unit is a particular way of attaching
a number to the quantitative dimension. Thus length is a
dimension associated with such variables as distance,
displacement, width, deflection, and height, while centimeters
and inches are both numerical units for expressing length.
Dimension is a powerful concept about which a splendid tool
 6

called dimensional analysis:

 7

EXAMPLE 1.3

A useful theoretical equation for computing the relation between

pressure, velocity, and altitude in a steady flow of a nearly
inviscid, nearly incompressible fluid with negligible heat
transfer and shaft work5 is the Bernoulli relation, named after
Daniel Bernoulli, who published a hydrodynamics textbook in
1738:
 8

(a) Show that Eq. (1) satisfies the principle of dimensional

homogeneity, which states that all additive terms in a physical
equation must have the same dimensions. (b) Show that
consistent units result without additional conversion factors in SI
units.
 9

1.5 Properties of the Velocity Field

In a given flow situation, the determination, by experiment or theory, of

the properties of the fluid as a function of position and time is
considered to be the solution to the problem. In almost all cases, the
emphasis is on the space-time distribution of the fluid properties. One
rarely keeps track of the actual fate of the specific fluid particles. This
treatment of properties as continuum-field functions distinguishes fluid
mechanics from solid mechanics, where we are more likely to be
interested in the trajectories of individual particles or systems.
 10

Eulerian and Lagrangian Descriptions

There are two different points of view in analyzing problems in

mechanics. The first view, appropriate to fluid mechanics, is concerned
with the field of flow and is called the Eulerian method of description. In
the Eulerian method we compute the pressure field p(x, y, z, t) of the
flow pattern, not the pressure changes p(t) which a particle experiences
as it moves through the field. The second method, which follows an
individual particle moving through the flow, is called the Lagrangian
description. The Lagrangian approach, which is more appropriate to
solid mechanics, will not be treated in this book. However, certain
numerical analyses of sharply bounded fluid flows, such as the motion
of isolated fluid droplets, are very conveniently computed in Lagrangian
coordinates [1]. Fluid-dynamic measurements are also suited to the
Eulerian system. For example, when a pressure probe is introduced into
a laboratory flow, it is fixed at a specific position (x, y, z). Its output thus
contributes to the description of the Eulerian pressure field p(x, y, z, t).
To simulate a Lagrangian measurement, the probe would have to move
downstream at the fluid particle speeds; this is sometimes done in
oceanographic measurements, where flow meters drift along with the
prevailing currents. The two different descriptions can be contrasted in
the analysis of traffic flow along a freeway. A certain length of freeway
may be selected for study and called the field of flow. Obviously, as
time passes, various cars will enter and leave the field, and the identity
of the specific cars within the field will constantly be changing. The
traffic engineer ignores specific cars and concentrates on their average
velocity as a function of time and position within the field, plus the flow
rate or number of cars per hour passing a given section of the freeway.
This engineer is using an Eulerian description of the traffic flow. Other
investigators, such as the police or social scientists, may be interested in
the path or speed or destination of specific cars in the field. By following
a specific car as a function of time, they are using a Lagrangian
description of the flow.
 11

Chapter Summary:
Fluid: A fluid is any substance that flows or deforms under applied
shear stress.

TYPES OF FLUIDS:
1. Ideal fluids
2. Real fluids
3. Newtonian fluids
4. Non-Newtonian fluids
5. Ideal plastic fluids

Ideal Fluids: An ideal fluid is a fluid that is incompressible and no

internal resistance to flow (zero viscosity). In addition ideal fluid
particles undergo no rotation about their center of mass (irrotational). An
ideal fluid can flow in a circular pattern, but the individual fluid particles
are irrotational. Real fluids exhibit all of these properties to some degree,
but we shall often model fluids as ideal in order to approximate the
behavior of real fluids. When we do so, one must be extremely cautious
in applying results associated with ideal fluids to non-ideal fluids.

B. TYPES OF FLUIDS FLOWS

1. Steady and Unsteady flow
2. Uniform and non-uniform flows
3. Laminar and turbulent flows
4. Compressible and incompressible flows
5. Rotational and irrotational flows
6. one- , two- and three dimensional flows
 12

Types of Fluid Flows

Types of Fluid Flow refer to the various classifications and

characteristics that define the behavior and movement of fluids.
Fluids, which can include liquids and gases, exhibit different flow
patterns depending on factors such as velocity, pressure, and viscosity.
Understanding the Types of Fluid Flow is crucial in numerous scientific
and engineering applications, as it helps predict and analyze fluid
behavior in various systems. By studying these different types,
researchers and engineers can design more efficient systems and
processes, optimize resource usage, and ensure the safety and reliability
of fluid-based operations.

The study of Types of Fluid Flow encompasses a wide range of

phenomena, each with its own unique properties and implications.

Laminar flow is one common type, characterized by smooth,

streamlined motion where the fluid particles move in parallel layers
without mixing. In contrast, turbulent flow is another significant type,
featuring chaotic and irregular movement, with eddies and swirls
forming throughout the fluid. Transitional flow exists between these two
extremes, displaying a combination of both laminar and turbulent
characteristics. There are several types of fluid flow, each characterized
by distinct patterns and behaviors. Here are some of the main types:
Laminar Flow Laminar flow is a smooth and orderly type of fluid flow
characterized by parallel layers of fluid particles moving without
 13

significant mixing. In laminar flow, the particles move in a predictable

manner, following well-defined streamlines. It occurs at low velocities,
high viscosities, and in the absence of obstructions, creating an
organized and predictable flow pattern.

Turbulent Flow
Turbulent Flow is a dynamic and chaotic type of fluid flow
characterized by irregular motion and the formation of eddies, vortices,
and fluctuations in velocity and pressure. It occurs at high velocities, low
viscosity, and in the presence of disturbances or obstacles, playing a
significant role in many natural and engineered systems. Transitional
Flow Transitional flow is a type of fluid flow that occurs between
laminar and turbulent flow regimes. It exhibits a mixture of laminar and
turbulent characteristics, with the flow pattern oscillating between the
two states. Transitional flow is influenced by factors such as flow
velocity, fluid viscosity, and pipe roughness, making it a transitional
phase in fluid behavior analysis.

Steady Flow
Steady flow refers to a condition in fluid dynamics where the properties
of the flowing fluid, such as velocity, pressure, and temperature, remain
constant at any given point within the flow field over time. It implies a
consistent and unchanging flow rate, allowing for simplified analysis
and prediction of fluid behavior in a wide range of engineering and
scientific applications.

Unsteady Flow
Unsteady flow, also known as transient flow, refers to fluid motion
where the properties, such as velocity, pressure, and temperature, vary
with time at different points in the flow field. It occurs during start-up or
shutdown processes, sudden changes in flow conditions, or any situation
where fluid properties change dynamically, highlighting the time-
dependent nature of the flow behavior.
Compressible Flow
Compressible Flow refers to the movement of fluids, typically gases,
 14

where changes in density and pressure significantly impact the flow

behavior. In compressible flow, the fluid's compressibility plays a vital
role, resulting in variations in density, velocity, and pressure throughout
the flow field. Understanding compressible flow is crucial in fields such
as aerodynamics, rocket propulsion, and gas dynamics.

Incompressible Flow
Incompressible Flow refers to the behavior of fluids, typically liquids,
where the density remains constant regardless of changes in pressure.
This type of flow is commonly assumed in low-speed and low-pressure
systems, where the volume of the fluid remains constant, allowing for
simplified analysis and calculations of fluid behavior and flow patterns.
Viscous Flow Viscous flow refers to the movement of fluid particles
experiencing internal friction, resulting in resistance to flow. It occurs in
fluids with non-negligible viscosity, such as liquids and some gases.
Viscous flow can exhibit different characteristics, ranging from smooth
and ordered in laminar flow to chaotic and irregular in turbulent flow,
and it plays a crucial role in various scientific and engineering
applications.

Irrotational Flow

Irrotational flow is a type of fluid motion where fluid particles do not

rotate as they move. It is characterized by the conservation of angular
momentum and is often observed in idealized fluid systems. Irrotational
flow has important applications in fields such as aerodynamics,
hydrodynamics, and the study of potential flow.

Multiphase Flow Multiphase Flow refers to the simultaneous movement

of two or more phases, such as gases, liquids, or solids, within a system.
This complex fluid behavior is encountered in numerous industries,
including oil and gas production, chemical processing, and
environmental engineering. Understanding and analyzing Multiphase
Flow is crucial for optimizing processes, designing efficient systems,
and ensuring the safe and reliable transportation of multiple phases
 15

within a single system. FAQs

Q1: What is the main difference between laminar flow and turbulent
flow?

A1: Laminar flow is smooth and orderly, with parallel layers of fluid
moving without mixing, while turbulent flow is chaotic and irregular,
with eddies and vortices forming throughout the fluid.

Q2: How does transitional flow differ from laminar and turbulent flow?

A2: Transitional flow exhibits characteristics of both laminar and

turbulent flow. It can switch between the two patterns depending on
factors like flow velocity, fluid viscosity, and pipe roughness.

Q3: What are the key factors that influence the occurrence of laminar or
turbulent flow?

A3: The occurrence of laminar or turbulent flow is primarily influenced

by factors such as flow velocity, fluid viscosity, pipe roughness, and the
presence of disturbances or obstacles in the flow path.

Q4: In what type of systems is compressible flow commonly observed?

A4: Compressible flow is commonly observed in systems where gases

are involved, especially at high velocities or when the fluid undergoes
compression or expansion, such as in jet engines or gas pipelines.
Q5: Why is the study of multiphase flow important in the oil and gas industry?

A5: The study of multiphase flow is crucial in the oil and gas industry because it involves the
simultaneous movement of oil, gas, and water within production and transportation systems.
Understanding multiphase flow behavior helps optimize processes, ensure efficient resource extraction,
and minimize operational risks.
 16

CHAPTER TWO

Description of fluid flow

The description of a fluid flow requires a specification or determination

of the velocity field, i.e. a specification of the fluid velocity at every
point in the region. In general, this will define a vector field of position
and time, u = u(x, t).

Steady flow occurs when u is independent of time (i.e., ∂u/∂t ≡ 0).

Otherwise the flow is unsteady.

Streamlines are lines which at a given instant are everywhere in the

direction of the velocity (analogous to electric or magnetic field lines).
In steady flow the streamlines are independent of time, but the velocity
can vary in magnitude along a streamline (as in flow through a
constriction in a pipe) - see Fig. 1.1.

Figure 1.1: Schematic diagram of flow through a constriction in a pipe.

Particle paths are lines traced out by “marked” particles as time evolves.
In steady flow particle paths are identical to streamlines; in unsteady
flow they are different, and sometimes very different. Particle paths are
visualized in the laboratory using small floating particles of the same
 17

density as the fluid. Sometimes they are referred to as trajectories.

Filament lines or streaklines are traced out over time by all particles
passing through a given point; they may be visualized, for example,
using a hypodermic needle and releasing a slow stream of dye. In steady
flow these are streamlines; in unsteady flow they are neither streamlines
nor particle paths. It should be emphasized that streamlines represent the
velocity field at a specific instant of time, whereas particle paths and
streaklines provide a representation of the velocity field over a finite
period of time.

In the laboratory we can obtain a record of streamlines photographically

by seeding the fluid with small neutrally buoyant particles that move
with the flow and taking a short exposure (e.g. 0.1 sec), long enough for
each particle to trace out a short segment of line; the eye readily links
these segments into continuous streamlines.

Particle paths and streaklines are obtained from a time exposure long
enough for the particle or dye trace to traverse the region of observation.
18
19