Welcome to week 3

Principles and Operation of CDMA

Dr. Nasir Faruk

Department of Telecommunication Science
University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria
 TODAY’S Class
Principles and operation of CDMA
CDMA Code Management
Advantages and Disadvantages of CDMA
Spread Spectrum Principles
DSSS Process: Transmitter
DSSS Process: Receiver
Pseudo-Random Codes
Processing Gain and Correlation
 Principles of CDMA (I)
 The goal of CDMA is to break up a finite radio frequency so that multiple users can access it at the same time
 In CDMA entire bandwidth is being used by users all the time and each have their unique codes (e.g. PN
codes) to recover the data instead of time or frequency division as applied to GSM.
 This ability to use codes to divide up the signal, provides CDMA with a great advantage over GSM and other
wireless technologies because it can support more users on the available bandwidth.
 Users are limited by codes not frequency or timeslot
CDMA Code Management
 Principles of CDMA (II)
 Benefits or advantages of CDMA
o Simper network planning (Single frequency, code planning)
o Robust against fading and noisy environment.
o Security: transmitted information is below the noise floor, it is difficult for hackers to decipher the CDMA code used over traffic
channel.
o Spectrum Efficiency: Allows use of entire bandwidth simultaneously
o Soft/Softer handover (no signal loss): During the handover, connection is being established with new cell and hence it minimizes
chances of call drop or disconnection.
o Interoperability and coexistence with other cellular networks such as GSM/LTE.
 Drawbacks or disadvantages of CDMA
o Orthogonal codes are used by mobile subscribers. Orthogonality between the codes need to be maintained in order to recover the
data.
o Complex handover algorithms, Make before break
o Precision code synchronization is needed to recover the original baseband signal.
o Increase in number of users will decrease the overall QoS.
o Near far problem is encountered in CDMA system. This requires close control of transmit powers of CDMA handsets.
o This helps farthest CDMA Phone to transmit at higher power compare to CDMA phone which is closer in order to maintain good
SNR at BS (Base station).
o Self Jamming is observed in CDMA system due to loss of orthogonality of PN codes or spreading sequences of different subscribers.
 Introduction to Spread Spectrum Communications
 CDMA is a form of Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum communications
 Spread Spectrum Communications (SSC) is the form of wireless communication in
which the frequency is deliberately varied. In general, SSC is distinguished by three
key elements
 The signal occupies a bandwidth much greater than that which is necessary to send the
information. This results in many benefits:
o immunity to interference and jamming and
o multi-user access, which we’ll discuss later on.
 The bandwidth is spread by means of a code which is independent of the data.
o The independence of the code distinguishes this from standard modulation schemes in which the data
modulation will always spread the spectrum somewhat.
 The receiver synchronizes to the code to recover the data.
o The use of an independent code and synchronous reception allows multiple users to access the same
frequency band at the same time.
Types of Spread Spectrum Communications
There are three ways to spread the bandwidth of the signal:
1) Frequency hopping: method of transmitting radio
signals by rapidly switching a carrier among
many frequency channels, using a pseudorandom
sequence known to both transmitter and receiver.
2) Time hopping. The signal is transmitted in short
bursts pseudo-randomly, and the receiver knows
beforehand when to expect the burst.
3) Direct sequence. the original data signal is multiplied
with a pseudo random noise spreading code. This
spreading code has a higher chip rate (this the bitrate
of the code), which results in a wideband time
continuous scrambled signal. (MAIN THING IN
THIS COURSE)

A pseudorandom process is a process that appears to be random but is

not. Pseudorandom sequences typically exhibit statistical randomness
while being generated by an entirely deterministic causal process
 Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum Process: Transmitter
 Signal transmission consists of the following steps:
I. The Information data is generated e.g. Voice
II. A pseudo-random code (i.e. Pseudo Noise, PN) is generated,
o different for each channel and each successive connection.
III. The Information data modulates the pseudo-random code (the Information data is “spread”).
IV. The resulting signal modulates a carrier.
V. The modulated carrier is amplified and broadcasted.

Carrier Modulated spread

Broadcasted Signal
signal
Spread Signal

Amplifier
 Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum PROCESS: receiver
 Signal reception consists of the following steps:
I. The carrier is received and amplified.
II. The received signal is mixed with a local carrier to recover the spread digital signal.
III. A pseudo-random code is generated, matching the anticipated signal.
IV. The receiver acquires the received code and phase locks its own code to it.
V. The received signal is correlated with the generated code, extracting the Information
data.
Carrier
Amplifier Demodulated
spread signal
Received Signal
Modulated spread
signal
 SPREAD SPECTRUM CHANNEL CODING

 Channel coding involves adding extra bits to the data to enable error detection and
correction at the receiving end.

 The channel coded data is then spread to a chip rate of 3.84Mcps using the appropriate
code.
 The signal is now filtered to remove the higher frequency components.
 Then, radio frequency carrier is used to modulate and finally amplified and transmitted
from the antenna.
 The redundant chipping code helps the signal resist interference and also enables the
original data to be recovered if data bits are damaged during transmission.
 Pseudo-Random Codes
 A pseudorandom process is a process that appears to be random but is not.
Pseudorandom sequences typically exhibit statistical randomness while being
generated by an entirely deterministic causal process.
 For each channel the NodeB generates a unique code that changes for every connection.
 The NodeB multiplexes all the coded transmissions for every subscriber.
 The subscriber unit correctly generates its own matching code and uses it to extract the
appropriate signals.
o Note that each subscriber uses several independent channels.

Properties of pseudo-random :
 It must be deterministic. The subscriber station must be able to independently generate the code that
matches the base station code.
 It must appear random to a listener without prior knowledge of the code (i.e. it has the statistical
properties of sampled white noise).
 The cross-correlation between any two codes must be small
 The code must have a long period (i.e. a long time before the code repeats itself).
 Code Correlation

 It equals 1 if the two codes are identical

 It equals 0 of the two codes have nothing in common
 The more they have in common, the harder it is for the receiver to extract the appropriate
signal.

There are two correlation functions:

 Cross-Correlation: The correlation of two different codes. As we’ve said, this should
be as small as possible.
 Auto-Correlation: The correlation of a code with a time-delayed version of itself.
 In order to reject multi-path interference, this function should equal 0 for any time delay
other than zero.

 The receiver uses cross-correlation to separate the appropriate signal from signals meant for other
receivers, and auto-correlation to reject multi-path interference.
 Cross-correlation
 Cross-correlation is a measure of similarity of two waveforms as a
function of a time-lag applied to one of them.
 This is also known as a sliding dot product or sliding inner-product.
 For continuous functions, f and g, the cross-correlation is defined
as:

where f * denotes the complex conjugate of f.

Similarly, for discrete functions, the cross-correlation is defined as:
 Autocorrelation
 Autocorrelation is the cross-correlation of
a signal with itself.
 Informally, it is the similarity between observations
as a function of the time separation between them.
 The term is used interchangeably with auto-
covariance.
 Examples
Given the following code sequence:
x=11001101 and y=01110011.
Find the correlation and auto
correlation for x and y.
 Process Gain (PG)
,
 Assume that the user signal during the course of spreading is multiplied by a factor of, say, eight.
 This means that the signal increases by a factor of eight with respect to the interfering signal from another
user. This is called the processing gain
 Processing gain is a power density factor that tells how much less energy in W/Hz is required to transmit
information on a wideband signal in comparison with transmitting the same information on a narrowband
signal.
 Processing gain gives the WCDMA system its robustness against self-interference, making it possible to
reuse the 5 MHz carrier frequencies in close geographical distances.
 PG is usually expressed in decibels (dB). SF ranges from 4 to 512. But in TDD SF of 1 is allowed. The lower
the spreading factor, the more payload data a signal can convey on the radio interface
UP Link Spreading Factor (SFs)
Maximum DPDCH Bit Rate DPDCH Chip Rate
User Data (Kbps) Assuming ½ Spreading (Mcps)
Rate Convolution Factor (SF)
Channel Coding
(kbps)
7.5 15 256 3.84
15 30 128 3.84
30 60 64 3.84
60 120 32 3.84
120 240 16 3.84
240 480 8 3.84
480 960 4 3.84
 Example
Exam 2011/2012 Q3b
1) With a minimum spreading factor of 4 and a chip rate of
3.84Mcps, determine the maximum bit rate for the UL
DPDCH channel.
2) Assuming the data in this channel is ½ convolution encoded;
determine the maximum data rate for this channel. Hence
explain how it will be possible to achieve data rates of 2Mbps
within FDD version of UMTS.
3) State under which circumstances such a data rate may be
achievable.
 Solution
6
SF= ChipRate (3.84 x10 ) 1 Mark
DataRate
Data Rate=3.84x106/4 0.5 Mark

=960kbps 1 Mark

When ½ convolution encoded, the user data rate is ½*960 [0.5 Mark]
=480 kbps 1 Mark

We can achieved 2Mbps if up to 6 data channels are transmitted in parallel each at

480 kbps. Would require pico cell operation and nearly static user [2 marks]

Calculate the processing gain from b) above.

PG=10*log(SF) [1 Mark]
=10*log(4) [0.5 mark]
=6.02 dB [0.5 mark]
 Study Questions
1. Discuss the basic principle of CDMA
2. State FIVE each benefits and drawbacks of CDMA
3. What are the key elements of Spread Spectrum Communications (SSC)
4. Discuss the THREE ways by which Spread Spectrum Communication can
be achieved
5. Discussed the End-to-End Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum
communication
6. Why is extra bits added during spread spectrum channel coding and what
is the use of redundant chipping code?
7. What is Pseudo-Random Code (PPC)?
8. Discuss three properties of the PPC you know
9. What is processing gain and why is it needed?
 References
1. Michel Hindarey “Introduction to CDMA” http://www.bee.net/mhendry/vrml/library/cdma/cdma.htm
2. Viterbi, A. CDMA: Principles of Spread Spectrum Communication Addison-Wesley Wireless Communications Series, 1995
3. Pickholtz, R. L., Schilling, D. L., and Milstein, L. B. “Theory of Spread-Spectrum Communications—A Tutorial” IEEE Trans.
Commun., vol. COM30, no. 5, May 1982, pp 855-884.
4. Pickholtz, R. L., Schilling, D. L., and Milstein, L. B. Revisions to “Theory of Spread-Spectrum Communications—A Tutorial”
IEEE Trans. Commun., vol. COM32, no. 2, Feb 1984, pp 211-212.
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37-38
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11. B Pall (2009), Digital Mobile Communication, GSM layer 3 protocols and function, Lecture Note, Oxford Brookes
University, Oxford, UK
12. G. Childs (2010), “High speed mobile communication” Lecture Note, Oxford Brookes University, Oxford, UK
13. B Pall (2010), “High speed mobile communication” Lecture Note, Oxford Brookes University, Oxford, UK
14. Christpie C, et al (2006)”,WCDMA (UMTS) Deployment Handbook, Planning and Optimization aspect”, John Wiley and
Sons, Ltd.
15. https://www.elprocus.com/cdma-technology-working-applications/