PYTHON NOTES

1. What is an Algorithm?
An algorithm is a step-by-step procedure or a finite set of instructions to solve a problem or perform
a computation. It is a logical approach for achieving a specific goal in a defined manner.

2. What is a tuple?
A tuple is an immutable, ordered collection of elements in Python. It is defined by placing elements
inside parentheses ( ), separated by commas. Example:
_
my_tuple = (1, 2, 3)

3. How to slice a list in Python?

List slicing extracts a portion of a list using the syntax: list[start:stop:step].
start: Starting index (inclusive).
stop: Ending index (exclusive).
step: Step size (default is 1).
Example:
my_list = [10, 20, 30, 40, 50]
sliced_list = my_list[1:4] # Output: [20, 30, 40]

4. Explain different string formats in Python with examples (5 Marks).

f-strings (formatted strings):

name = "Alice"
age = 25
print(f"My name is {name} and I am {age} years old.")

str.format():
print("My name is {} and I am {} years old.".format(name, age))

Percent formatting:
print("My name is %s and I am %d years old." % (name, age))

Template Strings (using string.Template):

from string import Template
t = Template("My name is $name and I am $age years old.")
print(t.substitute(name="Alice", age=25))

5. Discuss int(), float(), str(), chr(), and complex() with examples.

int(): Converts a value to an integer.

print(int(3.5)) # Output: 3
print(int("10")) # Output: 10

float(): Converts a value to a floating-point number.

print(float(3)) # Output: 3.0

str(): Converts a value to a string.

print(str(10)) # Output: '10'
chr(): Converts an integer to its corresponding Unicode character.
print(chr(65)) # Output: 'A'

complex(): Converts to a complex number.

print(complex(3, 4)) # Output: (3+4j)

6. Discuss ord(), hex(), oct(), complex(), and float() with examples.

ord(): Converts a character to its Unicode code.
print(ord('A')) # Output: 65

hex(): Converts a number to a hexadecimal string.

print(hex(255)) # Output: '0xff'

oct(): Converts a number to an octal string.

print(oct(8)) # Output: '0o10'

complex(): Converts numbers to a complex number.

print(complex(2, -3)) # Output: (2-3j)

float(): Converts a value to a floating-point number.

print(float("3.14")) # Output: 3.14

7. Fibonacci sequence up to nth term (Program).

n = int(input("Enter the number of terms: "))
a, b = 0, 1
print("Fibonacci sequence:")
for _ in range(n):
print(a, end=" ")
a, b = b, a + b

8. Check for the largest number until user enters "done".

largest = None
while True:
num = input("Enter a number (or 'done' to stop): ")
if num == 'done':
break
try:
num = int(num)
if largest is None or num > largest:
largest = num
except ValueError:
print("Invalid input. Please enter a number.")
print("Largest number:", largest)

9. Sum of all odd and even numbers up to a specified number.

_
_
n = int(input("Enter a number: "))
odd_sum = sum(i for i in range(1, n + 1) if i % 2 != 0)
even_sum = sum(i for i in range(1, n + 1) if i % 2 == 0)
print("Sum of odd numbers:", odd_sum)
print("Sum of even numbers:", even_sum)

10. Need for continue and break statements (Prime number check).
break: Terminates the loop.
continue: Skips the current iteration.

Program to check if a number is prime:

num = int(input("Enter a number: "))
if num < 2:
print("Not a prime number")
else:
for i in range(2, int(num ** 0.5) + 1):
if num % i == 0:
print("Not a prime number")
break
else:
print("Prime number")

11. Need for catching exceptions using try and except

Catching exceptions prevents the program from crashing and allows graceful handling of errors.
Example:
_
_
try:
x = int(input("Enter a number: "))
print(10 / x)
except ZeroDivisionError:
print("Cannot divide by zero!")
except ValueError:
print("Invalid input! Please enter a number.")

12. Describe the syntax for given functions with examples.

abs(x): Returns the absolute value.
print(abs(-5)) # Output: 5

max(*args): Returns the largest value.

print(max(1, 5, 3)) # Output: 5

divmod(a, b): Returns a tuple (quotient, remainder).

print(divmod(10, 3)) # Output: (3, 1)

pow(a, b): Computes a**b.

print(pow(2, 3)) # Output: 8

len(obj): Returns the length of an object.

print(len("hello")) # Output: 5

13. Solve quadratic equation.

import math
a = float(input("Enter a: "))
b = float(input("Enter b: "))
c = float(input("Enter c: "))
discriminant = b**2 - 4*a*c

if discriminant >= 0:
root1 = (-b + math.sqrt(discriminant)) / (2*a)
root2 = (-b - math.sqrt(discriminant)) / (2*a)
print("Roots:", root1, root2)
else:
print("No real roots")

14. Find area and perimeter of a circle using functions.

def circle_area(radius):
return 3.14159 * radius**2

def circle_perimeter(radius):
return 2 * 3.14159 * radius

r = float(input("Enter the radius: "))

print("Area:", circle_area(r))
print("Perimeter:", circle_perimeter(r))

15. Find nPr and nCr without using factorial().

def factorial(n):
result = 1
for i in range(1, n + 1):
result *= i
return result

def nPr(n, r):

return factorial(n) // factorial(n - r)

def nCr(n, r):

return nPr(n, r) // factorial(r)

n = int(input("Enter n: "))
r = int(input("Enter r: "))
print("nPr:", nPr(n, r))
print("nCr:", nCr(n, r))

1. Replace Commas with Hyphens and Sort Words:

sentence = input("Enter comma-separated words: ")

words = sentence.split(',')
words.sort()
print('-'.join(words))

List Functions
3. List Functions:
o len(): Returns the number of elements in a list.
Example: len([1, 2, 3]) → Output: 3
 o sum(): Returns the sum of elements in a list (numeric only).
Example: sum([1, 2, 3]) → Output: 6
o any(): Returns True if any element in the list is True.
Example: any([0, 1, 0]) → Output: True
o all(): Returns True if all elements in the list are True.
Example: all([1, 2, 3]) → Output: True
o sorted(): Returns a sorted version of the list.
Example: sorted([3, 1, 2]) → Output: [1, 2, 3]
4. List Methods:
o append(x): Adds x at the end of the list.
Example: [1, 2].append(3) → Output: [1, 2, 3]
o extend(iterable): Appends elements of an iterable to the list.
Example: [1, 2].extend([3, 4]) → Output: [1, 2, 3, 4]
o insert(i, x): Inserts x at index i.
Example: [1, 3].insert(1, 2) → Output: [1, 2, 3]
o index(x): Returns the first index of x.
Example: [1, 2, 3].index(2) → Output: 1
o sort(): Sorts the list in ascending order.
Example: [3, 1, 2].sort() → Output: [1, 2, 3]

Sorting and Unique Character Analysis

5. Check List Order:

def check_order(lst):
if lst == sorted(lst):
print("List is sorted in ascending order.")
elif lst == sorted(lst, reverse=True):
print("List is sorted in descending order.")
else:
print("Items in list are not sorted.")

lst = [int(x) for x in input("Enter numbers: ").split()]

check_order(lst)

6. Sort Words by Length:

sentence = input("Enter a sentence: ")

words = sentence.split()
sorted_words = sorted(words, key=len, reverse=True)
for word in sorted_words:
print(word, len(word))

7. Unique Characters in Strings:

def unique_chars(*strings):
for s in strings:
print(f"Unique characters in '{s}': {set(s)}")
unique_chars("hello", "world", "")

8. Most Frequent Characters:

def most_frequent(s):
frequency = {}
for char in s:
if char in frequency:
frequency[char] += 1
else:
frequency[char] = 1
sorted_frequency = sorted(frequency.items(), key = lambda x: x[1], reverse=True)
for char, freq in sorted_frequency:
print(char, freq)
most_frequent("abracadabra")

File Operations
10. Access Modes:
o 'r': Read mode (default).
o 'w': Write mode (overwrites the file).
o 'a': Append mode.
o 'rb', 'wb': Read/Write in binary mode.
11. File Methods:
o read(): Reads the entire content.
o readline(): Reads a single line.
o readlines(): Reads all lines into a list.
o tell(): Returns the current position.
o seek(): Moves the cursor to the specified position.
o write(): Writes to the file.
12. Reverse Words in File:

with open("secret_societies.txt", "r") as file:

content = file.read()
reversed_content = ' '.join(word[::-1] for word in content.split())
print(reversed_content)
13. Word Count in File:

with open("quotes.txt", "r") as file:

content = file.read()
words = content.split()
word_count = len(words)
occurrences = {word: words.count(word) for word in set(words)}

print("Word Count:", word_count)

print("Occurrences:", occurrences)
 14. Longest Word in File:

file_name = input("Enter file name: ")

with open(file_name, "r") as file:
longest_word = max(file.read().split(), key=len) # key=len for finding the "maximum" is the length of each word.
print("Longest word:", longest_word)

Inheritance
15. Inheritance and super():

class Parent:
def show(self):
print("Parent method")

class Child(Parent):
def show(self):
super().show()
print("Child method")

obj = Child()
obj.show()
16. Overriding Base Class Method:

class Base:
def display(self):
print("Base class")

class Derived(Base):
def display(self):
print("Derived class")

obj = Derived()
obj.display()

Loop Theory

1. Purpose of Loops:

o Used for repeated execution of code blocks.

2. For vs While Loops:

o for loop: Iterates over a sequence.

for i in range(5):

print(i)

o while loop: Repeats as long as a condition is True.

i=0

while i < 5:

print(i)

i += 1

3. range() Function:

o Generates sequences.

for i in range(1, 10, 2):

print(i) # Outputs: 1, 3, 5, 7, 9

4. break Statement:

o Exits the loop prematurely.

for i in range(10):

if i == 5:

break

5. continue Statement:

o Skips the current iteration.

for i in range(5):

if i == 3:

continue

print(i)

6. Nested Loops:
for i in range(3):

for j in range(2):

print(f"i={i}, j={j}")

7. Iterating Over Strings/Lists:

for char in "hello":

print(char)

8. Infinite Loops:

o Occur when conditions never evaluate to False.

Avoid using: while True without a break.

9. Sum of List Elements:

lst = [1, 2, 3, 4]

total = sum(lst)

print(total)

10. else Clause in Loops:

o Executes if the loop is not exited with break.

for i in range(5):

print(i)

else:

print("Completed without break")

If-Else Statements

1. Purpose of If-Else Statements:

o Used for decision-making based on conditions.

Example:
x = 10

if x > 5:

print("Greater")

else:

print("Smaller")

String Theory Questions

1. Define a string in and explain its characteristics.

o Strings are sequences of characters enclosed within single (' '), double (" "), or triple
quotes (''' ''').

o Strings are immutable, indexed, and iterable.

Answer Example:

s = "Hello, World!"

print(s[0]) # H

print(s[-1]) # !

2. What are the different ways to create strings in ?

o Using single/double quotes: s = 'hello'

o Using triple quotes: s = '''hello'''

o Using the str() function: s = str(123)

3. Explain string indexing and slicing with examples.

Answer Example:

s = ""

print(s[0]) # Output: P

print(s[-1]) # Output: n
print(s[1:4]) # Output: yth

4. What does it mean that strings in are immutable? Why is this important?

o Strings cannot be changed once created. Any modification creates a new string.

o Immutability ensures string safety and efficient memory use.

Example:

s = "hello"

s[0] = 'H' # Raises error

5. List and describe five common string methods in .

o lower(): Converts to lowercase.

o upper(): Converts to uppercase.

o strip(): Removes whitespace.

o replace(): Replaces a substring.

o split(): Splits string by delimiter.

Answer Example:

s = " Hello World "

print(s.strip()) # "Hello World"

6. How do escape sequences work in strings? Give examples.

o Escape sequences allow inserting special characters.

▪ \n: Newline

▪ \t: Tab

▪ \\: Backslash

▪ \': Single Quote

Example:
print("Hello\nWorld") # Newline

print("He said, \"\" is fun.") # Double quotes

Loop Theory Questions

1. What is a loop in , and why is it used?

o A loop is a construct to execute a block of code repeatedly until a condition is met.

2. Differentiate between for and while loops with examples.

o for loop: Iterates over sequences.

for i in range(3):

print(i) # 0, 1, 2

o while loop: Executes based on a condition.

x=0

while x < 3:

print(x)

x += 1

3. Explain the concept of the range() function in a for loop.

o range(start, stop, step) generates numbers in a sequence.

Example:

for i in range(1, 10, 2):

print(i) # 1, 3, 5, 7, 9

4. What is the purpose of the break statement in a loop?

 o Exits the loop prematurely.

Example:

for i in range(5):

if i == 3:

break

print(i)

5. What is the else clause in a loop?

o Executes after the loop finishes unless terminated by break.

Example:

for i in range(3):

print(i)

else:

print("No break occurred.")

Write Program to Demonstrate Multiple Inheritance.

Answer:

class Parent1:

def feature1(self):

print("Feature 1 from Parent1")

class Parent2:

def feature2(self):

print("Feature 2 from Parent2")

class Child(Parent1, Parent2):

def feature3(self):

print("Feature 3 from Child")

obj = Child()

obj.feature1()

obj.feature2()

obj.feature3()

7. Given the Coordinates (x, y) of a Center of a Circle and Its Radius, Write Program to Determine
Whether the Point Lies Inside the Circle, on the Circle, or Outside the Circle.

Answer:

import math

def point_circle_relation(xc, yc, r, xp, yp):

distance = math.sqrt((xp - xc) ** 2 + (yp - yc) ** 2)

if distance < r:

print("Point lies inside the circle")

elif distance == r:

print("Point lies on the circle")

else:

print("Point lies outside the circle")

xc, yc, r = map(float, input("Enter circle center (x, y) and radius: ").split())

xp, yp = map(float, input("Enter point (x, y): ").split())

point_circle_relation(xc, yc, r, xp, yp)

8. Write Program to Demonstrate Multiple Inheritance with Method Overriding.

Answer:
class Parent1:

def display(self):

print("Display from Parent1")

class Parent2:

def display(self):

print("Display from Parent2")

class Child(Parent1, Parent2):

def display(self):

super().display() # Calls Parent1's method by default in case of multiple inheritance

print("Display from Child")

obj = Child()

obj.display()

String Theory Questions

1. Define a string in and explain its characteristics.

• A string is a sequence of characters enclosed in single, double, or triple quotes.

• Strings are immutable, indexed, iterable, and support many built-in methods.

Example:

s = "Hello, World!"

print(s[0]) # H

print(s[-1]) # !

2. What are different ways to create strings in ?

• Using single quotes: s = 'hello'

 • Using double quotes: s = "hello"

• Using triple quotes for multi-line strings: s = '''hello'''

3. Explain string indexing and slicing with examples.

Example:

s = ""

print(s[0]) # Output: P

print(s[-1]) # Output: n

print(s[1:4]) # Output: yth

4. What does it mean that strings in are immutable? Why is this important?

• Once created, strings cannot be modified.

• Immutability ensures safe sharing and efficient memory management.

Example:

s = "hello"

# s[0] = 'H' # Raises error

5. List and describe five common string methods in .

• lower(): Converts to lowercase.

• upper(): Converts to uppercase.

• strip(): Removes leading and trailing spaces.

• replace(): Replaces a substring with another.

• split(): Splits a string by a delimiter into a list.

Example:

s = " Hello World "

print(s.strip()) # "Hello World"

6. How do escape sequences work in strings? Give examples.

• Escape sequences allow using special characters like newline (\n), tab (\t), etc.

Example:

print("Hello\nWorld") # Newline

print("He said, \" is fun.\"") # Double quotes

Loop Theory Questions

1. What is a loop in , and why is it used?

• A loop is used to execute a block of code repeatedly until a condition is met.

2. Differentiate between for and while loops with examples.

• for loop: Iterates over sequences like lists or ranges.

for i in range(3):

print(i) # 0, 1, 2

• while loop: Runs as long as the condition is True.

x=0

while x < 3:

print(x)

x += 1

3. Explain the concept of the range() function in a for loop.

• range(start, stop, step) generates a sequence of numbers.

Example:
for i in range(1, 10, 2):

print(i) # 1, 3, 5, 7, 9

4. What is the purpose of the break statement in a loop?

• Exits the loop prematurely when a condition is met.

Example:

for i in range(5):

if i == 3:

break

print(i)

5. How does the continue statement function within a loop?

• Skips the current iteration and moves to the next one.

Example:

for i in range(5):

if i == 3:

continue

print(i)

6. What is a nested loop, and when would you use it?

• A loop inside another loop, used for multi-level iterations.

Example:

for i in range(3):
 for j in range(2):

print(f"i={i}, j={j}")

7. Explain how to use a loop to iterate over a string or list.

Example:

s = ""

for char in s:

print(char)

8. What are infinite loops, and how can they be avoided?

• Loops that never terminate due to a faulty condition.

Example:

while True: # Avoid by adding a proper exit condition.

break

9. Describe the use of the else clause in a loop.

• Executes after a loop finishes unless terminated by break.

Example:

for i in range(3):

print(i)

else:

print("Loop finished without break.")

If-Else Statements Theory Questions

1. What is the difference between if, elif, and else statements?

 • if: The first conditional check. If true, the block runs.

• elif: Additional condition(s) to check if the previous if or elif is false.

• else: Runs if all prior conditions are false.

Example:

x = 10

if x > 15:

print("Greater than 15")

elif x > 5:

print("Greater than 5 but not 15")

else:

print("5 or less")

2. What are nested if-else statements, and when are they useful?

• Nested if-else: An if or else inside another if or else. Useful for checking multiple conditions
hierarchically.

Example:

x = 20

if x > 10:

if x < 25:

print("Between 10 and 25")

else:

print("Greater than or equal to 25")

else:

print("10 or less")

3. How does evaluate multiple conditions in an if statement?

• Logical Operators: Conditions are combined using and, or, or not.

 • Evaluated left-to-right, stopping as soon as the result is known (short-circuiting).

Example:

x, y = 5, 10

if x < 10 and y > 5:

print("Both conditions are true")

4. What is the significance of indentation in if-else statements in ?

• uses indentation to define blocks of code. Without proper indentation, it raises an

IndentationError.

Example (Correct):

x=5

if x > 0:

print("Positive number")

Example (Incorrect):

x=5

if x > 0:

print("Positive number") # IndentationError

5. Can an else statement exist without an if statement? Explain.

• No, an else statement must follow an if or elif.

Incorrect Example:

else:

print("This is invalid") # SyntaxError

6. Explain short-circuit evaluation in the context of if-else statements.

• Short-circuiting stops evaluating conditions as soon as the result is known.

o and stops if the first condition is false.

o or stops if the first condition is true.

Example:

x=5

if x > 10 and x / 0 == 0: # Short-circuits, so no ZeroDivisionError

print("Will not execute")

7. How can you use if-else statements to check for even or odd numbers?
Example:

x = int(input("Enter a number: "))

if x % 2 == 0:

print("Even")

else:

print("Odd")

8. What is the difference between == and = in an if-else condition?

• =: Assignment operator, used to assign values.

• ==: Comparison operator, checks equality.

Example:

x = 5 # Assignment

if x == 5: # Comparison

print("x equals 5")

9. Describe how to use if-else statements to find the largest number among three values.
Example:

a, b, c = map(int, input("Enter three numbers: ").split())

if a > b and a > c:

print("Largest:", a)

elif b > c:

print("Largest:", b)

else:

print("Largest:", c)

Math Functions Basics Theory Questions

1. What are math functions in Python, and where are they found?

• Math functions are predefined functions used for mathematical operations.

• Found in the math module.

2. Explain the purpose of the math module in .

• Provides advanced mathematical functions like trigonometry, logarithms, and constants like
π.

Example:

import math

print(math.pi) # 3.141592653589793

3. What is the difference between abs() and math.fabs()?

• abs(): Built-in function for absolute values. Works for integers and floats.

• math.fabs(): Found in math module. Always returns a float.

Example:
print(abs(-5)) # 5

import math

print(math.fabs(-5)) # 5.0

4. Explain how to calculate the square root of a number in .

• Use math.sqrt() for the square root.

Example:

import math

print(math.sqrt(16)) # 4.0

5. How does handle trigonometric functions? Provide examples.

• Found in the math module: sin(), cos(), tan(), etc.

Example:

import math

angle = math.radians(30) # Convert degrees to radians

print(math.sin(angle)) # 0.5

6. Describe the pow() function and how it differs from the ** operator.

• pow(x, y): Returns x^y.

• ** operator: Equivalent but supports more concise syntax.

Example:

print(pow(2, 3)) # 8

print(2 ** 3) # 8
Math Functions Basics Theory Questions

1. What is the purpose of math.factorial()?

• Computes the factorial of a non-negative integer nnn, defined as n!=n×(n−1)×…×1n! = n

\times (n-1) \times \ldots \times 1n!=n×(n−1)×…×1.

• Useful in combinatorics, probability, and other mathematical computations.

Example:

import math

print(math.factorial(5)) # Output: 120

2. Explain how to find the greatest common divisor (GCD) of two numbers in .

• Use math.gcd(a, b) to find the GCD.

Example:

import math

print(math.gcd(48, 18)) # Output: 6

3. What is math.pi, and how is it used in calculations?

• Represents the mathematical constant π\piπ, approximately 3.14159.

• Used in calculations involving circles, trigonometry, and more.

Example:

import math

radius = 5

area = math.pi * radius ** 2

print(area) # Area of the circle

4. How does handle rounding of numbers, and what functions are available for this purpose?
 • provides functions for rounding:

o round(x, n): Rounds to n decimal places.

o math.floor(x): Rounds down to the nearest integer.

o math.ceil(x): Rounds up to the nearest integer.

Example:

import math

print(round(3.456, 2)) # Output: 3.46

print(math.floor(3.7)) # Output: 3

print(math.ceil(3.3)) # Output: 4

List Theory Questions

1. What is a list in Python, and how is it different from other data types?

• A list is an ordered, mutable collection of elements.

• Can hold heterogeneous data types, unlike arrays.

2. Describe how to create a list in . Provide examples.

Example:

my_list = [1, 2, 3, "apple", True]

3. Explain the mutability of lists and why it is important.

• Lists are mutable, meaning elements can be modified after creation.

Example:

my_list = [1, 2, 3]

my_list[0] = 10

print(my_list) # Output: [10, 2, 3]

4. How do you access elements in a list by index?

• Use square brackets with the index.

Example:

my_list = [10, 20, 30]

print(my_list[1]) # Output: 20

5. What is list slicing, and how does it work?

• Access a subset of elements using [start:stop:step].

Example:

my_list = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]

print(my_list[1:4]) # Output: [2, 3, 4]

6. Explain how to add elements to a list using append(), extend(), and insert().
Example:

my_list = [1, 2]

my_list.append(3) # Adds a single element

my_list.extend([4, 5]) # Adds multiple elements

my_list.insert(1, 10) # Adds at a specific position

print(my_list) # Output: [1, 10, 2, 3, 4, 5]

7. What are the different methods to remove elements from a list?

• pop(): Removes by index.

• remove(): Removes by value.

• clear(): Removes all elements.

8. How can you find the length of a list in ?

 • Use len().
Example:

my_list = [1, 2, 3]

print(len(my_list)) # Output: 3

9. Explain the purpose and usage of list comprehensions.

• A concise way to create lists.

Example:

squares = [x**2 for x in range(5)]

print(squares) # Output: [0, 1, 4, 9, 16]

10. What is the difference between pop() and remove() in lists?

• pop(index): Removes by index and returns the element.

• remove(value): Removes the first occurrence of a value.

Tuple Theory Questions

1. What is a tuple in , and how does it differ from a list?

• A tuple is an immutable, ordered collection.

2. How do you create a tuple in ? Provide examples.

Example:

my_tuple = (1, 2, 3)

3. Explain tuple immutability and why it is significant.

• Tuples cannot be modified after creation, making them safer for fixed data.
4. How do you access elements in a tuple by index?
Example:

my_tuple = (10, 20, 30)

print(my_tuple[1]) # Output: 20

5. Describe how slicing works in tuples.

• Works like list slicing: [start:stop:step].

6. What are the main advantages of using a tuple over a list?

• Faster, immutable, and can be used as dictionary keys.

7. How do you check if an item exists in a tuple?

• Use in.
Example:

my_tuple = (1, 2, 3)

print(2 in my_tuple) # Output: True

8. Explain how to use tuples for multiple assignments in .

Example:

a, b, c = (1, 2, 3)

9. What is tuple packing and unpacking? Provide examples.

Example:

# Packing
my_tuple = 1, 2, 3

# Unpacking

x, y, z = my_tuple

10. Can a tuple contain mutable elements, such as lists? Explain.

• Yes, but the mutable element itself can change.

Example:

my_tuple = (1, [2, 3])

my_tuple[1].append(4)

print(my_tuple) # Output: (1, [2, 3, 4])

Dictionary Theory Questions

1. What is a dictionary in , and how is it different from lists and tuples?

• A dictionary is an unordered collection of key-value pairs.

• Keys must be unique and immutable, while values can be of any data type.

• Unlike lists and tuples, dictionaries allow for quick lookup using keys instead of indices.

2. Describe how to create a dictionary in . Provide examples.

Example:

my_dict = {"name": "Alice", "age": 25, "city": "New York"}

3. Explain the concept of key-value pairs in a dictionary.

• Each element in a dictionary is stored as a pair, where the key is used to uniquely identify the
value.
Example:
my_dict = {"name": "Alice"}

print(my_dict["name"]) # Output: Alice

4. How do you access values in a dictionary using keys?

Example:

my_dict = {"name": "Alice"}

print(my_dict["name"]) # Output: Alice

5. What happens if you try to access a key that does not exist in a dictionary?

• A KeyError is raised.
Example:

my_dict = {"name": "Alice"}

# print(my_dict["age"]) # Raises KeyError

6. Describe how to add and update elements in a dictionary.

• Use the key to add or update a value.

Example:

my_dict = {"name": "Alice"}

my_dict["age"] = 25 # Adding a new key-value pair

my_dict["name"] = "Bob" # Updating a value

7. How can you delete elements from a dictionary?

• Use del or pop().

Example:
my_dict = {"name": "Alice", "age": 25}

del my_dict["age"] # Removes the key-value pair for "age"

8. What is the difference between pop() and popitem() in dictionaries?

• pop(key): Removes the specified key-value pair and returns the value.

• popitem(): Removes and returns the last inserted key-value pair as a tuple.

9. Explain the purpose of the keys(), values(), and items() methods in a dictionary.

• keys(): Returns all keys in the dictionary.

• values(): Returns all values in the dictionary.

• items(): Returns all key-value pairs as tuples.

10. How can you check if a key exists in a dictionary?

• Use the in keyword.

Example:

my_dict = {"name": "Alice"}

print("name" in my_dict) # Output: True

11. What is dictionary comprehension, and how is it used?

• A concise way to create dictionaries.

Example:

squared = {x: x**2 for x in range(5)}

print(squared) # Output: {0: 0, 1: 1, 2: 4, 3: 9, 4: 16}

12. Explain the difference between shallow and deep copies of a dictionary.

• Shallow copy (copy()): Copies references to nested objects.

• Deep copy (deepcopy()): Creates independent copies of all objects.

13. How do you merge two dictionaries in ?

• Use update() or {**dict1, **dict2}.

Example:

dict1 = {"a": 1}

dict2 = {"b": 2}

dict1.update(dict2)

print(dict1) # Output: {'a': 1, 'b': 2}

14. Describe how to iterate over a dictionary’s keys, values, and items.
Example:

my_dict = {"name": "Alice", "age": 25}

for key in my_dict:

print(key) # Iterates over keys

for value in my_dict.values():

print(value) # Iterates over values

for key, value in my_dict.items():

print(key, value) # Iterates over key-value pairs

15. What is the significance of hashable keys in a dictionary?

• Keys must be hashable (immutable and unique) to ensure efficient lookups.

16. Can dictionary keys be mutable? Explain why or why not.

• No, keys must be immutable (e.g., strings, numbers, or tuples) to maintain their hash value.

17. How do you clear all elements from a dictionary?

• Use clear().
Example:
my_dict = {"name": "Alice"}

my_dict.clear()

print(my_dict) # Output: {}

18. What is the purpose of the get() method in a dictionary, and how does it differ from direct key
access?

• get() retrieves a value by key, returning a default value if the key does not exist instead of
raising a KeyError.
Example:

my_dict = {"name": "Alice"}

print(my_dict.get("age", "Not Found")) # Output: Not Found

Nested Dictionaries and Applications

1. Explain how nested dictionaries work and how to access nested values.

• Nested dictionaries are dictionaries within dictionaries.

• Access nested values using a chain of keys.

Example:

nested_dict = {

"person1": {"name": "Alice", "age": 25},

"person2": {"name": "Bob", "age": 30}

print(nested_dict["person1"]["name"]) # Output: Alice

2. What are some common applications of dictionaries in programming?

• Data Storage: Storing structured data, such as user profiles or configuration settings.

• Frequency Counting: Counting occurrences of elements in datasets.

 • Lookup Tables: Mapping keys to values for quick retrieval.

• JSON Parsing: Working with data from APIs or files.

• Graph Representation: Representing adjacency lists for graphs.

Functions in

3. What is a function in Python, and why is it used?

• A function is a reusable block of code designed to perform a specific task.

• Why use it? To enhance modularity, reusability, and readability of code.

4. Describe the syntax of defining a function in with an example.

Syntax:

def function_name(parameters):

# function body

return value

Example:

def greet(name):

return f"Hello, {name}!"

5. What is the purpose of the return statement in a function?

• The return statement is used to send a value back to the caller.

6. Explain the difference between print() and return in a function.

• print(): Displays output to the console.

• return: Passes a result back to the caller for further use.

7. What are arguments and parameters in a function?

 • Parameters: Variables defined in the function signature.

• Arguments: Values passed to the function during the call.

Example:

def add(a, b): # a, b are parameters

return a + b

add(5, 3) # 5, 3 are arguments

8. How does handle variable scope within functions (local vs. global scope)?

• Variables inside a function are local by default.

• Use global keyword to modify global variables within a function.

9. What is function overloading, and does support it?

• Function overloading allows multiple functions with the same name but different
parameters.

• does not directly support overloading but can achieve similar behavior using default
arguments or *args.

10. How do anonymous functions (lambda functions) work with map(), filter(), and reduce()?

• Lambda functions are single-line, unnamed functions.

• Examples:

o map: Apply a function to each element of an iterable.

result = list(map(lambda x: x**2, [1, 2, 3]))

o filter: Filter elements based on a condition.

result = list(filter(lambda x: x % 2 == 0, [1, 2, 3]))

o reduce (from functools): Combine elements into a single value.

from functools import reduce

result = reduce(lambda x, y: x + y, [1, 2, 3])

11. What is a lambda function, and how does it differ from a regular function?

• Lambda functions are anonymous and defined using lambda keyword.

• They are concise and lack def or multiple statements.

12. When would you use a lambda function over a standard function?

• When a small, throwaway function is needed, typically for one-liners.

13. How do you call a function in , and what does function calling mean?

• Function calling involves executing a function by its name and passing arguments.
Example:

greet("Alice")

14. What is a recursive function? Provide an example.

• A function that calls itself.

Example:

def factorial(n):

if n == 1:

return 1

return n * factorial(n - 1)

Classes and Objects

15. What is a class in , and why is it used?

 • A blueprint for creating objects. It defines attributes and methods.

• Used for Object-Oriented Programming (OOP).

16. Explain the concept of an object in .

• An object is an instance of a class. It represents real-world entities.

17. What is the difference between a class and an object?

• Class: Blueprint for objects.

• Object: Instance of a class with actual data.

18. How do you define a class in ? Provide an example.

Example:

class Person:

def __init__(self, name):

self.name = name

19. What are attributes in a class, and how are they defined?

• Variables defined within a class to store data.

Example:

class Car:

wheels = 4 # Attribute

20. What are methods in a class, and how do they differ from functions?

• Methods are functions defined within a class that act on object data.

21. Describe the purpose of the __init__ method in a class.

• It initializes object attributes.

22. How do you create an instance (object) of a class in ?
Example:

person = Person("Alice")

23. Explain the concept of instance variables vs. class variables.

• Instance Variables: Unique to each object.

• Class Variables: Shared across all objects.

24. How do you access and modify attributes of an object?

Example:

person.name = "Bob"

25. What is the purpose of the self keyword in a class?

• Refers to the current instance of the class.

26. What are class methods and static methods, and how do they differ?

• Class Methods: Operate on class variables. Use @classmethod.

• Static Methods: Do not depend on class or instance data. Use @staticmethod.

27. Explain how to use decorators @classmethod and @staticmethod in a class.

Example:

class MyClass:

@classmethod

def class_method(cls):

pass
 @staticmethod

def static_method():

pass

Deleting Attributes or Methods in an Object

1. How can you delete an attribute or method in an object?

• Use the del keyword to delete attributes or methods of an object.

Example:

class Person:

def __init__(self, name):

self.name = name

p = Person("Alice")

del p.name # Deletes the 'name' attribute

2. Explain how classes promote modularity and code reusability.

• Classes group related data and functionality into a single unit, making code more organized.

• They allow reusability through inheritance and polymorphism.

Constructors and Polymorphism

3. What is the purpose of a constructor, and how is it defined in ?

• Purpose: Initializes an object’s attributes when the object is created.

• Syntax: Defined using the __init__() method.

Example:

class Person:

def __init__(self, name):

 self.name = name

4. What is polymorphism in , and why is it useful?

• Definition: Polymorphism allows a single interface to represent different underlying forms

(data types or classes).

• Usefulness: Enables flexibility and integration of different data types.

5. Explain how polymorphism is implemented in .

• Polymorphism is implemented through:

o Duck typing: If an object behaves like a specific type, it is treated as that type.

o Method overriding: Redefining methods in derived classes.

o Operator overloading: Defining operators for custom behavior.

6. What is method overloading, and does support it?

• Definition: Having multiple methods with the same name but different parameters.

• does not directly support method overloading but can simulate it using default parameters
or variable-length arguments.
Example:

class Calculator:

def add(self, a, b=0):

return a + b

7. What is method overriding in , and how does it work?

• Definition: A derived class provides a new implementation for a method from the base class.

• How it works: The method in the derived class has the same name as in the base class.
Example:

class Parent:

def show(self):
 print("Parent method")

class Child(Parent):

def show(self):

print("Child method")

8. How does achieve polymorphism without explicit method overloading?

• Using duck typing and dynamic typing.

• Functions and methods accept various data types without strict parameter signatures.

9. Explain how polymorphism works with functions and objects.

• Functions: Accept any object as long as it supports required operations.

Example:

def add(x, y):

return x + y # Works for integers, strings, lists, etc.

• Objects: Base-class references can call methods of derived classes.

10. What is operator overloading, and how can it be achieved in ?

• Definition: Customizing the behavior of operators for user-defined classes.

• How: Use special methods (e.g., __add__, __sub__).

Example:

class Vector:

def __init__(self, x, y):

self.x = x

self.y = y

def __add__(self, other):

return Vector(self.x + other.x, self.y + other.y)

Polymorphism and Inheritance

11. Provide examples of polymorphism with classes and inheritance.

Example:

class Animal:

def sound(self):

pass

class Dog(Animal):

def sound(self):

return "Bark"

class Cat(Animal):

def sound(self):

return "Meow"

for animal in [Dog(), Cat()]:

print(animal.sound())

12. Explain the difference between polymorphism and inheritance.

• Polymorphism: Multiple forms of a method or operation.

• Inheritance: A class inherits attributes and methods from another class.

Abstraction

13. What is abstraction in object-oriented programming?

• Abstraction hides implementation details and only shows essential features.

14. How does abstraction help in simplifying complex systems?

• Focuses on relevant data and operations, improving clarity and reducing complexity.

15. What are abstract classes, and how are they defined in ?

• Classes with at least one abstract method (method without implementation).

• Defined using abc module.

Example:

from abc import ABC, abstractmethod

class Animal(ABC):

@abstractmethod

def sound(self):

pass

16. What are the key differences between abstraction and encapsulation?

• Abstraction: Hides complexity; focuses on "what" an object does.

• Encapsulation: Hides internal details; focuses on "how" it is achieved.

Inheritance

17. What is inheritance in , and why is it important?

• Inheritance allows one class (derived) to inherit attributes and methods of another class
(base).

• Importance: Promotes reusability and extensibility.

18. Explain how inheritance allows code reuse.

• Reuse base class methods and attributes in derived classes without rewriting code.

19. What is a base class (or superclass) and a derived class (or subclass)?

• Base class: Parent class.

 • Derived class: Child class inheriting from the base.

20. Can private attributes be inherited in ? Explain.

• Private attributes (prefixed with __) are not directly inherited but can be accessed through
name mangling.

21. What is the purpose of overriding methods in inheritance?

• To customize behavior for derived classes.

22. What are the advantages of using inheritance in OOP?

• Reusability.

• Maintainability.

• Extensibility.

23. Explain how to use inheritance to extend the functionality of a class.

Example:

class Parent:

def greet(self):

return "Hello!"

class Child(Parent):

def greet(self):

return super().greet() + " How are you?"

Encapsulation

24. What is encapsulation in ?

• Bundling data and methods into a single unit while restricting direct access to internal
components.
25. What is the difference between public, protected, and private attributes?

• Public: Accessible everywhere.

• Protected: Accessible within the class and its subclasses (prefix _).

• Private: Accessible only within the class (prefix __).

26. How do you define a private attribute in a class?

• Use a double underscore (__).

27. What is name mangling, and how does it work with private attributes?

• Name mangling changes the attribute name to include the class name.
Example:

class MyClass:

__private = 42

print(MyClass._MyClass__private) # Access private attribute

28. Explain how getter and setter methods provide encapsulation.

• Control attribute access and modification through dedicated methods.

29. What is the difference between encapsulation and abstraction?

• Encapsulation: Hides data.

• Abstraction: Hides implementation details.

Inheritance and Subclasses

30. How do you create a subclass in ?

Syntax:

class SubClass(ParentClass):
 pass

31. What is the purpose of the super() function in inheritance?

• Access methods of the base class.

32. Explain single inheritance and multiple inheritance in .

• Single inheritance: Derived class inherits from one base class.

• Multiple inheritance: Derived class inherits from multiple base classes.

33. What is the difference between single-level and multi-level inheritance?

• Single-level: One level of inheritance.

• Multi-level: Chain of inheritance.

Example:

class A:
pass

class B(A):
pass

class C(B):
pass