J Happiness Stud (2019) 20:1141–1162

https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-018-9993-z

RESEARCH PAPER

A Positive Psychology Intervention Program

in a Culturally‑Diverse University: Boosting Happiness
and Reducing Fear

L. Lambert1 · H.‑A. Passmore2 · M. Joshanloo3

Published online: 11 May 2018

© Springer Science+Business Media B.V., part of Springer Nature 2018

Abstract While developing excellence in knowledge and skills, academic institutions

have often overlooked their obligation to instill wellbeing. To address this, we introduced
a 14-week positive psychology intervention (PPI) program (Happiness 101) to university
students from 39 different nations studying in the United Arab Emirates (N = 159). Stu-
dents were exposed to 18 different PPIs. Pre, post, and 3-month-post measures were taken
assessing hedonic and eudaimonic well-being, and beliefs regarding the fear and fragility
of happiness. At the end of the semester, relative to a control group (N = 108), participants
exposed to the Happiness 101 program reported higher levels of both hedonic and eudai-
monic well-being, and lower levels of fear of happiness and the belief that happiness is
fragile. Boosts in life satisfaction and net-positive affect, and reduction of fear of happi-
ness and the belief that happiness is fragile were maintained in the Happiness 101 group
3 months post-intervention.

Keywords Positive psychology · Positive psychology interventions · Culture · Fear of

happiness · Fragility of happiness · Wellbeing · United Arab Emirates

1 Introduction

Organizations such as business and governments are now taking a serious interest in their
constituents’ wellbeing and are identifying ways in which wellbeing can be improved.
Concern for constituents’ wellbeing is also important within academia. Focusing on the
delivery of academics along with the application of skills to promote wellbeing, posi-
tive education (Green et al. 2011)—an extension of positive psychology—views schools

* L. Lambert
[email protected]
1
Canadian University Dubai, Box 117781, Dubai, UAE
2
University of British Columbia, Kelowna, BC, Canada
3
Keimyung University, Daegu, South Korea

13
1142 L. Lambert et al.

and universities as ideal developmental settings in which to teach the social, moral, emo-
tional, and intellectual skills required to enhance and sustain individual wellbeing (Nor-
rish et al. 2013; Oades et al. 2011; Seligman et al. 2009; Waters 2011; White and Waters
2015). Empirically validated interventions and programs that target student wellbeing have
become part of this focus. Yet, the subject of wellbeing in education remains marginal, as
it is often considered to deviate from academic learning (Shoshani and Steinmetz 2014;
White 2016). However, youth need guidance beyond academics in order to become fully
flourishing adults who contribute to society and the workplace in meaningful ways, while
flourishing in their personal lives (Kern et al. 2015; Wong, 2011). Thus, the challenge for
universities is to find ways to fulfill their role and responsibility in cultivating wellbeing
by teaching young adults the skills they need to flourish (Oades et al., 2011; Waters, 2011;
White and Waters, 2015).

2 Why Focus on Wellbeing?

Greater wellbeing offers a myriad of benefits to individuals and the societies in which they
live. In a review of 225 studies, Lyubomirsky et al. (2005a, b) showed that while access
to tangible resources can lead to greater happiness, the weight of evidence suggests the
reverse to be true. That is, that greater initial wellbeing results in greater subsequent ben-
efits across multiple domains, in the areas of employment, relationships, health, and even
personal finances. Indeed, the benefits of greater wellbeing across many life domains are
well established. For example, individuals with higher wellbeing had superior financial
earnings (Judge et al. 2010), exhibited more compassion and cooperation (Lount 2010;
Nelson 2009), and volunteered more often as well as donated more time and money (Aknin
et al. 2013; Priller and Shupp 2011) compared to those with lower levels of wellbeing.
Individuals with high wellbeing are also more likely to use seatbelts (Goudie et al. 2012),
engage in physical activity (Huang and Humphreys 2012), eat nutritious diets (Boehm and
Kubzansky 2012) and be non-smokers (Grant et al. 2009). Less racial bias and more pro-
social behaviour are found among those with high wellbeing (Johnson and Fredrickson
2005). Experiencing positive emotions, a proxy for wellbeing, has been demonstrated to
enhance attention, generate more frequent and flexible ideas, and boost one’s creative prob-
lem solving skills (Kok et al. 2008). In the workplace, employees with greater wellbeing
are more productive, satisfied, and committed to their careers (Erdogan et al. 2012); more-
over, optimism (another proxy for wellbeing) predicts workplace success and confidence in
career-related decisions (Creed et al. 2002; Neault 2002).

3 Positive Psychological Interventions

Wellbeing is, to some extent, malleable (Lyubomirsky et al. 2005a, b), particularly via
engaging in activities specifically geared towards that end. Within the domain of positive
psychology, such actions are deemed Positive Psychology Interventions (PPIs); PPIs are
empirically validated, purposeful activities designed specifically to increase the frequency
of positive emotions and experiences, and which help to facilitate the use of actions and
thoughts that lead to flourishing (Sin and Lyubomirsky 2009). PPIs have been successfully
used by organizations (Mills et al. 2013) and in healthcare (Kahler et al. 2014; Lambert
D’raven et al. 2015) and clinical settings (Huffman et al. 2014; Seligman et al. 2005, 2006).

13
A Positive Psychology Intervention Program in a… 1143

PPIs are cost effective and easy to deliver, while being non-stigmatizing and lacking side
effects (Layous et al. 2011). Several meta-analyses (Bolier et al. 2013; Hone et al. 2015;
Sin and Lyubomirsky 2009; Weiss et al. 2016) have evidenced that PPIs reliably increase
wellbeing and reduce depressive symptoms over time.
Recent reviews have illustrated the broad range of validated PPIs (see Lambert D’raven
and Pasha-Zaidi 2014a; Rashid 2015). For instance, individuals can reinforce their rela-
tionships via capitalization, the act of responding positively to other’s good news and sup-
porting their efforts (Gable and Reis 2010). Kind acts distract individuals from problems,
raise self-efficacy, and increase happiness (Dillard et al. 2008; Dunn et al. 2008), while
writing about positive events increases wellbeing and decreases depression (Burton and
King 2009; Shapira and Mongrain 2010), much like writing about or showing gratitude
(Boehm et al. 2011; Lyubomirsky et al. 2011). Finding positive benefits in the experience
of negative events also results in less depression, as shown in Helgeson et al. (2006) meta-
analysis. Other PPIs have demonstrated efficacy in shielding individuals against stress and
negative emotions; these include becoming selective about whom, and in what activity, one
invests emotional time and energy (Aaker et al. 2011; Dunn et al. 2011), and developing
purpose by asserting one’s values, (Creswell et al. 2005; Diener et al. 2012).
Although PPIs have been successfully implemented in some educational institutions
(Brunwasser et al. 2009; Seligman et al. 2009; Shoshani and Steinmetz 2014), the need for
positive education has more commonly been identified at the primary and secondary levels.
For example, a review by Waters (2011) highlighting primary and secondary school-based
programs illustrates the breadth of, and possibilities for, the use of PPIs in educational set-
tings. Such programs have focused on the development of gratitude (Froh et al. 2009; Froh
et al. 2008), mindfulness (Broderick and Metz 2009; Huppert and Johnson 2010), charac-
ter strengths (Park and Peterson 2008), and resiliency (Seligman et al. 2009), with each
program/PPI improving anxiety, depression, somatic complaints, optimism, relationships,
hopelessness, the ability to deal with stress and trauma, in addition to improving school
performance. A meta-analysis of 213 programs from kindergarten through high school
substantiated Water’s review, providing further evidence that positive interventions lead to
stronger achievement test results (Durlak et al. 2011). Such evidence negates the concern
that focusing on wellbeing detracts attention from academic learning (Bernard and Walton
2011; Suldo et al. 2011).
Nonetheless, despite this evidence of the benefits of positive education, higher educa-
tion is frequently left out of discussions involving the implementation of wellbeing skills
(Norrish et al. 2013; Oades et al. 2011). As such, few PPI programs exist in post-secondary
institutions. In the current study we aimed to address this gap; we offer evidence of a PPI
program delivered to a group of international university students in the United Arab Emir-
ates (UAE).

4 Divergent Views on Happiness

Although wellbeing yields many benefits, recent research is challenging long-standing

assumptions about the universal desirability of happiness. Culture and religion significantly
affect how happiness is understood, pursued, and desired (Diener et al. 2013; Lambert D’raven
and Pasha-Zaidi 2014b), with studies revealing negative perceptions of happiness. Indeed, fear
of happiness and a belief in its fragility exist across a range of cultures (Joshanloo 2013a;
Joshanloo and Weijers 2013). For example, Joshanloo and Weijers (2013) found that in the

13
1144 L. Lambert et al.

West, depressed patients often express the fear of becoming happy and losing control over
their emotions. This fear is also prevalent in Asian cultures where happiness is believed to
threaten relationships, invite jealousy, upset social harmony, or bring disaster. In Islamic
cultures, the expression of happiness is further believed to tempt fate and call forth the evil
eye, and is thought to make individuals appear less serious, mature, and responsible, as well
as facilitating a path to sin. In Iran, sadness is viewed favorably and is often associated with
insight and personal depth (Joshanloo 2013a), causing individuals to shun the expression of
happiness.
As such, fear of happiness revolves around the belief that positive emotions, such as joy,
excitement, or cheerfulness, can bring forward negative consequences (Joshanloo et al. 2014).
Fragility of happiness involves the belief that happiness is controlled by a higher power, is
subject to its will, and can be extinguished if pursued too vehemently and, thus, is fragile
and fleeting (Joshanloo et al. 2015). Research shows that fear and fragility beliefs are preva-
lent across many cultures, but more so in non-Western cultures, including the Islamic ones
(Joshanloo et al. 2014, 2015). Thus, despite the benefits of happiness on wealth, health, and
relationships, the belief that happiness is desirable is not universally shared.
Religious beliefs embedded within cultural beliefs also appear to directly influence happi-
ness and wellbeing. Indeed, studies consistently evidence that religion is a source of wellbeing
in itself (Abu-Raiya et al. 2016; Kashdan and Nezlek 2012; Tay et al. 2014), in particular with
respect to Muslims (Gulamhussein and Eaton 2015; Parveen et al. 2014; Sahraian et al. 2013;
Thomas et al. 2016). Moreover, religious people in religious nations have higher levels of hap-
piness than do religious people in nonreligious nations (Diener et al. 2011). Consequently, cul-
ture and religion indeed matter in questions of wellbeing (see also Magyar-Moe et al. 2015).
Advocates have strongly encouraged that the next stage in positive psychology’s development
is to consider wellbeing from diverse cultural views (Tajdin 2015; Wong 2013). Scholars have
noted the well-established need in the Middle East/North Africa (MENA) region for a cultur-
ally-appropriate approach to viewing, and enhancing, wellbeing (Lambert et al. 2015); this
region currently lacks academic scholarship in the positive psychology field (Brannan et al.
2013; Joshanloo 2016; Rao et al. 2015). Accordingly, more investigation is required to deter-
mine whether the fear and fragility of happiness can be manipulated, whether the use of PPIs
in a predominantly non-Western setting can achieve wellbeing gains over time, and whether
levels of religiosity are impacted by education about, and use of, PPIs. We sought to help
address this research gap.

5 The Present Study

The purpose of this study was, thus, twofold: (1) to evaluate changes in wellbeing after partici-
pating in a semester-long happiness program relative to a control group, and (2), to examine
the impact of such a program on the fear and fragility of happiness beliefs, as well as religios-
ity, among a culturally diverse group of university students.

13
A Positive Psychology Intervention Program in a… 1145

6 Method

6.1 Participants

A total of 268 students participated in the study (Tx group: n = 159; male = 62, female = 97,
age range: 17-43, Mage = 21.11, SDage = 3.41; Control group: n = 108, male = 56,
female = 52, age range: 18-35, Mage = 21.44, SDage = 2.79). A broad range of nationalities
(39 in total) were represented with Nigerian (10.01%), Emirati (7.5%), and Indian (7.1%)
composing the largest groups (see Table 1 for detailed counts). Participants were predomi-
nantly Muslim (77.61%) followed by Catholic/Christian (12.69%; see Table 1 for detailed
counts). All students (with the exception of 13 participants who were Emirati nationals in
the intervention group and 7 in the control group) were expatriate students currently living
in Dubai (UAE) and enrolled in a 4-year university program. All participants were from the
same university; intervention group participants were enrolled in the Introduction to Psy-
chology course while control group participants were not enrolled in the course. The major
and year of each student was not solicited as the course was an open elective and students

Table 1  Nationalities and religions of participants

Nationality Frequency Percentage Nationality Frequency Percentage

Nigerian 27 10.1 Sudanese 1 0.4

Emirati 20 7.5 Australia 1 0.4
Indian 19 7.1 Brazilian 1 0.4
Jordanian 17 6.3 Cameroun 1 0.4
Iranian 16 6.0 Greek 1 0.4
Pakistani 16 6.0 Korea 1 0.4
Syrian 16 6.0 Polish 1 0.4
Chinese 14 5.2 Serbian 1 0.4
Kazakhstan 14 5.2 South African 1 0.4
Palestinian 14 5.2 Sri Lankan 1 0.4
Egyptian 12 4.5 Turkmenistan 1 0.4
Lebanese 12 4.5 Ukraine 1 0.4
Afghanistan 7 2.6
Libyan 7 2.6
Russian 7 2.6
Iraqi 5 1.9 Religion Frequency Percentage
Yemeni 5 1.9 Muslim 208 77.6
Algerian 4 1.5 Catholic/Christian 34 12.7
Armenian 3 1.1 None 19 7.1
Moroccan 3 1.1 Hindu/Sikh 3 1.1
Saudi 3 1.1 Buddhist 2 0.7
Tajikistan 3 1.1 Bahai 1 0.4
Tanzanian 3 1.1
Bahraini 2 0.7
Filipino 2 0.7
French 2 0.7
Italian 2 0.7

13
1146 L. Lambert et al.

came from a diversity of programs such as engineering, IT, communications, architecture,

and health sciences. All students were from second year onwards as the course required a
1 year English prerequisite. The language of teaching is English.

6.2 Procedure

The Ethics Review Board granted approval for the study; all participants gave informed
consent and were informed that they could withdraw their results from the study at any
time. A total of 10 introductory psychology sections were offered from January 2015 to
the end of 2016 in which students participated in the 14-week Happiness 101 program
(Lambert 2012, 2016), which was previously developed by the first author and evaluated
in a primary healthcare setting (Lambert D’raven et al. 2015). The Happiness 101 program
was embedded in the Introduction to Psychology courses taught by the first author and
primary investigator, the status of which students were aware. The program was presented
to students as a program that had been shown to work in other cultures. While students
were aware that their responses were part of a study, emphasis was placed on the infor-
mation and interventions rather than on the research aspect of the study. Measures were
taken at the start and end of the 14-week program and again at 3 months post-treatment. To
maintain objectivity, the data were analyzed independently by the second and third authors.
Eighteen validated PPIs were undertaken during classes over the course of the semester
(e.g., engaging in good deeds, writing a gratitude letter, using mindfulness, savoring; see
Table 2 for an overview of the program including the full set of PPIs employed), with rec-
ommendations to practice them over the course of the week.
Many intervention studies have been criticized for merely assessing one or a handful of
PPIs in isolation, and for not being framed upon a theoretical orientation to contextualize
or guide their work (Gander et al. 2016). The Happiness 101 program is structured accord-
ing to the PERMA (Seligman 2011) model. The PERMA model highlights five pathways
(Positive Emotion, Engagement, Relationships, Meaning, and Accomplishments) thought
to best reflect the ways in which individuals achieve wellbeing. Various PPIs were selected
to reflect each pathway, much like the Gander et al. (2016) study, which used PERMA as
its theoretical orientation and evaluated the overall effects of selected PPIs according to
each pathway. For instance, writing a gratitude letter was included in the pathway of Rela-
tionships, savoring in the Positive Emotion pathway, and writing a reverse bucket list in the
Accomplishments pathway. In addition, positive psychology concepts such as adaptation
(Lyubomirsky 2011), flow (Csikszentmihalyi 1990), the broaden and build model (Fre-
drickson 2006), and the architecture of sustainable happiness (Lyubomirsky et al. 2005a,
b) were introduced. Understanding how positive psychology contrasts with traditional psy-
chology was also discussed as part of psychology’s historical development. Group discus-
sions, along with written or in-class activities, facilitated instruction. Although religious
beliefs and beliefs regarding fear and fragility of happiness were of interest in the study,
these constructs were not directly addressed in the classes or written materials. Participants
received course credit; participants were not involved in any additional university support
programmes.

6.3 Measures

Wellbeing is multidimensional and comprises both feeling good and functioning well,
hedonia and eudaimonia respectively (Keyes and Annas 2009; Ryan and Deci 2001; cf.

13
 Table 2  Overview of happiness 101 program and PPI used
Content Week 1 and 2 Week 3 and 4 Week 5 and 6 Week 7, 8, and 9 Week 10 and 11 Week 12 and 13

Theme Introduction to Positive PERMA Pathway of Engagement Pathway of Relation- Pathway of Community Pathway of Achievement
Psychology Pathway of Positive ships Relationships Pathway of Meaning
Emotion
Content Happiness myths PERMA model (Selig- Sustainable happiness Capitalization (Gable Value of good deeds What is meaning?
Positive (and main- man 2011) (Lyubomirsky et al. 2013) Social media and rela- Achievement
stream) psychology Positive emotion 2005) Communication tionships The road ahead
A Positive Psychology Intervention Program in a…

(Broaden & Build, Engagement; flow (Csik- Why people matter Gratitude to deepen
Fredrickson 2006) szentmihalyi 1990) relationships
Adaptation (Lyubomir-
sky 2011)
PPIs used Mindfulness (Brown Write/think Self-talk (Hardy et al. Three good things Good deeds (Aknin and Best Possible Self (Shel-
et al. 2007) about + experiences 2001) (Seligman et al. 2005) Dunn 2013) don and Lyubomirsky
Reduce over- thinking (Burton and King Letting go (Watkins et al. Plan a date (Lambert Retreat from social 2006)
(Lyubomirsky and 2004) 2013) 2009/2012) media (Ferguson and Goal setting (Sheldon
Tkach 2003) Savoring (Bryant and Active-constructive Kasser 2013) et al. 2010)
Record the positive Veroff 2006) responding (Gable Gratitude letter (Duck- How to be remembered
(Kurtz and Lyubomir- Optimism (Carver et al. 2013) worth et al. 2005) Family tree (Fischer et al.
sky 2013) 2010) 2010)
1147

13
1148 L. Lambert et al.

Kashdan et al. 2008). Both hedonia and eudaimonia are necessary for complete flour-
ishing and wellbeing (Kern et al. 2015; Keyes 2005; Waterman et al. 2010), thus, both
feeling good and functioning well were assessed. We used a variety of measures not
only to capture nuanced aspects of well-being, but also to help determine if differences
or gains in well-being held true across different well-being measures (as per Passmore
et al. 2017). This was of particular interest with respect to eudaimonia, given the diverse
conceptual backgrounds informing this construct (e.g., Keyes 2002; Huta and Water-
man 2014; Ryan et al. 2008; see also review by Lambert et al. 2015). As noted in the
introduction, we felt it equally important to assess the effects that learning about, and
using, PPIs would have on beliefs regarding the fear and fragility of happiness as well
as impact on level of religiosity. Moreover, given the direct contribution that religiosity
has on well-being, we also deemed it important to control for religion in our analyses as
it is possible that initial levels of religiosity could affect well-being trajectories of our
participants.
A total of eight measures were utilized (described in detail below): two measures of
hedonic well-being: (1) Scale of Positive and Negative Experience, (2) Satisfaction with
Life Scale; two measures of eudaimonic well-being: (1) Flourishing Scale, (2), Question-
naire of Eudaimonic Well-Being; one measure of overall mental health: The Mental Health
Continuum—Short Form; two measures pertaining to happiness beliefs: (1) Fear of Hap-
piness Scale, (2) The Fragility of Happiness Scale; and one measure of religiosity: Brief
Version of the Santa Clara Strength of Religious Faith Questionnaire.
Scale of Positive and Negative Experience (SPANE; Diener et al. 2009, 2010). The
12-item SPANE measures positive feelings (SPANE-P), negative feelings (SPANE-N),
and the balance between the two (SPANE-B). It is considered appropriate to use in cultur-
ally diverse settings as it does not include lists of emotions that might be problematic for
non-English speakers, rather it uses terms like “good”, “bad”, “positive” and so forth. The
SPANE was shown to have good reliability and validity (Diener et al. 2010), as well as
high factor loadings for the SPANE-P and SPANE-N. The construct validity of the overall
SPANE was good, with moderate to very high correlations with other emotion and wellbe-
ing measures. Cronbach’s alphas in the current study were between .74, and .81.
Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS; Diener et al. 1985). The 5-item SWLS assesses an
individual’s overall judgment of satisfaction with their life as a whole versus specific life
domains (Pavot and Diener 2008). Items (e.g., “I am satisfied with my life”, “If I could live
my life over, I would change almost nothing”) are rated on a 7-point scale with end points
of 1 = strongly disagree and 7 = strongly agree. Scores range from 5 to 35, with the neutral
point at 20. The SWLS has been shown to have high internal consistency (0.79 and higher),
while test–retest reliability and convergent validity is also high (Pavot and Diener 1993).
The SWLS is a widely used wellbeing measure (Larsen and Eid 2008; Pavot and Diener
2008). Cronbach’s alphas in the current study were .74, .76, .74.
Flourishing Scale (FS; Diener et al. 2009). The FS is an 8-item measure of social
psychological prosperity. It includes the following: having a sense of competence, feel-
ing engaged and interested, reporting meaning and purpose, feeling a sense of optimism,
accepting the self, having supportive and rewarding relationships, contributing to the well-
being of others, and being respected by others. Items (e.g., “I am engaged and interested
in my daily activities”, “I am optimistic about my future”) are rated on a 7-point scale
ranging from 1 = strongly disagree to 7 = strongly agree. The FS has shown high reliability
and validity in college student samples (Diener et al. 2010). The construct validity of the
FS was acceptable, based on its moderate to high correlations with scores on several other
wellbeing measures (rs = .78, 73). Cronbach’s alphas in the current study were .80, .84, .83.

13
A Positive Psychology Intervention Program in a… 1149

Questionnaire of Eudaimonic Well-Being (QEWB; Waterman et al. 2010). Eudaimonic

wellbeing involves the development of potentials and fulfillment of personal goals; thus,
it is based on activity and not solely on what individuals think about their life or feel at a
given moment. The 21-item QEWB measures effort, self-discovery, enjoyment, purpose and
meaning, development of one’s potentials, and involvement. Waterman et al. (2010) found all
items to load onto a single factor with high internal consistency suggesting altogether that the
psychometric properties of the QEWB can be considered acceptable. Examples of the items
include, “I believe I have discovered who I really am” and “When I engage in activities that
involve my best potentials, I have this sense of really being alive”. Cronbach’s alphas in the
current study were .76, .79, .80.
The Mental Health Continuum Short Form (MHC-SF; Keyes 2009). The MCH-SF meas-
ures three sources of wellbeing, i.e., social (social integration and contribution), emotional
(positive emotion and satisfaction with life), psychological (autonomy and personal growth).
The 14-item scale has been validated across many cultural contexts (Joshanloo et al. 2013;
Khumalo et al. 2012) and has good test–retest reliability over 3 months (Lamers et al. 2012).
Diagnoses range from flourishing mental health (upper limits), languishing (lower limits),
and moderate mental health for those who are neither flourishing nor languishing. Recently,
the MCH-SF was tested in student samples from 38 different countries (N = 8066; Zemojtel-
Piotrowska et al. 2018). Zemojtel-Piotrowska and colleagues recommended the use of an over-
all mental health score—that is, treating scores from the MCH-SF as a single dimension—
given that differentiation between the subscales was not strongly pronounced, particularly in
more collectivistic countries. Thus in the current study, we calculated only an overall score of
mental health. Cronbach’s alphas in the current study were .85, .89, .87.
Fear of Happiness Scale (FHS; Joshanloo 2013a; Joshanloo et al. 2014). The five-item
scale captures the stable belief that happiness is a sign of impending unhappiness. The
measure is shown to be reliable (Joshanloo 2013a) and has been used and validated across
multiple national groups and countries and considered to have good statistical properties
(Joshanloo et al. 2014, 2015). Examples of the items include, “I prefer not to be too joyful,
because usually joy is followed by sadness.” Cronbach’s alphas in the current study were
.74, .80, .81.
The Fragility of Happiness Scale (Joshanloo et al. 2014, 2015). The four-item scale cap-
tures the belief in the fleetingness of happiness and is rated on a 7-point scale. The scale
has been used, validated and understood as having a constant meaning across multiple
national groups and countries and considered to have good statistical properties (Joshanloo
et al. 2014, 2015). Item examples include, “Something might happen at any time and we
could easily lose our happiness.” Cronbach’s alphas in the current study were .81, .83, .86.
Brief Version of the Santa Clara Strength of Religious Faith Questionnaire (SCSRFQ;
Plante et al. 2002). The SCSRFQ is a shorter version of the original scale featuring five
items to measure the strength of religious faith. It is considered valid and reliable (Chron-
bach Alpha = .95), with the shortened version considered as effective as the original. An
example of the items includes, “My religious faith impacts many of my decisions.” Cron-
bach’s alphas in the current study were .85, .88, .88.

7 Results

In order to examine if post-intervention levels of wellbeing, fear of happiness, and fragility

of happiness differed between the intervention and control group, we conducted a series of
ANCOVAs using the first two assessments, excluding the 3-month follow-up (see Table 3

13
1150 L. Lambert et al.

for detailed statistics). Pre-intervention scores were used as a covariate in all analyses.
With regard to wellbeing, analyses revealed that at the end of the 14-week Happiness 101
program, affect balance was higher (d = 0.23) and eudaimonic wellbeing was significantly
higher in the intervention group (d = 0.40). Scores on the measures of satisfaction with life,
flourishing, and overall mental health were not significantly different between the groups
at post-intervention. With regard to attitudes towards happiness, at post-intervention, the
intervention group reported significantly lower levels of fear of happiness (d = 0.47) and of
believing that happiness is fragile (d = 0.23). No difference in religious faith was evidenced
between the groups at post intervention.
We ran a second set of ANOCOVAs using pre-intervention scores of the dependent
variables, age, gender, and pre-intervention scores of religious faith as covariates. For the
most part, effect sizes did not differ significantly utilizing these additional covariates. The
one exception to this was affect balance, with significance level changing from p = .080 to
p = .051. However, effect size differed only by .03.
We conducted a series of paired t-tests to examine differences in wellbeing and atti-
tudes towards happiness within the intervention group at pre, post, and 3-month follow-up
time points, excluding the control group (see Table 4 for detailed statistics). All measures
of wellbeing were significantly higher at post-intervention compared to pre-intervention
(affect balance: d = 0.30, satisfaction with life: d = 0.33; flourishing: d = 0.19, eudaimonic
wellbeing: d = 0.24, overall mental health: d = 0.20). Further, significant gains in levels
of affect balance and satisfaction with life from pre-intervention were maintained at the
3-month follow-up (ds = 0.21, 0.21 respectively). Compared to pre-intervention, fear of
happiness was significantly lower at post-intervention (d = 0.36) as was believing that hap-
piness is fragile (d = 0.36). These significant differences were maintained at the 3-month
follow-up (d = 0.28, d = 0.47). No significant differences in religious faith were evidenced
within the intervention group across the three measurement times. Although significance
from pre- to post-intervention was marginally higher for religious faith, the effect size was
small (d = 0.10).

8 Discussion

In this study, we demonstrated that learning about positive psychology concepts and using
PPIs resulted in boosts to both hedonic and eudaimonic well-being (as assessed by a vari-
ety of measurement scales) from pre- to post-intervention, and sustained gains in affect
balance and life satisfaction at the 3-month mark. Further, greater affect-balance and eudai-
monic wellbeing scores relative to a control group at 3-month post-intervention were also
observed. Our results are consistent with previous studies where gains were maintained
over time (Duckworth et al. 2005; Gander et al. 2016; Lambert D’raven et al. 2015). More-
over, effect sizes for change in well-being and attitudes towards happiness (ds from 0.19 to
0.47) were within the range, and for the most part at the high end, of the average effect size
for PPIs (ds from 0.20 to 0.34, Bolier et al. 2013).
Further, this study realized important reductions in the belief in the fear of happiness, as
well as the fragility of happiness, in the intervention group at post-intervention which were
maintained at the 3-month follow-up. Reductions in these beliefs were not observed in the
control group and can, thus, be attributed in part to engaging in PPIs as well as learning about
positive psychology concepts in general. This is in line with Gander et al.’s (2016) suggestion
that greater benefits are found using this two-pronged method rather than merely targeting

13
 Table 3  Between group differences: treatment versus control for first two assessments (pre-intervention and post-intervention)
Descriptive statistics ANCOVA with pre-score as covariate ANCOVA with additional covariates
M (SE) [95% CI for mean difference | 95% CI effect size] [95% CI for mean difference | 95% CI effect size]
Treatment Control Condition Covariates Condition Covariates

Scale of Positive and Negative 8.29 (.464) 7.00 (.567) F(1, 246) = 3.086 Pre-score: p < .001 F(1, 241) = 3.841 Pre-score: p < .001
Emotions—Balance* 8.37 (.470) 6.92 (.571) p = .080, [− 0.156, 2.734] p = .051, [− 0.007, 2.918] Age: p = .373
n = 149/147 n = 100/100 d = 0.228, [− 0.227, 0.481] d = 0.254 [− 0.001, 0.509] Gender: p = .088
pre-SCSRFQ: p = .771
Satisfaction with Life 25.56 (.316) 25.07 (.388) F(1, 260) = 0.973 Pre-score: p < .001 F(1, 254) = 0.948 Pre-score: p < .001
25.54 (.322) 25.05 (.392) p = .325, [− 0.492, 1.479] p = .331, [− 0.507, 1.498] Age: p = .762
n = 158/155 n = 105/105 d = 0.124, [− 0.123, 0.371] d = 0.123 [-0.125, 0.371] gender: p = .406
Pre-SCSRFQ: p = .136
Flourishing 45.49 (.413) 44.55 (.506) F(1, 259) = 2.046 Pre-score: p < .001 F(1, 253) = 1.682 Pre-score: p < .001
45.44 (.422) 44.58 (.513) p = .154, [− 0.352, 2.222] p = .196, [-0.449, 2.183] Age: p = .615
A Positive Psychology Intervention Program in a…

n = 157/154 n = 105/105 d = 0.180 [-0.068, 0.428] d = 0.164, [-0.085, 0.413] Gender: p = .449
Pre-SCSRFQ: p = .303
Questionnaire of Eudaimonic 59.11 (.708) 55.94 (.865) F(1, 201) = 8.009 pre-score: p < .001 F(1, 196) = 6.613 pre-score: p < .001
Wellbeing** 59.05 (.727) 56.07 (.885) p = .005, [0.962, 5.383] p = .011, [0.696, 5.276] age: p = .759
n = 122/120 n = 82/82 d = 0.404, [0.121, 0.686] d = 0.369, [0.085, 0.651] gender p = .378
pre-SCSRFQ: p = .757
Mental Health Continuum 46.78 (.781) 45.98 (.976) F(1, 248) = 0.414 Pre-score: p < .001 F(1, 242) = 0.549 Pre-score: p < .001
46.90 (.796) 45.95 (.988) p = .521, [− 1.659, 3.238] p = .460, [− 1.569, 3.459] Age: p = .309
n = 153/150 n = 98/98 d = 0.083, [− 0.171, 0.337] d = 0.101, [− 0.159, 0.351] Gender p = .607
Pre-SCSRFQ: p = .779
Fear of Happiness** 13.50 (.429) 16.05 (.525) F(1, 264) = 14.116 Pre-score: p < .001 F(1, 258) = 12.728 Pre-score: p < .001
13.53 (.438) 16.00 (.531) p < .001, [− 3.885, − 1.213] p < .001, [− 3.830, − 1.106] Age: p = .222
n = 160/157 n = 107/107 d = 0.469, [0.221, 0.717] d = 0.447, [0.198, 0.696] gender p = .631
Pre-SCSRFQ: p = .328
Fragility of Happiness* 18.61 (.384) 19.73 (.467) F(1, 262) = 3.422 Pre-score: p < .001 F(1, 256) = 2.534 Pre-score: p < .001
18.71 (.392) 19.69 (.472) p = .065, [− 2.308, 0.072] p = .113, [− 2.197, 0.233] Age: p = .844
n = 158/155 n = 107/107 d = 0.232 [-0.015, 0.478] d = 0.200, [-0.047, 0.447] gender p = .458
Pre-SCSRFQ: p = .833
1151

13
 Table 3  (continued)
1152

Descriptive statistics ANCOVA with pre-score as covariate ANCOVA with additional covariates
M (SE) [95% CI for mean difference | 95% CI effect size] [95% CI for mean difference | 95% CI effect size]

13
Treatment Control Condition Covariates Condition Covariates

Religious Faith 11.21 (183) 11.03 (.222) F(1, 264) = 0.402 Pre-score: p < .001 F(1, 259) = 0.168 Pre-score: p < .001
11.17 (.170) 11.05 (.225) p = .526 [− 0.384, 0.750] p = .682 [− 0.458, 0.699] Age: p = .729
n = 159/156 n = 108/108 d = 0.074 [− 0.170, 0.319] d = 0.052 [− 0.194, 0.297] Gender p = .249

SCSRFQ Santa Clara Strength of Religious Faith Questionnaire

*Marginally significant difference between groups
**Significant difference between groups
L. Lambert et al.
 Table 4  Treatment group paired t tests pre- post- follow-up
Variable Descriptive statistics Paired t test
M (SD)
Pre Post Follow-up Pre to post Post to follow-up Pre to follow-up

Scale of Positive and Nega- 6.02 (6.80) 7.91 (6.98) 7.55 (6.51) t(148) = 4.52 t(125) = 0.44 t(120) = 2.40
tive Emotions—Balance** n = 151 n = 157 n = 128 p < .001, [1.156, 2.952] p = .662, [− 0.867, 1.359] p = .018, [0.238, 2.506]
d = 0.296, [0.130, 0.462] d = 0.036, [-0.139, 0.211] d = 0.206, [0.026, 0.386]
Satisfaction with Life** 23.78 (5.07) 25.44 (4.93) 25.18 (4.65) t(157) = 4.55 t(130) = 1.45 t(130) = 2.52
n = 159 n = 159 n = 132 p < .001, [0.928, 2.350] p = .149, [− 0.183, 1.190] p = .013, [0.220, 1.826]
d = 0.327, [0.166, 0.488] d = 0.108, [− 0.064, 0.280] d = 0.213, [0.040, 0.387]
Flourishinga 44.65 (5.41) 45.65 (5.77) 45.07 (5.95) t(156) = 2.43 t(130) = 1.52 t(130) = 0.49
n = 158 n = 159 n = 132 p = .016, [0.196, 1.881] p = .131, [− 0.201, 1.530] p = .623, [− 1.149, 0.691]
d = 0.185, [0.027, 0.343] d = 0.117, [− 0.055, 0.289] d = 0.041, [− 0.130, 0.212]
Questionnaire of Eudaimonic 57.58 (8.64) 59.56 (9.11) 58.45 (9.02) t(121) = 3.22 t(110) = 1.65 t(107) = 1.39
A Positive Psychology Intervention Program in a…

­Wellbeinga n = 137 n = 142 n = 124 p = .002, [0.844, 3.550] p = .101, [− 0.264, 2.930] p = .168, [− 2.610, 0.462]
d = 0.242, [0.061, 0.423] d = 0.141, [− 0.046, 0.328] d = 0.121, [− 0.068, 0.310]
Mental Health ­Continuuma 44.44 (10.54) 46.83 (11.10) 45.91 (10.76) t(152) = 2.70 t(125) = 0.98 t(123) = 1.36
n = 154 n = 158 n = 128 p = .008, [0.591, 3.801] p = .329, [− 0.872, 2.586] p = .175, [− 3.184, 0.587]
d = 0.203, [0.043, 0.363] d = 0.078, [-0.097, 0.253] d = 0.121, [-0.056, 0.298]
Fear of Happiness** 15.94 (7.54) 13.41 (6.61) 13.58 (6.98) t(159) = 5.12 t(131) = 0.19 t(131) = 3.57
n = 160 n = 160 n = 132 p < .001, [1.559, 3.516] p = .852, [− 1.055, 0.873] p = .001, [0.915, 3.191]
d = 0.355, [0.194, 0.516] d = 0.013, [− 0.158, 0.184] d = 0.282, [0.108, 0.456]
Fragility of Happiness** 20.53 (4.97) 18.66 (5.19) 18.39 (5.23) t(157) = 4.10 t(131) = 0.81 t(130) = 4.70
n = 158 n = 160 n = 132 p < .001, [0.949, 2.710] p = .418, [− 0.521, 1.249] p < .001, [1.371, 3.362]
d = 0.359, [0.199, 0.519] d = 0.071, [− 0.100, 0.242] d = 0.470, [0.292, 0.648]
Religious Faith 11.48 (3.29) 11.14 (3.59) 11.38 (3.37) t(158) = 1.81 t(132) = − 0.91 t(132) = 0.43
n = 160 n = 159 n = 133 p = .071, [− 0.031, 0.736] p = .366, [− 0.813, 0.302] p = .670, [− 0.382, 0.592]
d = 0.101, [− 0.121, 0.318] d = 0.074, [− 0.299, 0.162] d = 0.032, [− 0.200, 0.260]

*Marginally significant difference pre and post, and between pre and follow-up
**Significant difference between pre and post, and between pre and follow-up
a
1153

Significant difference between pre and post, but no significant difference between pre and follow-up

13
1154 L. Lambert et al.

specific interventions in isolation, as is commonly the case in other PPI studies. Yet, it is
unknown whether it was the positive psychology information, the experience of PPIs, or the
combination thereof which caused these reductions. Future studies are needed to tease apart
these aspects. It is important to note that, to our knowledge, our study is the first to show that
the belief in the fear and fragility of happiness (Joshanloo et al. 2014, 2015) can be affected
in response to interventions. Moreover, as noted in the introduction, although some cultural
and religious beliefs frame happiness in a negative light, our findings suggest that receiving
instruction in the science of wellbeing and experiencing its effects can reduce attitudes of fear
and fragility of happiness, without diminishing levels of religiosity.
In fact, the reduction in the endorsement of fear and fragility beliefs might have in turn
contributed to the gains observed in well-being as a result of the intervention. Research on fear
and fragility beliefs indicate that holding these beliefs is associated with lowered hedonic and
eudaimonic well-being across cultures (Agbo and Ngwu 2017; Joshanloo et al. 2014, 2015).
In particular, if these beliefs are accompanied by high levels of pessimism, they may come to
have an even stronger negative impact on well-being (Joshanloo et al. 2017). That is, these
beliefs may accompany or even lead to generalized unfavorable expectancies, such as the ideas
that happiness is not achievable, out of control, or not worthy to pursue. Such a mindset may
demotivate the person and generate feelings of inadequacy to make positive changes in the self
and life in general (Joshanloo 2017). In sum, we speculate that the reduction in fear and fragil-
ity of happiness may have contributed to the gain in well-being in the present study. Further-
more, although fear and fragility beliefs have not been explicitly targeted in the intervention,
we speculate that contents related to optimism and internal locus of control might have been
largely responsible for the reductions in the endorsement of fear and fragility of happiness
across the time points.
Yet, what are the ethical and moral considerations of modifying such cultural beliefs, even
if wellbeing increases as a result? Arguably, most PPI studies have been conducted in the West
where more than 90% of the research published in positive psychology emerges and positive
psychology’s individualistic and democratic outlooks are assumed, influential, and unques-
tioned (Arnett 2008; Bermant et al. 2011; Christopher and Hickinbottom 2008; Giacaman
et al. 2010; Joshanloo 2013b). As individuals increase focus on their individual happiness and
utilize these Western-originating PPIs, will they become less collectivistic and more individ-
ualistic over time? Measuring change along the collectivistic-individualistic continuum as a
result of PPI use would be an interesting avenue to pursue as well as determining which PPI
had the strongest wellbeing effects given that we tested the overall effects of a battery of PPIs.
Finally, while positive psychology focuses on wellbeing, the amelioration of depressive
symptoms is also important. Although this was not the focus of the present study, future inter-
vention studies could assess whether negative emotions are reduced via PPI programs such as
the Happiness 101 program (Lambert 2009/2012) used in the current study. As many of our
participants hailed from countries in which there was, or currently is, civil unrest, incorporat-
ing positive psychology interventions to address trauma and other vulnerabilities may be a
vital addition in future programs and studies (Brunzell et al. 2016).

9 Limitations

All students had English as a second, third, or even fourth language. While the course
had a 1 year English prerequisite, this may nonetheless have posed difficulties in under-
standing the scale items and program content. The questionnaires were, however, done

13
A Positive Psychology Intervention Program in a… 1155

in class where students could ask for help with terminology. We did not collect data to
ascertain year of study of participants. Experiences of first- and final-year students can
be notably different; future studies could include this demographic as a possible mod-
erator variable. Ascertaining program of study (data which we did not collect) would
have allowed for comparison analyses within the intervention group to explore possi-
ble difference in well-being, happiness beliefs, and religiosity across broad academic
disciplines (e.g., students in social sciences vs. natural sciences). We recommend that
these data be collected in future studies. Students, in contrast with community samples,
may also have reported overly positive states of wellbeing at the start of term when new
professors and friends create excitement, especially when informed the class project is
on happiness. At the same time, wellbeing scores may have been temporarily lower than
usual given that end of term deadlines, fatigue, and final exams were looming. Because
the happiness program was done for credit, it is unknown whether this affected their
results or whether they continued to engage in the interventions outside of class and
beyond the term. It is possible that coming from countries like Syria, Iraq, Yemen,
Nigeria, Lebanon, etc., and moving to the UAE, the most stable and safe country in the
MENA region, could have contributed to the reductions in participants’ beliefs given
that happiness is indeed fragile in insecure settings.

10 Conclusion

The growth of wellbeing programs within academia is a welcome development that can,
we believe, irreversibly transform the field of education. However, this is currently far
from a global norm. We encourage higher educational institutions to take wellbeing as
seriously as organizations do, and to track indicators of wellbeing in their student body
in order to better understand where to target interventions. We also encourage insti-
tutions to consider the cultural and religious implications of using PPI programs, and
to develop and validate locally relevant programs and interventions (Lambert et al.
2015). Programs like the Happiness 101 program (Lambert 2009/2012) used in the
current study, clearly bring about changes in wellbeing, changes that may have future
positive implications for school achievement (Durlak et al. 2011), work (Erdogan et al.
2012), job success (Creed et al. 2002; Neault 2002), and health (Huang and Humphries
2012). But more than anything, such programs offer youth a means to attain the skills
to achieve greater versions of themselves, something not currently on offer in most aca-
demic institutions.
We also advocate for the inclusion of wellbeing programs that address academic insti-
tutions as a whole, in line with Oades et al.’s (2011) advice that a truly positive univer-
sity must include faculty, administration, the university campus residential setting, and the
work environment as targets of interventions. Individual wellbeing gains are difficult to
uphold where the broader environment is not the focus of such work. Finally, as this study
was the first to show that beliefs of fear and fragility of happiness can be manipulated, and
that wellbeing gains are possible in a group of highly diverse international students, we
encourage continued inquiry in this direction to achieve a representative global positive
psychology (Wong, 2013).

13
1156 L. Lambert et al.

Compliance with Ethical Standards

Conflict of interest The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

References
Aaker, J., Rudd, M., & Mogilner, C. (2011). If money does not make you happy, consider time. Journal
of Consumer Psychology, 21(2), 126–130. https​://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcps.2011.01.004.
Abu-Raiya, H., Pargament, K. I., & Krause, N. (2016). Religion as problem, religion as solution: Reli-
gious buffers of the links between religious/spiritual struggles and well-being/mental health.
Quality of Life Research: An International Journal of Quality of Life Aspects of Treatment, Care &
Rehabilitation, 25(5), 1265–1274. https​://doi.org/10.1007/s1113​6-015-1163-8.
Agbo, A. A., & Ngwu, C. N. (2017). Aversion to happiness and the experience of happiness: The mod-
erating roles of personality. Personality and Individual Differences, 111, 227–231. https​://doi.
org/10.1016/j.paid.2017.02.010.
Aknin, L. B., Barrington-Leigh, C. P., Dunn, E. W., Helliwell, J. F., Biswas-Diener, R., Kemeza, I., et al.
(2013). Prosocial spending and well-being: Cross-cultural evidence for a psychological univer-
sal. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 104(4), 635–652. https​://doi.org/10.1037/a0031​
578.
Aknin, L. B., & Dunn, E. W. (2013). Spending money on others leads to higher happiness than spending
on yourself. In J. F. Froh & A. C. Parks (Eds.), Activities for teaching positive psychology: A guide
for instructors (pp. 93–98). Washington, DC: APA. https​://doi.org/10.1037/14042​-015.
Arnett, J. J. (2008). The neglected 95%: Why American psychology needs to become less American.
American Psychologist, 63(7), 602–614. https​://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066x.63.7.602.
Bermant, G., Talwar, C., & Rozin, P. (2011). To celebrate positive psychology and extend its hori-
zons. In K. M. Sheldon, T. B. Kashdan, & M. F. Steger (Eds.), Designing positive psychology:
Taking stock and moving forward (pp. 430–438). Oxford: Oxford University Press. https​://doi.
org/10.1093/acpro​f:oso/97801​95373​585.003.0029.
Bernard, M., & Walton, K. (2011). The effect of You Can Do It! Education in six schools on student
perceptions of wellbeing, teaching, learning and relationships. Journal of Student Wellbeing, 5,
22–37. https​://doi.org/10.21913​/jsw.v5i1.679.
Boehm, J. K., & Kubzansky, L. D. (2012). The heart’s content: The association between positive psycho-
logical well-being and cardiovascular health. Psychological Bulletin, 138, 655–691. https​://doi.
org/10.1037/a0027​448.
Boehm, J. K., Lyubomirsky, S., & Sheldon, K. M. (2011). A longitudinal experimental study comparing
the effectiveness of happiness-enhancing strategies in Anglo Americans and Asian Americans.
Cognition and Emotion, 25, 1263–1272. https​://doi.org/10.1080/02699​931.2010.54122​7.
Bolier, L., Haverman, M., Westerhof, G. J., Riper, H., Smit, F., & Bohlmeijer, E. (2013). Positive psy-
chology interventions: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled studies. BMC Public Health, 13,
119. https​://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-13-119.
Brannan, D., Biswas-Diener, R., Mohr, C., Mortazavi, S., & Stein, N. (2013). Friends and family: A
cross-cultural investigation of social support and subjective well-being. Journal of Positive Psy-
chology, 8(1), 65–75. https​://doi.org/10.1080/17439​760.2012.74357​3.
Broderick, P., & Metz, S. (2009). Learning to BREATHE: A pilot trial of a mindfulness curriculum
for adolescents. Advances in School Mental Health Promotion, 2, 35–46. https​://doi.org/10.1002/
yd.20042​/pdf.
Brown, K., Ryan, R., & Creswell, J. (2007). Addressing fundamental questions about mindfulness. Psy-
chological Inquiry, 18, 272–281. https​://doi.org/10.1080/10478​40070​17033​44.
Brunwasser, S. M., Gillham, J. E., & Kim, E. S. (2009). A meta-analytic review of the Penn Resiliency
Program’s effect on depressive symptoms. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 77(6),
1042–1054. https​://doi.org/10.1037/a0017​671.
Brunzell, T., Stokes, H., & Waters, L. (2016). Trauma informed positive education: Using positive
psychology to repair and strengthen vulnerable students. Contemporary School Psychology, 20,
63–83. https​://doi.org/10.1007/s4068​8-015-0070-x.
Bryant, F., & Veroff, J. (2006). Savoring: A new model of positive experience. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Burton, C., & King, L. (2004). The health benefits of writing about intensely positive experiences. Jour-
nal of Research in Personality, 38, 150–163. https​://doi.org/10.1016/s0092​-6566(03)00058​-8.

13
A Positive Psychology Intervention Program in a… 1157

Burton, C., & King, L. (2009). The health benefits of writing about positive experiences: The role of
broadened cognition. Psychology & Health, 24(8), 867–879. https​://doi.org/10.1080/08870​44080​
19899​46.
Carver, C., Scheier, M., & Segerstrom, S. (2010). Optimism. Clinical Psychology Review, 30, 879–889.
https​://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2010.01.006.
Christopher, J., & Hickinbottom, S. (2008). Positive psychology, ethnocentrism, and the disguised ideology
of individualism. Theory & Psychology, 18(5), 563–589. https​://doi.org/10.1177/09593​54308​09339​6.
Creed, P. A., Patton, W., & Bartrum, D. (2002). Multidimensional properties of the LOT-R: Effects
of optimism and pessimism on career and wellbeing related variables in adolescents. Journal of
Career Assessment, 10, 42–61. https​://doi.org/10.1177/10690​72702​01000​1003.
Creswell, J. D., Welch, W. T., Taylor, S. E., Sherman, D. K., Gruenewald, T. L., & Mann, T. (2005).
Affirmation of personal values buffers neuroendocrine and psychological stress responses. Psycho-
logical Science, 16, 846–851. https​://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2005.01624​.x.
Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1990). Flow: The psychology of optimal experience. New York: Harper & Row.
Diener, E., Emmons, R. A., Larsen, R. J., & Griffin, S. (1985). The Satisfaction with Life scale. Journal
of Personality Assessment, 49, 71–75. https​://doi.org/10.1207/s1532​7752j​pa490​1_13.
Diener, E., Fujita, F., Tay, L., & Biswas-Diener, R. (2012). Purpose, mood, and pleasure in prediction
satisfaction judgements. Social Indicators Research, 105, 333–341. https​://doi.org/10.1007/s1120​
5-011-9787-8.
Diener, E., Oishi, S., & Ryan, K. (2013). Universal and cultural differences in the causes and structure
of “happiness”—A multilevel review. In C. Keyes (Ed.), Mental well-being: International con-
tributions to the study of positive mental health (pp. 153–176). Dordrecht: Springer. https​://doi.
org/10.1007/978-94-007-5195-8_8.
Diener, E., Tay, L., & Myers, D. G. (2011). The religion paradox: If religion makes people happy, why
are so many dropping out? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 101, 1278–1290. https​://
doi.org/10.1037/a0024​402.
Diener, E., Wirtz, D., Tov, W., Kim-Prieto, C., Choi, D., Oishi, S., et al. (2009). New measures of well-
being: Flourishing and positive and negative feelings. Social Indicators Research, 39, 247–266.
https​://doi.org/10.1007/978-90-481-2354-4_12.
Diener, E., Wirtz, D., Tov, W., Kim-Prieto, C., Choi, D., Oishi, S., et al. (2010). New well-being meas-
ures: Short scales to assess flourishing and positive and negative feelings. Social Indicators
Research, 97, 143–156. https​://doi.org/10.1007/s1120​5-009-9493-y.
Dillard, A. J., Schiavone, A., & Brown, S. L. (2008). Helping behavior and positive emotions: Implica-
tions for health and well-being. In S. J. Lopez (Ed.), Positive psychology: Exploring the best in
people, Vol. 2: Capitalizing on emotions experiences. Westport, CT: Praeger/Greenwood.
Duckworth, A., Steen, T., & Seligman, M. (2005). Positive psychology in clinical practice. Annual
Review of Clinical Psychology, 1, 629–651. https​://doi.org/10.1146/annur​ev.clinp​sy.1.10280​
3.14415​4.
Dunn, E. W., Aknin, L. B., & Norton, M. I. (2008). Spending money on others promotes happiness. Sci-
ence, 319(5870), 1687–1688. https​://doi.org/10.1126/scien​ce.11509​52.
Dunn, E. W., Gilbert, D. T., & Wilson, T. D. (2011). If money doesn’t make you happy then you prob-
ably aren’t spending it right. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 21(2), 115–125. https​://doi.
org/10.1016/j.jcps.2011.02.002.
Durlak, J. A., Weissberg, R. P., Dymnicki, A. B., Taylor, R. D., & Schellinger, K. B. (2011). The impact of
enhancing students’ social and emotional learning: A meta-analysis of school-based universal inter-
ventions. Child Development, 82(1), 405–432. https​://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2010.01564​.x.
Erdogan, B., Bauer, T. N., Truxillo, D. M., & Mansfield, L. R. (2012). Whistle while you work: A review
of life satisfaction. Journal of Management, 38, 1038–1083. https​://doi.org/10.1177/01492​06311​
42937​9.
Ferguson, Y. L., & Kasser, T. (2013). A teaching tool for disengaging from materialism: The commercial
media fast. In J. F. Froh & A. C. Parks (Eds.), Activities for teaching positive psychology: A guide
for instructors (pp. 143–148). Washington, DC: APA. https​://doi.org/10.1037/14042​-023.
Fischer, P., Sauer, A., Vogrincic, C., & Weisweiler, S. (2010). The ancestor effect: Thinking about our
genetic origin enhances intellectual performance. European Journal of Social Psychology, 41(1),
11–16. https​://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.778.
Fredrickson, B. (2006). The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions. In M. Csikszentmihalyi &
I. Csikszentmihalyi (Eds.), A life worth living: Contributions to positive psychology (pp. 85–103).
New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

13
1158 L. Lambert et al.

Froh, J., Kashdan, T., Ozimkowski, K., & Miller, N. (2009). Who benefits the most from a gratitude
intervention in children and adolescents? Examining positive affect as a moderator. The Journal of
Positive Psychology, 4, 408–422. https​://doi.org/10.1080/17439​76090​29924​64.
Froh, J., Sefick, W., & Emmons, R. A. (2008). Counting blessings in early adolescents: An experimental
study of gratitude and subjective well-being. Journal of School Psychology, 46, 213–233. https​://
doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2007.03.005.
Gable, S. L. (2013). Capitalizing on positive events. In J. F. Froh & A. C. Parks (Eds.), Activities for
teaching positive psychology: A guide for instructors (pp. 71–76). Washington, DC: APA. https​://
doi.org/10.1037/14042​-012.
Gable, S., & Reis, H. (2010). Good news! Capitalizing on positive events in an interpersonal con-
text. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 42, 195–257. https​://doi.org/10.1016/s0065​
-2601(10)42004​-3.
Gander, F., Proyer, R. T., & Ruch, W. (2016). Positive psychology interventions addressing pleasure,
engagement, meaning, positive relationships, and accomplishment increase well-being and amelio-
rate depressive symptoms: A randomized, placebo-controlled online study. Frontiers in Psychology,
7, Article 686. https​://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg​.2016.00686​.
Giacaman, R., Rabaia, Y., Nguyen-Gillham, V., Batniji, R., Punamäki, R. L., & Summerfield, D. (2010).
Mental health, social distress and political oppression: The case of the occupied Palestinian territory.
Global Public Health, 6(5), 547–559. https​://doi.org/10.1080/17441​692.2010.52844​3.
Goudie, R., Mukherjee, S., De Neve, J.-E., Oswald, A. J., & Wu, S. (2012). Happiness as a driver of risk-
avoiding behavior. The Centre for Economic Performance, Discussion Paper No. 1126. Retrieved
March 17, 2014, from http://cep.lse.ac.uk/pubs/downl​oad/dp112​6.pdf.
Grant, N., Wardle, J., & Steptoe, A. (2009). The relationship between life satisfaction and health behav-
iour: A cross-cultural analysis of young adults. International Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 16,
259–268. https​://doi.org/10.1007/s1252​9-009-9032-x.
Green, S., Oades, L., & Robinson, P. (2011). Positive education: Creating flourishing students, staff and
schools. InPysch, 16–17, April.
Gulamhussein, Q., & Eaton, N. R. (2015). Hijab, religiosity, and psychological wellbeing of Muslim
women in the United States. Journal of Muslim Mental Health, 9(2), 25–40. https​://doi.org/10.3998/
jmmh.10381​607.0009.202.
Hardy, J., Hall, C., & Alexander, M. (2001). Exploring self-talk and affective states in sport. Journal of
Sports Sciences, 19, 469–475. https​://doi.org/10.1080/02640​41017​50238​926.
Helgeson, V. S., Reynolds, K. A., & Tomich, P. L. (2006). A meta-analytic review of benefit find-
ing and growth. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 74(5), 797–816. https​://doi.
org/10.1037/0022-006x.74.5.797.
Hone, L. C., Jarden, A., & Schofield, G. M. (2015). An evaluation of positive psychology intervention effec-
tiveness trials using the re-aim framework: A practice-friendly review. The Journal of Positive Psy-
chology, 10(4), 303–322. https​://doi.org/10.1080/17439​760.2014.96526​7.
Huang, H., & Humphreys, B. R. (2012). Sports participation and happiness: Evidence from US microdata.
Journal of Economic Psychology, 33(4), 776–793. https​://doi.org/10.1016/j.joep.2012.02.007.
Huffman, J. C., DuBois, C. M., Healy, B. C., Boehm, J. K., Kashdan, T. B., Celano, C. M., et al. (2014).
Feasibility and utility of positive psychology exercises for suicidal inpatients. General Hospital Psy-
chiatry, 36(1), 88–94. https​://doi.org/10.1016/j.genho​sppsy​ch.2013.10.006.
Huppert, F., & Johnson, D. (2010). A controlled trial of mindfulness training in schools: The importance
of practice for an impact on well-being. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 5, 264–274. https​://doi.
org/10.1080/17439​76100​37941​48.
Huta, V., & Waterman, J. (2014). Eudaimonia and its Distinction from hedonia: Developing a classifica-
tion and terminology for understanding conceptual and operational definitions. Journal of Happiness
Studies, 15, 1425–1456. https​://doi.org/10.1007/s1090​2-013-9485-0.
Johnson, K. J., & Fredrickson, B. L. (2005). “We all look the same to me” Positive emotions eliminate
the own-race bias in face recognition. Psychological Science, 16, 875–881. https​://doi.org/10.111
1/j.1467-9280.2005.01631​.x.
Joshanloo, M. (2013a). The influence of fear of happiness beliefs on responses to the Satisfaction with
Life Scale. Personality and Individual Differences, 54(5), 647–651. https​://doi.org/10.1016/j.
paid.2012.11.011.
Joshanloo, M. (2013b). A comparison of Western and Islamic conceptions of happiness. Journal of Happi-
ness Studies, 14(6), 1857–1874. https​://doi.org/10.1007/s1090​2-012-9406-7.
Joshanloo, M. (2016). Self-esteem in Iran: Views from antiquity to modern times. Middle East Journal of
Positive Psychology, 2(1), 22–41. Retrieved from https​://middl​eeast​journ​alofp​ositi​vepsy​cholo​gy.org/
index​.php/mejpp​/artic​le/view/45.

13
A Positive Psychology Intervention Program in a… 1159

Joshanloo, M. (2017). Mediators of the relationship between externality of happiness and subjec-
tive well-being. Personality and Individual Differences, 119, 147–151. https​://doi.org/10.1016/j.
paid.2017.07.017.
Joshanloo, M., Lepshokova, Z. K., Panyusheva, T., Natalia, A., Poon, W. C., Yeung, V. W., et al. (2014).
Cross-cultural validation of the fear of happiness scale across 14 national groups. Journal of Cross-
Cultural Psychology, 45(2), 246–264. https​://doi.org/10.1177/00220​22113​50535​7.
Joshanloo, M., Park, Y. O., & Park, S. H. (2017). Optimism as the moderator of the relationship between
fragility of happiness beliefs and experienced happiness. Personality and Individual Differences, 106,
61–63. https​://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2016.10.039.
Joshanloo, M., & Weijers, D. (2013). Aversion to happiness across cultures: A review of where and
why people are averse to happiness. Journal of Happiness Studies, 15(3), 717–735. https​://doi.
org/10.1007/s1090​2-013-9489-9.
Joshanloo, M., Weijers, D., Jiang, D.-Y., Han, G., Bae, J., Pang, J., et al. (2015). Fragility of happiness
beliefs across 15 national groups. Journal of Happiness Studies, 16, 1185–1210. https​://doi.
org/10.1007/s1090​2-014-9553-0.
Joshanloo, M., Wissing, M. P., Khumalo, I. P., & Lamers, S. M. A. (2013). Measurement invariance of the
Mental Health Continuum-Short Form (MHC-SF) across three cultural groups. Personality and Indi-
vidual Differences, 55(7), 755–759. https​://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2013.06.002.
Judge, T. A., Piccolo, R. F., Podsakoff, N. P., Shaw, J. C., & Rich, B. L. (2010). The relationship between
pay and job satisfaction: A meta-analysis of the literature. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 77, 157–
167. https​://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2010.04.002.
Kahler, C. W., Spillane, N. S., Day, A., Clerkin, E. M., Parks, A., Leventhal, A. M., et al. (2014). Positive
psychotherapy for smoking cessation: Treatment development, feasibility, and preliminary results.
The Journal of Positive Psychology, 9, 19–29. https​://doi.org/10.1080/17439​760.2013.82671​6.
Kashdan, T. B., Biswas-Diener, R., & King, L. A. (2008). Reconsidering happiness: The costs of distin-
guishing between hedonics and eudaimonia. Journal of Positive Psychology, 3, 219–233. https​://doi.
org/10.1080/17439​76080​23030​44.
Kashdan, T. B., & Nezlek, J. B. (2012). Whether, when, and how is spirituality related to well-being? Mov-
ing beyond single occasion questionnaires to understanding daily process. Personality and Social Psy-
chology Bulletin, 38, 1526–1538. https​://doi.org/10.1177/01461​67212​45454​9.
Kern, M. L., Waters, L. E., Adler, A., & White, M. A. (2015). A multidimensional approach to measuring
well-being in students: Application of the PERMA framework. Journal of Positive Psychology, 10(3),
262–271. https​://doi.org/10.1080/17439​760.2014.93696​.
Keyes, C. L. M. (2002). The mental health continuum: From languishing to flourishing in life. Journal of
Health and Social Behavior, 43, 207–222.
Keyes, C. L. M. (2005). Mental illness and/or mental health? Investigating axioms of the complete
state model of health. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 73, 539–548. https​://doi.
org/10.1037/0022-006x.73.3.539.
Keyes, C. L. M. (2009). Atlanta: Brief description of the Mental Health Continuum Short Form (MHC-SF).
Retrieved from http://www.socio​logy.emory​.edu/ckeye​s/.
Keyes, C. L. M., & Annas, J. (2009). Feeling good and functioning well: Distinctive concepts in ancient
philosophy and contemporary science. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 4, 197–201. https​://doi.
org/10.1080/17439​76090​28442​28.
Khumalo, I. P., Temane, Q. M., & Wissing, M. P. (2012). Socio-demographic variables, general psychologi-
cal well-being and the Mental Health Continuum in an African context. Social Indicators Research,
105, 419–442. https​://doi.org/10.1007/s1120​5-010-9777-2.
Kok, B., Catalino, L., & Fredrickson, B. L. (2008). The broadening, building, buffering effects of positive
emotions. In S. J. Lopez (Ed.), Positive psychology: Exploring the best of people (Vol. 3, pp. 1–19).
Westport, CT: Greenwood.
Kurtz, J. L., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2013). Using mindful photography to increase positive emotion and appre-
ciation. In J. F. Froh & A. C. Parks (Eds.), Activities for teaching positive psychology: A guide for
instructors (pp. 133–136). Washington, DC: APA. https​://doi.org/10.1037/14042​-021.
Lambert, L. (2012). Happiness 101: A how-to guide in positive psychology for people who are depressed,
languishing, or flourishing (The facilitator guide). Bloomington, IN: Xlibris Corporation.
Lambert, L. (2016). A new year, a new you: 52 strategies for a happier life! CreateSpace Independent Pub-
lishing: Amazon Publishing. Retrieved from https​://www.amazo​n.com/New-Year-You-Strat​egies​
-Happi​er/dp/15430​62326​.
Lambert D’raven, L., Moliver, N., & Thompson, D. (2015). Happiness intervention decreases pain and
depression and boosts happiness among primary care patients. Primary Health Care Research &
Development, 16(2), 114–126. https​://doi.org/10.1017/s1463​42361​30005​6x.

13
1160 L. Lambert et al.

Lambert D’raven, L., & Pasha-Zaidi, N. (2014a). Positive psychology interventions: A review for counsel-
ling practitioners. Canadian Journal of Counselling and Psychotherapy/Revue Canadienne de Coun-
seling et de Psychothérapie, 48(4), 383–408. Retrieved from http://cjc-rcc.ucalg​ary.ca/cjc/index​.php/
rcc/artic​le/view/2720.
Lambert D’raven, L., & Pasha-Zaidi, N. (2014b). Happiness strategies among Arab university students in
the United Arab Emirates. The Journal of Happiness and Well-Being, 2(1), 1–15. Retrieved from
http://www.journ​alofh​appin​ess.net/volum​e/volum​e-2-issue​-1.
Lambert, L., Pasha-Zaidi, N., Passmore, H.-A., & York Al-Karam, C. (2015). Developing an indigenous
positive psychology in the United Arab Emirates. Middle East Journal of Positive Psychology, 1(1),
1–23. Retrieved from https​://middl​eeast​journ​alofp​ositi​vepsy​cholo​gy.org/index​.php/mejpp​/artic​le/
view/24.
Lambert, L., Passmore, H.-A., & Holder, M. D. (2015b). Foundational frameworks of positive psychology:
Mapping well-being orientations. Canadian Psychology/Psychologie canadienne, 56, 311–321.
Lamers, S. M. A., Glas, C. A. W., Westerhof, G. J., & Bohlmeijer, E. T. (2012). Longitudinal evaluation of
the Mental Health Continuum-Short Form (MHC-SF). European Journal of Psychological Assess-
ment, 28, 290–296. https​://doi.org/10.1027/1015-5759/a0001​09.
Larsen, R. J., & Eid, M. (2008). Ed Diener and the science of subjective well-being. In M. Eid & R. J.
Larsen (Eds.), The science of subjective well-being (pp. 1–16). New York: The Guilford Press.
Lount, J. R. B. (2010). The impact of positive mood on trust in interpersonal and intergroup interactions.
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 98, 420–433. https​://doi.org/10.1037/a0017​344.
Lyubomirsky, S. (2011). Hedonic adaptation to positive and negative experiences. In S. Folkman (Ed.),
Oxford handbook of stress, health, and coping (pp. 200–224). New York, NY: Oxford University
Press.
Lyubomirsky, S., Dickerhoof, R., Boehm, J. K., & Sheldon, K. M. (2011). Becoming happier takes both a
will and a proper way: An experimental longitudinal intervention to boost well-being. Emotion, 11,
391–402. https​://doi.org/10.1037/a0022​575.
Lyubomirsky, S., King, L. A., & Diener, E. (2005a). The benefits of frequent positive affect: Does happiness
lead to success? Psychological Bulletin, 131, 803–855. https​://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.131.6.803.
Lyubomirsky, S., Sheldon, K. M., & Schkade, D. (2005b). Pursuing happiness: The architecture of sustaina-
ble change. Review of General Psychology, 9(2), 111–131. https​://doi.org/10.1037/1089-2680.9.2.111.
Lyubomirsky, S., & Tkach, C. (2003). The consequences of dysphoric rumination. In C. Papageorgiou &
A. Wells (Eds.), Rumination: nature, theory, and treatment of negative thinking in depression (pp.
21–41). Chichester: Wiley. https​://doi.org/10.1002/97804​70713​853.ch2.
Magyar-Moe, J. L., Owens, R. L., & Conoley, C. W. (2015). Positive psychology interventions in coun-
seling: What every counseling psychologist should know. The Counseling Psychologist, 43, 508–557.
https​://doi.org/10.1177/00110​00015​57377​6.
Mills, M. J., Fleck, C. R., & Kozikowski, A. (2013). Positive psychology at work: A conceptual review,
state-of-practice assessment, and a look ahead. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 8(2), 153–164.
https​://doi.org/10.1080/17439​760.2013.77662​2.
Neault, R. A. (2002). Thriving in the new millennium: Career management in the changing world of work.
Canadian Journal of Career Development, 1(1), 11–21. Retrieved from http://cjcdo​nline​.ca/wp-conte​
nt/uploa​ds/2014/11/Thriv​ing-in-the-New-Mille​nnium​.pdf.
Nelson, D. W. (2009). Feeling good and open-minded: The impact of positive affect on cross cultural
empathic responding. Journal of Positive Psychology, 4, 53–63. https​://doi.org/10.1080/17439​76080​
23578​59.
Norrish, J. M., Williams, P., O’Connor, M., & Robinson, J. (2013). An applied framework for positive edu-
cation. International Journal of Wellbeing, 3(2), 147–161. https​://doi.org/10.5502/ijw.v3i2.2.
Oades, L. G., Robinson, P., Green, S., & Spence, G. B. (2011). Towards a positive university. Journal of
Positive Psychology, 6(6), 432–439. https​://doi.org/10.1080/17439​760.2011.63482​8.
Park, N., & Peterson, C. (2008). Positive psychology and character strengths: Application to strengths-
based school counseling. Professional School Counseling, 12, 85–92. https​://doi.org/10.5330/
psc.n.2010-12.85.
Parveen, S., Sandilya, G., & Shafiq, M. (2014). Religiosity and mental health among Muslim youth. Indian
Journal of Health & Wellbeing, 5(3), 316. Retrieved from https​://www.myres​earch​journ​als.com/index​
.php/IJHW/artic​le/view/507.
Passmore, H.-A., Howell, A. J., & Holder, M. J. (2017). Positioning implicit theories of well-being within a
positivity framework. Journal of Happiness Studies. https​://doi.org/10.1007/s1090​2-017-9934-2.
Pavot, W., & Diener, E. (1993). Review of the Satisfaction with Life Scale. Psychological Assessment, 5,
164–172. https​://doi.org/10.1037/1040-3590.5.2.164.

13
A Positive Psychology Intervention Program in a… 1161

Pavot, W., & Diener, E. (2008). The Satisfaction with Life Scale and the emerging construct of life satisfac-
tion. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 3, 137–152. https​://doi.org/10.1080/17439​76070​17569​46.
Plante, T. G., Valleys, C. L., Sherman, A. C., & Wallson, K. A. (2002). The development of a Brief Version
of the Santa Clara Strength of Religious Faith Questionnaire. Pastoral Psychology, 50(5), 359–368.
https​://doi.org/10.1023/a:10144​13720​710.
Priller, E., & Schupp, J. (2011). Social and economic characteristics of financial and blood donors in Ger-
many. DIW Economic Bulletin, 6, 23–30. Retrieved from http://hdl.handl​e.net/10419​/57691​.
Rao, M. A., Donaldson, S. I., & Doiron, K. M. (2015). Positive psychology research in the Middle East and
North Africa. Middle East Journal of Positive Psychology, 1(1), 60–76. Retrieved from https​://middl​
eeast​journ​alofp​ositi​vepsy​cholo​gy.org/index​.php/mejpp​/artic​le/view/33.
Rashid, T. (2015). Positive psychotherapy: A strength-based approach. The Journal of Positive Psychol-
ogy, 10(1), 25–40. https​://doi.org/10.1080/17439​760.2014.92041​1.
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2001). On happiness and human potentials: A review of research on hedonic
and eudaimonic well-being. Annual Review of Psychology, 52, 141–166. https​://doi.org/10.1146/
annur​ev.psych​.52.1.141.
Ryan, R. M., Huta, V., & Deci, E. L. (2008). Living well: A self-determination theory perspective on
eudaimonia. Journal of Happiness Studies, 9, 139–170.
Sahraian, A., Gholami, A., Javadpour, A., & Omidvar, B. (2013). Association between religiosity and
happiness among a group of Muslim undergraduate students. Journal of Religion and Health,
52(2), 450–453. https​://doi.org/10.1007/s1094​3-011-9484-6.
Seligman, M. E. P. (2011). Flourish: A visionary new understanding of happiness and well-being. New
York, NY: Free Press.
Seligman, M. E. P., Ernst, R., Gillham, J., Reivich, K., & Linkins, M. (2009). Positive education: Posi-
tive psychology and classroom interventions. Oxford Review of Education, 35(3), 293–311. https​
://doi.org/10.1080/03054​98090​29345​63.
Seligman, M. E. P., Steen, T., Park, N., & Peterson, C. (2005). Positive psychology progress:
Empirical validation of interventions. American Psychologist, 60(5), 410–421. https​://doi.
org/10.1037/0003-066x.60.5.410.
Shapira, L. B., & Mongrain, M. (2010). The benefits of self-compassion and optimism exercises for
individuals vulnerable to depression. Journal of Positive Psychology, 5, 377–389. https​://doi.
org/10.1080/17439​760.2010.51676​3.
Sheldon, K. M., Abad, N., Ferguson, Y., Gunz, A., Houser-Marko, L., Nichols, C. P., et al. (2010). Per-
sistent pursuit of need-satisfying goals leads to increased happiness: A 6-month experimental lon-
gitudinal study. Motivation and Emotion, 34, 39–48. https​://doi.org/10.1007/s1103​1-009-9153-1.
Sheldon, K. M., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2006). How to increase and sustain positive emotion: the effects
of expressing gratitude and visualizing best possible selves. Journal of Positive Psychology, 1,
73–82. https​://doi.org/10.1080/17439​76050​05106​76.
Shoshani, A., & Steinmetz, S. (2014). Positive psychology at school: A school-based intervention to pro-
mote adolescents’ mental health and well-being. Journal of Happiness Studies, 15(6), 1289–1311.
https​://doi.org/10.1007/s1090​2-013-9476-1.
Sin, N., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2009). Enhancing well-being and alleviating depressive symptoms with
positive psychology interventions: A practice-friendly meta-analysis. Journal of Clinical Psychol-
ogy, 65, 467–487. https​://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.20593​.
Suldo, S., Thalji, A., & Ferron, J. (2011). Longitudinal academic outcomes predicted by early ado-
lescents’ subjective well-being, psychopathology, and mental health status yielded from a dual
factor model. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 6(1), 17–30. https​://doi.org/10.1080/17439​
760.2010.53677​4.
Tajdin, M. (2015). ‫طيسولا يمالسإلا ركفلا يف ةداعسلا موهفم‬: ‫( نيدلا ىلإ ةفسلفلا نم‬The concept of
happiness in medieval Islamic thought: From philosophy to religion). Middle East Journal of Pos-
itive Psychology, 1(1), 36–44. Retrieved from https​://middl​eeast​journ​alofp​ositi​vepsy​cholo​gy.org/
index​.php/mejpp​/artic​le/view/28.
Tay, L., Li, M., Myers, D., & Diener, E. (2014). Religiosity and subjective well-being: An international
perspective. In C. Kim-Prieto (Ed.), Religion and spirituality across cultures (pp. 163–175). New
York: Springer. https​://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-8950-9_9.
Thomas, J., Mutawa, M., Furber, S. W., & Grey, I. (2016). Religiosity: Reducing depressive symptoms
amongst Muslim females in the United Arab Emirates. Middle East Journal of Positive Psychol-
ogy, 2(1), 9–21. Retrieved from https​://middl​eeast​journ​alofp​ositi​vepsy​cholo​gy.org/index​.php/
mejpp​/artic​le/view/41.
Waterman, A., Schwartz, S., Zamboanga, B. Y., Robert, R., Williams, M., Bede Agocha, V., et al.
(2010). The Questionnaire for Eudaimonic Well-Being: Psychometric properties, demographic

13
1162 L. Lambert et al.

comparisons, and evidence of validity. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 5(1), 41–61. https​://
doi.org/10.1080/17439​76090​34352​08.
Waters, L. (2011). A review of school-based positive psychology interventions. The Australian Educa-
tional and Developmental Psychologist, 28(2), 75–90. https​://doi.org/10.1375/aedp.28.2.75.
Watkins, P. C., Sparrow, A., & Webber, A. C. (2013). Taking care of business with gratitude. In J. F.
Froh & A. C. Parks (Eds.), Activities for teaching positive psychology: A guide for instructors (pp.
119–128). Washington, DC: APA. https​://doi.org/10.1037/14042​-019.
Weiss, L. A., Westerhof, G. J., & Bohlmeijer, E. T. (2016). Can we increase psychological well-being?
The effects of interventions on psychological well-being: A meta-analysis of randomized con-
trolled trials. PLoS ONE, 11(6), e0158092. https​://doi.org/10.1371/journ​al.pone.01580​92.
White, M. A. (2016). Why won’t it stick? Positive psychology and positive education. Psychology of Well-
Being, 6, 2. https​://doi.org/10.1186/s1361​2-016-0039-1.
White, M. A., & Waters, L. E. (2015). A case study of ‘The Good School:’ Examples of the use of Peter-
son’s strengths-based approach with students. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 10(1), 69–76. https​
://doi.org/10.1080/17439​760.2014.92040​8.
Wong, P. T. P. (2011). Positive psychology 2.0: Towards a balanced interactive model of the good life.
Canadian Psychology, 52(2), 69–81. https​://doi.org/10.1037/a0022​511.
Wong, P. T. P. (2013). Cross-cultural positive psychology. In K. Keith (Ed.), Encyclopedia of cross-cultural
psychology. Oxford: Wiley Blackwell Publishers. https​://doi.org/10.1002/97811​18339​893.wbecc​
p426.
Zemojtel-Piotrowska, M., Piotrowska, J. P., Osin, E. N., Cieciuch, J., Adams, B. G., Ardi, R., et al. (2018).
The mental health continuum-short form: The structure and application for cross-cultural studies—A
38 nation study. Journal of Clinical Psychology. https​://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.22570​.

13