Exploring Space
Exploring Space
Exploring Space
1 1 8
RESEARCH SATELLITES have an unobstructed vi ew of Earth,
the pl anets, the Sun, and the cosmos. They i ncl ude such pas
si ve satel l i tes as Lageos, desi gned t o reflect l aser beams from
Earth in order to determi ne preci sely our pl anet' s shape, and
upper-atmosphere research probes that release cl ouds of gas
es to stream al ong the l i nes of force of Earth' s magneti c fi el d.
At the other end of the compl exi ty scal e are the semi au
tonomous roboti c pl anetary probes desi gned t o work for
years bi l l i ons of mi l es from Earth .
"Parti cl es and fi el ds" probes study the i nterpl anetary el ec
tri cal and magnetic fields, and detect cosmi c rays and the sol ar
wi nd-the stream of hi gh-energy atomi c parti cl es thrown off
by the Sun.
Orbi ti ng observatori es study the cosmos i n the vi si bl e and
i nvi si bl e wavel engths of t he spectrum, most of whi ch never
make i t through the atmosphere to surface observatori es.
( Di fferent physi cal processes produce l i ght of di fferent wave
l engths, so each new "wi ndow" in the spectrum gi ves i mpor
tant new i nformati on about the universe. )
Pl anetary probes vi si t our cosmi c nei ghbors, sendi ng back
beauti ful photographs as wel l as data about t he envi ron
ments near them. Sol ar probes study the star upon whi ch our
l i ves depend.
Earth-orbiti ng satel l i tes
APPLICATI ONS SATELLITES make use of the ai rl essness and
wei ght l essness of space f or practi cal pu rposes. Remote
sensi ng satel l i tes provi de data for better weather forecasts,
crop forecasts, the mon i tori ng of forest fi res, and other
practi cal uses. Navi gati on satel l i tes al l ow s hi ps, ai rcraft,
trucks, and trai ns to determi ne thei r posi ti ons very accurately.
Commun i cati ons satel l i tes carry tens of thousands of tel e
phone cal l s and hundreds of tel evi si on si gnal s around the
gl obe.
I n the future, appl ied research aboard satel l ites and space
stati ons wi l l al l ow the creati on of space factori es to produce
materi al s of great economi c benefi t to Earth . Among the
thi ngs we may develop are new pharmaceutical s for medi ci ne,
purer c
r
stal s for el ectroni cs, and new al l oys for bui l di ng.
The fol l owi ng pages show a few representati ve space
craft from a vari ety of nati ons.
The Hubble Space Telescope NASA
THE HUBBLE SPACE TELESCOPE ( HST) has been cal l ed "the
most i mportant sci enti fi c i nstrument ever fl own . " I t i s named
for astronomer Edwi n Hubbl e, who di scovered the expan
si on of the un i verse.
HST, l aunched in 1 990 by the space shuttl e to an orbi t
about 370 mi l es up wi th an i ncl i nati on of 28. 5 degrees, can
peer i nto the universe seven ti mes farther than any previ ous
man- made i nstrument. I t can detect obj ects 1 /50 the bri ght
ness detectabl e from ground- based tel escopes. Five sensi tive
i nstruments share the l i ght col l ected by the tel escope' s 8-
foot- di ameter mai n mi rror. Despi te some i ni ti al opti cal prob
l ems, HST i s returni ng much val uabl e data.
HST wei ghs more than 20,000 pounds and i s 1 5. 5 feet i n
di ameter and 48 feet l ong. Two l arge sol ar panel s provi de
4, 000 watts of el ectri ci ty. Every few years HST wi l l be vi si t
ed by the shuttl e for refuel i ng, refurbi shi ng, and upgradi ng.
HST takes el ectroni c pi ctures and measurements and relays
them to the Space Telescope Sci ence I nsti tute l ocated in Bal
ti more. Here astronomers record the observati ons and di rect
i ts acti vi ti es.
1 2 1
Atosphere
probe
The Gal i l eo Jupiter spaceprobe
Radiois
pwer supply
GALI LEO is now on i ts way to Jupi ter. Gal i l ee' s path takes
i t fi rst i nto a long el l i pti cal orbit .about the Sun, whi ch swi ngs
i t back mont hs after l aunch t o pass cl osel y by Earth once
agai n t o pi ck up more energy i n a sl i ngshot traj ectory. I t then
heads out to Jupi ter.
About 1 00 days before encounteri ng that gi ant pl anet i n
1 995, i t wi l l separate i nto to parts. One goes i nto orbi t
around Jupi ter, approxi mately fol l owi ng the orbi t of the satel
'
l i te Ganymede, wi th a period of about seven days. Duri ng 1 1
orbi ts i t wi l l take cl ose- up photographs of Jupi ter and many
of i ts satel l i tes.
The second part of Gal i lee i s an atmospheri c probe. I t wi l l
pl unge i nto Jupi ter' s atmosphere at a speed of 1 00, 000
mi l es an hour. A heat shi el d and then parachutes wi l l sl ow i t
down . As i t dri fts sl owly downward, i t wi l l radi o back a pro
fi l e of the atmosphere.
1 22
The Advanced X- Ray Astrophysics Faci l i ty (AXAF) NASA
AXAF {Advanced X- Ray Astrophysi cs Faci l i ty) wi l l expl ore
the depths of the universe by l ooki ng for X rays from cosmi c
sou rces . { These wavel en
g
ths never make i t th rough the
atmosphere to Earth' s surace observatori es . ) I t wi l l conti n
ue studi es begun by t he earl i er satel l i tes Uhuru and t he
Hi gh Energy Astrophysi cs Observatori es. I t wi l l compl e
ment the observati ons of the Hubbl e Space Tel escope.
AXAF wi l l be 1 4 feet in di ameter, 43 feet l ong, and wei gh
1 0 tons i n orbi t 300 mi les above the Earth. I ts mai n i nstrument
wi l l be an X- ray tel escope 4 feet i n di ameter wi th 1 00 ti mes
more sensi ti vi ty to fai nt X- ray sources than earl i er satel l i tes.
I t wi l l be abl e to pi npoi nt the position of sources four times more
accurately in the sky as wel l . Through i nternati onal cooper
ation wi th NASA, i nstruments from researchers i n the Nether
l ands and the Un i ted Ki ngdom are bei ng provi ded. Thi s
space observatory i s desi gned to l ast several years.
1 23
ULYSSES i s a spaceprobe desi gned to expl ore a never
before-vi si ted regi on of our sol ar srstem, the huge vol ume
l yi ng above and bel ow the pl ane o the Earth' s orbi t ( ecl i p
ti c) and the pol ar regi ons of the Sun. Al l previ ous i nter
pl anetary mi ssi ons have been confi ned to the narrow di sk
wi th i n whi ch al l t he pl anets orbi t.
The 800- pound spacecraft, provi ded by the European
Space Agency, was l aunched in 1 990. The U. S provi ded the
launch serices, the 260-wat power supply, some experiments,
and tracki ng usi ng NASA' s l arge- di sh antennas.
The craft i s headi ng toward Jupi ter, usi ng a s l i ngshot
orbi t over the gi ant pl anet' s pol e to swi ng i t i nto a traj ectory
that wi l l take i t over the poles of the Sun in 1 994 and 1 995.
Thi s mi ssi on i s desi gned to l ast about fi ve years and give us
i mportant new i nformati on about the three-di mensi onal struc
ture of i nterpl anetary space around the Sun .
Soviet Phobos spacecraft photographs that satell ite
PHOBOS, l aunched in 1 988 by the Soviet Uni on, was a pai r
of 1 0, 000- pound spacecraft sent t o study Mars and i ts two
satel l i tes, thought to be captured asteroi ds. They had been
fi rst photographed by Mari ner 9 i n 1 971 . Cooperat i ve
experi ments on board came from researchers in France, Aus
tri a, West Germany, and Sweden . Phobos 1 fai l ed en route
to Mars due to a control l er' s error.
Phobos 2 entered orbi t around Mars earl y i n 1 989. The
craft was to have studi ed Mars' i nner satel l i te Phobos, a
smal l worl d wi th a very low escape veloci ty. Lasers from the
probe were pl anned to vaporize a small porti on of the surface
for chemi cal anal ysi s. Later the craft was to rel ease to l an
ders, one t o drive a probe i nto t he satel l i te's surface i n order
to test i ts properti es, another to hop from pl ace to pl ace
across the surface for a more compl ete survey. Unfortunate
ly, the spacecraft fai l ed after sendi ng back onl y a few pho
tographs and before i t made any cl ose studi es of the satel l i te.
1 25
Comet Rendezvous/ Asteroid Flyby space mission NASA
CRAF ( Comet Rendezvous/ Asteroi d F l yby) , al so cal l ed
Mari ner Tempel - 2, wi l l be the fi rst to use a new mul ti purpose
spacecraft structure to wh i ch the speci fi c i nstruments need
ed for the mi ssi on are to be attached.
Pl ans are to l aunch CRAF aboard a Ti tan- Centaur i n
1 993. I t wi l l fly by Venus that August, then swi ng by Earth
agai n on a sl i ngshot traj ectory, pi cki ng up speed for i ts tri p
outard. I n earl y 1 995 i t wi l l fl y b
y
the asteroi d Hesti a, gi v
ing us our fi rst cl ose l ook at one of these mi nor pl anets.
I n 1 996 CRAF wi l l approach to wi thi n 3, 000 mi l es of
Comet Tempel - 2. I t wi l l then cl ose to wi thi n about 600 mi l es,
then down to 20 mi l es, and fi re a penetrator probe i nto the
icy nucl eus of the comet to measure i ts properti es. Fol l owi ng
the comet as i t heads i nward toward the Sun and heats up,
l i berati ng gases and dust, CRAF wi l l move sl owl y away from
the comet, travel i ng down the comet' s tai l s.
1 26
COMMUNI CATI ONS SATELLITES ( commsats} are the most
wi del y used appl i cati ons satel l i tes so far, a mul ti - bi l l i on-dol
l ar- a- year busi ness . Al most al l commsats-over 1 00 of
them-are i n Cl arke orbi t 22, 300 mi l es above the Earth' s
equator. At thi s di stance they orbi t the Earth i n 24 hours, the
same t i me it takes Earth to revol ve once. As seen from
Earth they appear to be stati onary i n the sky. Thus antennas
on the ground do not need to fol l ow them across the sky.
Each satel l i te recei ves radi o si gnal s from an Earth stati on
antenna, shi fts the frequency, ampl i fi es them, and sends them
back to Earth . The ci rcui t aboard the satel l i te that does thi s is
cal led a transponder or repeater. Transponders have powers
rangi ng from a few watts to a few hundred watts . Al though
onl y about a thousandth of a bi l l ionth of a bi l l i onth of the pow
er radi ated by the satel l i te makes i t to the antennas on Earth' s
surface, recei vers are sensi tive enough to al l ow even smal l
antennas to be useful .
The l arger satel l i tes, such as those of the I nternati onal
Tel ecommuni cat i ons Satel l i te Organi zat i on ( I ntel sat} , are
i ntended to rel ay tel ephone cal l s, di gi tal data, and tel evi si on
across the oceans. One l arge satel l i te can carry 1 00, 000
tel ephone cal l s si mul taneousl y, pl us several televi si on si g
nal s. Other Di rect Broadcast Satel l i tes carry tel evi si on si gnal s
di rectly to smul l antennas on peopl e' s homes. Sti l l others
connect shi ps at sea and ai rcraft with tel ephone systems any
where in the worl d.
Commsats may have antennas desi gned to send thei r si g
nal s to the 42 percent of the globe they can see from thei r orbit,
or the antennas may be "spot beams" desi gned to focus on
smal l areas of the Earth .
Commsats range in cost from a few tens of mi l l i ons of dol
l ars for the smal lest ones to several hundreds of mi l l i ons of dol
l ars for the l argest, most powerful ones. Thi s does not i ncl ude
An l ntelsat VI I communications Spacenet commsat i n the Cl arke
satel l i te INTELSAT orbit GTE
Molniya satel l i te over northern regions
the addi ti onal tens of mi l l ions of dol l ars needed to l aunch them,
or to operate them once i n orbi t.
There are several commsats not i n Cl arke orbi t. Because
i t i s di fficul t for a satel l i te over the equator to communi cate with
areas at hi gh l ati tudes, the Soviet Uni on has a seri es of
commsats, known as Mol niya, i n l ong, loopi ng orbi ts that take
1 2 hours to go around once. Several of these are spaced
around one orbi tal path, and each i s used in turn when i t is
near its apogee poi nt and hence movi ng sl owl y. An Earth sta
ti on tracks each one for several hours unti l it begi ns to move
too fast, at whi ch ti me communi cati ons traffi c is swi tched off
to another Mol niya then neari ng its apogee. The U. S. mi l i tary
has a si mi l ar satel l i te system for communi cati ng wi th i ts sub
mari nes and ai rcraft when they are near the North Pol e.
1 29
REMOTE SENSI NG is the techni que of studyi ng somethi ng
from a di stance by anal yzi ng l i ght . Everythi ng emi ts and
refl ects l i ght uni quel y, dependi ng upon i ts chemi cal com
posi ti on, temperature, pressure, and other properti es.
Remote sensi ng satel l i tes { someti mes cal l ed sensats) have
a bi rd' s-eye vi ew of Earth and can exami ne the enti re surface
ever few days to weeks, enabl i ng us to detect changes.
Sensor i nstruments provide data that al lows sci enti sts to deter
mi ne if a crop i s under stress, roughly predict crop yi el ds, fi nd
the boundari es of a forest fi re or a Rood, detect mi neral s, and
study the effects of fl oodi ng, pol l uti on, or urbani zati on.
Sea- sensi ng satel l i tes can determi ne temperature, wave
hei ght, wi nd di recti on, and sea level . By knowi ng the tem
perature of water preferred by certai n f i sh, satel l i tes can
gui de fi shi ng fleets to school s of fi sh qui ckl y.
Weather or meteorol ogi cal satel l i tes ( metsats) provi de the
photographs you see on tel evi si on weather reports. They can
determi ne the temperature, wi nds, weather fronts, cl oud pat-
Remote sensing satellites detect radiation from Earth
terns, and moi sture in the ai r.
They are especi al ly i mportant
si nce most of Earth' s surface
is ocean, and much of our
weather ori gi nates there.
RESOLUTI ON, the abi l i ty to
detect smal l obj ects and tel l
them apart, i s an i mportant
characteri sti cs of a sensat.
Landsat 5 has a resol uti on
for one of i ts sensors of 240
feet. Thi s means i t can detect
areas an acre in si ze, and
tel l one acre from another.
The economi c benefi ts of
sensi ng satel l i tes are hard to
cal cul ate, but certai nly l arge.
Studying Earth from space
Radar " photograph" of Earth from Seasat NASA
LANDSAT is the seri es of U. S. remote l and- sensi ng satel l i tes.
The fi rst one was l aunched i n 1 972. I n the mi d- 1 980s
Congress deci ded to transfer the Landsat program to private
i ndustry. The current satel l i te is Landsat 5, l aunched i n
1 984.
Landsat i s i n a pol ar orbi t at an al ti tude of 438 mi l es, ori
ented so that i t l ooks down and takes photographs of areas
1 1 5 mi l es square. The orbi t changes ori entati on sl owl y and
conti nual ly so that it always passes over pars of Earh that have
a l ocal ti me of about 9: 30 A. M. Thi s is so that the i l l umi nati on
angl e of the Sun i s always the same, whi ch al l ows for com
pari sons beteen photographs taken on di ferent days. I n 1 8
days Landsat scans the enti re Earth and then begi ns agai n.
Landsat wei ghs al most 4,300 pounds, and i s 1 3 feet l ong,
6 feet wi de, and 1 2 feet hi gh i ncl udi ng its sol ar panel and
antenna. The sensors are ( 1 ) a Mul ti spectral Scanner, whi ch
detects l i ght i n four di fferent wavel ength bands wi th a reso
l ution of 260 feet, and (2) a Thematic Mapper, sensi tive to sev
eral other wavel engt hs of
l i ght, with a best resol ution of
1 00 feet.
Mos t La n ds at ph o
tographs are pri nted i n fal se
col ors to enhance vi si bi l i ty.
Water shows up as bl ack or
bl ue, urban areas are gray,
growi ng pl ants are pi nk or
red, desert areas are brown.
A Landsat remot sensing space
craft NASA
A Landsat photograph NASA
SPOT, standi ng for System
Probatoi re d' Obseration de
I a Ter r e, i s a n E a r t h
res ou rces s ate l l i te of t he
European Space Agency. l t
was fi rst l aunched i n 1 986
by an Ari ane rocket, t he fi rst
pol ar l aunch for that rocket.
Spot i s roughl y cubi cal i n
s hape, about 6. 5 f eet on
each si de. Extendi ng from
thi s mai n body are sol ar pan
el s about 50 feet l ong that
provi de 1 , 800 wats of pow
er to the satel l ite. It wei ghs
4, 000 pounds.
Spot i s i n an orbi t 522
mi l es up, and repeat s i ts
ground track every 26 days.
Each i mage covers an area
about 38 mi l es on a si de,
with a resolution of 33 fe t fr
bl ack-and-whi te pictures and
66 feet for col or pi ctures,
much better than Landsat .
Thi s al l ows fi ner detai l t o be
seen on Earth.
Newer, more capable ver
si ons of Spot, with higher res
ol ut i on and more detai l ed
l i ght analyzers, are pl anned
for the 1 990s.
1 34
The Spot remote sensing satellite
1 990 CNES. Provided by SPOT
Image Corporation
A photograph of part of Earth
from Spot 1 990 CNES. Pro
vd by SPT Image Corraton
GES is a series of Geostati onary Operati onal Envi ronmental
Satel l i tes. Several GOES are i n orbi t 22, 300 mi l es up,
spaced t o g i ve ful l coverage of the Earth' s weather. These
satel l i tes al so mon i tor radi o reports from t housands of
unmanned weather-observi ng stat i ons and hi gh- al ti t ude
meteorol ogi cal bal l oons, rel ayi ng t he data t o weather cen
ters on Earth.
The ol der GOES spacecraft are shaped l i ke hat boxes,
about 7 fet i n di ameter and 1 1 feet hi gh i ncl udi ng thei r antn
nos. On orbi t they have a wei ght of 861 pounds. They are
spi n- stabi l i zed, mai ntai ni ng thei r ori entati on i n space l i ke a
gyroscope. Thei r sensors scanned across the Earth' s surface
as they turned.
The newer GOES satel l i tes are a very di fferent desi gn. They
are three-axi s stabi l i zed, so they do not spi n and thei r i nstru
ments are conti nual l y poi nted down at Earth . They wei gh
al most 2, 900 pounds. The i nstruments i ncl ude new sensors to
exami ne a wi der porti on of the spectrum; they are more sen
si tive than those on earl i er satel l i tes.
A newer GOES weather satel l i te
NOA
GOES photograph of Earth ' s
weather NOA
A NOAA weather satel l i te NOAA
NOA is a seri es of l ow-orbi t weather satel l i tes named
after the U. S. Nati onal Oceani c and Atmospheri c Agency,
whi ch manages al l metsats . They compl ement the GOES
satel l i tes by provi di ng cl oser, more detai l ed photographs and
meas urements of the atmosphere. NOAA satel l i tes are
about 500 mi l es up i n pol ar orbi ts that take them over al l of
the Earth . They wei gh about 2, 000 pounds and are about
1 3 feet l ong, not i ncl udi ng the sol ar panel s, whi ch suppl y
1 ,500 watts .
Thei r i nstruments i ncl ude h i gh- resol uti on cameras and
devi ces t o determi ne atmospheri c temperature. They al so
rel ay reports from weather bal l oons and buoys, and from
remote stati ons.
Aboard t he l ater NOAA satel l i tes are receivers for the
Search and Rescue system.
These detect di stress si gnal s
from ai rcraft t hat may have
cr as hed i n remote areas
beyond the range of the usu
al di stress receivers on Earth.
NOAA i mage of Earth NOAA
Navstar/GPS navigation satel l i te
NAVSTAR, or GPS, the Gl obal Posi ti on i ng System, i s a
group of navi gati on satel l i tes desi gned for use by the U. S.
mi l i tary but al so usabl e by ci vi l i an vehi cl es. There are 1 8
operati onal Navstar satel l i tes, si x spaced around i n each of
three 1 2, 500- mi l e- hi gh orbi ts wi th di fferent i ncl i nat i ons,
each wi th a peri od of 1 2 hours.
User equi pment ranges from smal l hand- hel d recei vers to
l arger recei vers carri ed aboard shi ps and ai rcraft. These
receivers automati cal l y pi ck up si gnal s from the several near
est Navstars to cal cul ate the receiver' s posi ti on to wi thi n 50
feet in three di mensi ons, and veloci ty to wi thi n a fracti on of
a mi l e per hour.
The current Navstars are about 1 , 700 pounds i n wei ght,
use 700 watts of power from sol ar cel l s, and are "hard
ened" agai nst radi ati on from nucl ear bl asts. They al so have
nucl ear detecti on devices aboard, and can detect if someone
has tri ed to tamper with them ei ther by hi tti ng them or by shi n
i ng a l aser at them.
1 37
MANUFACTURI NG IN MICROGRAVIT is sti l l i n i ts i nfancy.
The advantages of space are that i t i s an al most wei ghtl ess
envi ronment and a better vacuum than we can produce on
Earth .
More experi menti ng than actual commerci al manufactur
i ng has gone on so fr. The National I nstitte of Standards and
Technol ogy does sel l ti ny, perfectly spheri cal pl asti c beads {fr
cal i brati ng i nstruments} that are made i n space. Pharmaceu
ti cal compani es have used a techni que cal l ed el ectrophore
sis to puri fy drugs. {Much of the cost of a drug comes in the
puri fi cati on process, whi ch can someti mes be done more
effi ci entl y i n space because gravi ty doesn't i nterfere. }
Semi conductors for the electroni cs i ndustry must be excep
ti onal l y pure to functi on . Many i mpuri ti es come from the
contai ner i n whi ch i ngredi ents are processed. In the zero-g
Experimental drug processing i n space NASA
"-
1
Mi l i tary navi gat i on s atel l i te
NASA
Soviet Radar Ocean Survei l l ance
Satellite
SPY SATELLITES ( spysats) are al so hi ghl y secret. They are
pl aced i n l ow orbi ts, and have maneuveri ng engi nes that
al low them to swoop even l ower for cl oser photographs, to
return to hi gher orbi ts, and to change orbi ts i n order to scan
di fferent target areas.
Fol l owi ng t he earl y U. S. Di scoverer seri es, t he "Bi g Bi rd"
satel l i tes, al so known as KH( "Keyhol e") - 9, were l aunched
beteen 1 971 and 1 984. These huge spysats were 50 feet
l ong, 1 0 feet in di ameter, and wei ghed 25,000 pounds. They
contai ned l ong- focal - l ength cameras. (They al so someti mes
contai ned some el ectroni c eavesdroppi ng capabi l i ti es . ) Pho
tographs were devel oped i n the spacecraft automati cal l y.
Some were scanned el ectroni cal l y and the pi ct ures sent
back to recei vi ng stati ons on Earth by radi o. For the hi gh
est- resol uti on pi ctures, t he fi l m was transferred t o one of si x
pods t hat were then j ett i soned and returned t o Earth by
parachute, bei ng caught in mi dai r by ai rpl anes.
Unoffi ci al sources cl ai m Bi g Bi rds coul d recogni ze obj ects
as smal l as a foot across from 1 00 mi l es up. A standi ng j oke
is that the CI A has n i cknames for every Russi an truck driv
er. Big Bi rds were expl oded in orbi t or commanded to reen
ter and burn up at t he end of thei r operati onal l i ves t o pre
vent them from fal l i ng i nto forei gn hands.
The Ti tan- 3 l auncher was speci fical ly devel oped t o l aunch
the Bi g Bi rds. Current spysats are l aunched by newer Ti tan
model s or by t he space shuttl e. Bi g Bi rd used t he Agena
upper stage, whi ch remai ned atached to i t to enabl e i t to
maneuver over di fferent geographi cal areas of i nterest.
The newer U. S. spysats, begi nni ng i n the mi d- 1 980s,
are the KH- 1 1 and KH- 1 2, supposedl y wi th ever- better res
ol uti on and l onger operati onal l i feti mes in orbi t. Technol o
gy has i mproved, so fi l m return is no l onger necessary.
1 47
Artist's conception a Big Bird spysat
LCROSSE is the name of a new radar spysat fi rst l aunched
aboard a space shutl e in 1 988. I t is the fi rst U. S. active radar
satel l i te, capabl e of maki ng i mages of what i t "sees" wi th
radi o waves. The radar i s capabl e of peer i ng th rough
cl ouds and of bei ng used at ni ght as wel l .
Lacrosse satel l i tes are about 1 50 feet across, and are
placed in orbits about 400 mi les up. Uncl assi fied sources cl ai m
they can resolve obj ects as smal l as about 3 feet across.
Thei r connection with the new KH- 1 2 spysats i s not known out
si de the mi l i tary.
1 48
FUTURE SPACE MISSIONS
So far our space mi ssi ons have been confi ned to the sol ar
system, and even that we have expl ored onl y spotti l y. Onl y
t he Moon has been vi si ted by humans i n person.
We are technical ly l i mi ted i n our expl orati ons by the pow
er of our rockets, by our abi l ity to carry food and fuel , and
by one apparently i nsuperabl e physi cal l i mi tati on: t he speed
of l i ght. No obj ect or si gnal we now know of can travel
faster than 1 86, 000 mi l es per second.
Further expl orati on and expl oi tati on of space wi l l depend
upon more powerful and effi ci ent rocket engi nes. Among
the possi bi l i ti es are i on engi nes, whi ch, al though they produce
onl y a smal l thrust, can provi de power for a l ong ti me and
make very effi ci ent use of fuel .
Other low-thrust techni ques such as sol ar sai l s may be used.
Technol ogi es such as fusi on ramj ets are far in the future.
Such fanci ful i deas as anti - gravi t, "warp drive, " and so on
are l i kel y t o remai n i n t he real m of sci ence fi cti on, al though
we shoul d never underesti mate the potenti al for research
breakthroughs.
Much wi l l be done roboti cal ly, sendi ng "smart" machi nes
i nto di stant and dangerous envi ronments. Robots wi l l become
i ncreasi ngl y autonomous. Thi s i s especi al l y i mportant the
farther from Earth our probes go, and thus the l onger i t takes
to communi cate wi th them via radi o.
The next few pages outl i ne several possi bl e future space
acti vi ti es, some al most certai n to occur wi thi n the next coupl e
of decades, some that wi l l perhaps never occur.
Whether any parti cul ar proj ect happens i s not so i mpor
tant as the fact that, j ust as the 20th century saw terrestri al s
take t he fi rst tentative steps off our pl anet after 5 bi l l i on years
of evol uti on, the 2 1 st century wi l l see the permanent expan
si on of human bei ngs i nto the sol ar system and t he universe
beyond.
1 49
A future base on Mars might look l i ke this
LUNAR BASES wi l l be among the next manned space activ
i ti es. The Moon coul d be mi ned for materi al s to be used i n
bui l di ng space settl ements and spacecraft, and for fuel .
The Moon i s a good si te for astronomi cal radi o and opti cal
observatori es. Lunar orbi t may be a good pl ace to assem
bl e huge spacecraft for pl anetary mi ssi ons.
A MANNED MI SSI ON TO MARS i s among the programs
bei ng consi dered by the U. S. and the Soviet Uni on, perhaps
as an i nternati onal venture that i ncl udes Europe and Japan.
Because the Moon and Mars have no or l i tl e protective
atmosphere or magneti c fi el d, bases there woul d have to be
dug several feet bel ow the surface to avoi d cosmi c rays and
meteoroi ds. Humans woul d need t o wear pressure suits for
work on the surface. Wi thi n a coupl e of decades there may
even be touri st vi si ts to the Moon.
The fi rst true extraterrestri al human i s l i kel y t o be born i n
a l unar base wi thi n the next coupl e of decades.
1 50
ASTEROI D MI NES may become practi cal i n the future.
Al though the asteroi d bel t beteen Mars and Jupi ter seems
very di stant, i t takes onl y about the same amount of ener
gy to bri ng a pound of asteroi dal materi al from there to a
near- Earth orbi t as it does to bri ng a pound of materi al from
Earth' s surface to orbi t up through the Earth' s strong grav
i tati onal fi el d.
A smal l ni ckel - i ron asteroi d, one mi l e i n di ameter, contai ns
about a decade's worth of t he total output of al l i ron smel ters
in the enti re worl d, and i t is al ready refi ned to about 95 per
cent puri t! The si l icon, oxgen, and other el ements i n the rocky
astroids woul d b val uabl e on the Mon, on Mars, or in space
settl ements.
I t woul d take several years to ferry asteroi dal materi al eco
nomi cal ly back to near-Earth, perhaps usi n
g
sol ar sai l s or i on
rockets uti l i zi ng the asteroid itself as fuel . A w asteroi ds pass
cl ose to Earth, and we may be abl e to rendezvous wi th them.
Mining an asteroid
Concept for a space colony Inside a space colony
SPACE SETTLEMENTS, or space col on i es, wi l l be huge
"ci ti es" bui l t i n space usi ng mostly extraterrestri al materi al s.
The most l i kel y l ocati on woul d be i n the Moon' s orbi t, 60
degrees ahead of or beh i nd i t, at the l ocati ons cal l ed by
space sci enti sts L4 and L5.
These settl ements woul d be spheres or cyl i nders mi l es
across i n si ze, wi th ful ly self-contai ned, sel f-sustai ni ng ecosys
tems, i ncl udi ng houses, ani mal s, pl ants, l akes, agri cul ture, and
everythi ng else needed to support thousands of peopl e i ndef
i ni tel y. Day and ni ght cycl es woul d be provi ded by rotati ng
the settl ement and by openi ng and cl osi ng shutters. Rotati on
woul d al so provi de a ki nd of "arti fi ci al gravi ty. "
The space setlers may be empl oyed i n research, manu
facture of spacecraft, refi ni ng l unar materi al s, and many
other acti vi ti es. Some may come to reti re i n the reduced
"gravi ty" of the settl ement. Others may come to vacati on.
Whi l e such setlements are at least several decades away, there
are now many peopl e who woul d l i ke to l ive in one.
1 52
SOLR SAI LS, or l i ght sai l s, use the power of sunl i ght to move
a spacecraft. Onl y Earth- bound experi mental model s have
been bui l t so far, but one day they may be used to transport
cargo across vast di stances. Al though thei r thrust is extreme
l y l ow, they need carry no fuel and no engi nes .
Sunl i ght exerts a sl i ght pressure, the same force that makes
a comet' s gaseous tai l stream awa
y
from the sun . A l arge
l i ghtei ght sai l , mi les across, made of al umi nized pl astic, coul d
use thi s l i ght pressure to provi de a few pounds of force. They
woul d be control l ed much as a sai l boat on a l ake i s, by
al teri ng the posi ti on of the sai l to sl ow down or speed up as
needed. At di stances t hat are much farther from t he Sun
than t he asteroi d belt, there woul d be too l i tle sunl i ght t o work
wel l .
Such a techni que coul d be used to ferry materi al s from
asteroi ds to near- Earth . Al though the j ourney woul d take
many years, i t woul d be i nexpensi ve. There are pl ans for a
sol ar-sai l tri al race in the 1 990s.
A fusion ramjet storshi p
INTERSTELR FUGHT i s a dream out of reach for some time.
Even at the speed of l i ght i t woul d take 4. 3 years to reach
t he nearest star system. I t now seems i mpossi bl e t o travel
faster than l i ght.
The Hubbl e Space Telescope may tel l us if any of our
nei ghbori ng stars have pl anets around them. Robotic probes
coul d j ourey tere, tking deades and sendi ng fi ndi ngs bck
by radi o or l aser beams. Manned starA i ght is much frher i n
the future, and fl i ghts woul d probabl y take so l ong they
woul d be one-way voyages.
One tchnology imagi ned fr such a futristic mi ssi on i s the
fusi on ramj et, whi ch generates a mi l es-wi de funnel -shaped
magneti c field in front of i t. Its moti on through the thi n i nter
stel l ar gas woul d capture hydrogen atoms, whi ch woul d then
be compressed and expel l ed out the rear. As yet no one
knows how to make such a craft. Sti l l , i t i s exciti ng to consi der
that someday humans may j ourney among the stars.
1 54
ORGANIZATIONS AND RESOURCES
SPACE ORGANIZATIONS con give you i nformation on what i s happeni ng in
the spce program. They usual ly publ i sh infrmative magazines and hold meet
i ngs, and they may actively promote space activi ti es. The maj or ones are:
Notional Space Society
922 Pennsylvani a Avenue, SE
Washi ngton, DC 20003
Pl anetary Society
65 North Catal i na Avenue
Pasadena, CA 91 1 06
Bri ti sh I nterpl anetary Soci ety
27/29 South Lambeth Rood
London SW8 1 SZ, Engl and
NASA FACI LITI ES often hove publ i c vi sitor centers, and some offer speci al
resources lor teachers. I f you l ive or vi si t near one of these, contact them ahead
of ti me for more i nformati on.
Vi si tor I nformation Center
Goddard Space Fl i ght Center
Greenbelt, MD 20771
Publ i c Affai rs Office
Johnson Space Center
Houston, TX 77058
Vi si tor I nformation Center
Kennedy Space Center
Merrit I sl and, FL 32899
Publ i c Affai rs Office
Lewis Research Center
Cl evel and, OH 441 35
Publ i c Affai rs Office
Ames Research Center
Mountoi nview, CA 94035
Publ i c Affai rs Office
Jet Propul si on Laboratory
Pasadena, CA 91 1 03
MAOR SPACE MUSEUMS AND EXHI BITS:
Notional Ai r and Space Museum
6th and I ndependence Ave. , SW
Washi ngton, DC 20560
Al abama Space and Rocket Center
1 T ronqui l i ty Bose
Huntsvi l l e, AL 35807
BOOKS AND MAGAZI NES
Following ore recommended books about a variety of space activities:
Blonstei n, Lorry. Communications Satellites. John Wi l ey, New York, 1 987.
Chochron, Curti s D. , Denni s M. Gorman, and Joseph D. Dumoul i n, eds. Space
Handbook. Ai r Universi ty Press Publ ication AU- 1 8, U. S. Government
Pri nti ng Office, Washi ngton, DC, 1 985.
1 55
Gotl and, Kenneth. The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Space Technology. Harmo
ny Books, New York, 1 981 .
Gol dman, Nathan C. Space Commerce. Bol l i nger Publ i shi ng Company, Com
bri dge, MA, 1 985.
Hobbs, David. An Illustrted Guide K Space Warfre. Salamander Books, New
York, 1 986.
Sheffi el d, Charl es. Eorthwotch: A Survey of the World from Space. Macmi l l an
Publ i shi ng Co. , I nc. , New York, 1 98 1 .
Turn i l l , Regi nal d, ed. Jane's Spaceflight Director for 1 987 Jane's Publ i shi ng
I nc. , 1 1 5 Fi fth Avenue, New York, 1 987.
Von Broun, Wernher, Frederi ck I . Ordway, Davi d Dool i ng, and Fred C.
Durant. Space Trove/: A Histr. Harper & Row, New York, 1 985.
Space events happen fastr than books can keep up with them. Magazines
are indi spensable for keeping up-to-dote. These ore the major ones:
Ad Astr Spacefight
Nati onal Space Society
Bri ti sh I nterpl anetary Societ
922 Pennsylvani a Avenue, SE
27/29 South Lambeth Road
Washi ngton, DC 20003
London SW8 1 SZ, Engl and
Aviation Week & Space
Technology
P. 0. Box 1 505
Neptune, NJ 07753
PHOTO CREDITS: We are i ndebted to the fol l owi ng i nsti tuti ons and i ndi vi d
ual s for the photographs used i n thi s book. British Aerospace ( BAe) : 86; Euro
pean Space Agency ( ESA) : 21 bottom left, 85, 87, 88, 1 1 0; GTE Spocenet
Corporation (GTE) : 1 28 ri ght; I srael Aircraft I ndustries ( I AI ) : 94; I nternational
Telecommuni cati ons Satel l ite Organi zation ( I NTELSAT) : 1 28 left; McDonnel l
Dougl as Space Systems Company (MDSSC) : 64; Mox-Pi anck- l nstitut fur
Aeronomie (MPAE), Li ndau/Harz, FRG, 1 986. Photo by Hol ley Multicolour
Camero on ESA'S Gioto spacecraft. Courtesy Dr. H. U. Keller: 21 botm right;
National Aeronautics and Space Admi ni stration (NASA): 5, 6, 7, 1 4, 1 5, 1 6,
1 7, 1 9, 2 1 fi rst three rows, 26, 27, 28, 30, 3 1 , 32, 33, 34, 35, 38, 39, 40,
58, 59, 62, 63, 65, 66, 68, 6 71 , 72, 73, 75, 96, 1 01 , 1 0 1 2 1 , 1 2
1 26, 1 3 1 , 1 32, 1 33, 1 38, 1 39, 1 43, 1 46 top; Noti onal Oceani c and
Atmospheri c Admi ni strati on ( NOAA) : 1 35, 1 36; Novosti Press Agency
( NOVOSTI ) : 81 ; Ordway Col lecti on, Space and Rocket Center, from the col
lection of Frederi ck I . Ordway I l l (ORDWAY) : 1 3, 57; Orbi tal Sci ences Cor
poration (OSC) : 74, 76-77; SPOT I mage Corporati on: 1 34; TASS: 20, 79,
1 03, 1 05; Xi nhua News Agency and New Chi na Pi ctures: 91 , 92, 1 09
1 56
Advanced X -Roy Astro-
physics Facility, 1 23
Aeropile, 9, 1 0
Aerospace plane, 70
Ageno upper stage, 63, 71 ,
1 47
Aldri n, Edwi n, 1 7
AI -Hoson oi -Rammoh, 9
Ames Research Center, 1 02
Anders, Wi l l i am, 1 7
Antibal l i stic mi ssi les, 1 04
Anti-gravity, 1 49
Antisotellite weapons, 30
Aphel ion, 48
Apogee, 46
Apogee and Maneuvering
Stage, 74
Apo
g
ee kick motor, 55
Apolo program, 1 7, 59
Applications satellites, 1 20
Arione rockets, 60, 84, 85,
87, 95, l l 0, 1 34
Arionespoce, l l 0
Armstrong, Nei l , 1 7
A-series rockets, 1 4, 78, 79
ASLV, 93
Asteroids, 20, 22, 1 51 , 1 53
Astronauts, 3 1 , 32, 33, 37,
39-40
Astronomical unit, 22
Atlantis, 69
Atlas rockets, 1 4, 60, 63,
71 , 72, 73
Atmosphere, Earh's, 24,
97, 1 36
Augmented Satellite launch
Vehi cl e, 93
AXAF, 1 23
Bacon, Roger, 9
Boikonur, 1 4, 99, 1 04
Bolosore Rocket launchi ng
Station, 1 1 1
Batteries, 1 1 5
Big Bi rds, 1 47, 1 48
Bluford, Gui on, 1 39
Booster rockets, 63, 65, 67
Borman, Fronk, 1 7
B-series rockets, 79, l 04
Buran, 61 , 82, 83
Cope Canaveral, 96, 1 00
INDEX
Carpenter, ScoH, 1 5
Celestial navigation, 49
Centaur upper stage, 63,
72, 74, 1 26
Challenger, 1 5, 69
Chong Zheng- 1 rocket, 91
Cheapsots, 7 6
Chi no, 5, 9l , 1 08
Chi nese rockets, 91 -92
Cl arke, Arhur C. , 47
Cl arke orbit, 47, 48, 1 27
Col l i ns, Michael, 1 7
Colonies, space, 1 52
Col umbi a, 69
Comet Giacobi ni -Zi nner, 20
Comet Holley, 20, 2 1 , 89
Comet Rendezvous/ Aster-
oid Flyby, 1 26
"Comet" rocket, 94
Comet Tempel-2, 1 26
Commsats. See Communi -
cations satellites
Communications satellites,
47, 55, 66, 1 20, 1 27-
1 29, 1 44
Cosmi c rays, 28
Cosmodrome, l 03
Cosmonauts, 39, 1 05
Countdown, 96
CRAF, 1 26
Cryogenic fuels, 87, 90, 96
(-series rockets, 79, 1 04
CSL- 1 rocket, 91
CZ-series rockets, 91 , 92
Debris, space, 29-30
Deep-Space Network, 51
Delta rockets, 60, 64, 73,
89
Discoverer satellites, 1 47
Di scovery, 69
Drag, atmospheric, 1 9, 24
D-series rockets, 80, 8 1
Earl
y
warni ng satellites, 1 45
Earth, 5, 42, 1 1 8, 1 1 9,
1 23, 1 34
Earth sensi ng satellites, 1 1 9
Eating i n space, 34
Eccentricity, 45
Edwards Ai r Force Base,
1 1 2
Electric propul si on, 54
Electronic intelligence satel-
lites, 1 46
El l i pse, 43, 44
ELY, 55, 56
Endeavour, 69
Energi a, 61 , 78, 82
Energi a/Buran, 6 1 , 82, 83
ESA. Se European Space
Agency
Escape velocity, 43
Esronge, 99, 1 1 3
European Space Agency,
20, 84, 87, 1 24, 1 34
EVA, 37
Exosphere, 24
Expendable launch Vehicles
( ELY). 55, 56
Explorer satellites, 1 4, 62
Extravehi cul ar activity
( EVA). 37
FB- 1 rocket, 92
Feng Boo rocket, 92
Ferret satellites, 1 46
France, 5, 84, 1 1 0, 1 1 1
Freedom spocestotion, 1 42
Free fal l . See Weightless-
ness
Free-flying
p
latforms, 1 42
F-series rockets, 80, 8 1
Fuel , rocket, 52, 53, 96
Fusion rockets, 1 49, 1 54
G, 56
Gogori n, Yuri, 1 5, 1 04
Gal i lee spocecroh, 1 22
Gantry, 95
Ganymede, 1 22
Gee, 56
Gel l i us, Aul us 9
Geodesy satellites, 1 1 9
GEODSS, 51
Geostationar Operational
Environmental Satel
lites, 1 35
Geostationary Orbit, 47,
48, 90
Geostationary Satellite
launch Vehicle, 93
Geostationar transfer orbit,
84, 93
1 57
Geosynchronous Earth
orbit, 47
Germany, 57, 84, 88, 1 1 1 ,
1 25
GioHo comet probe, 21
Glenn, John, 1 5, 63
Global Positioning System.
See Navstor
Goddard, Robert, 1 1
Goddard Space Fl i ght Cen-
ter, 50, 1 02
GOES satellite, 1 35
GPS. See Navstar
Gravitational fields, 23
Gravity, 23, 26, 27
"artifi ci al ," 36, 1 52
force of, 42, 97
law of, 41
Gravity-assist trajectories,
48
Great Britai n, 5
Grissom, Vi rgi l I. !Gus). 1 5
Ground-bosed Electro-Opti-
cal Deep Space
Surei l l ance, 51
GSLV, 93
Gui ana Space Center, 84,
98, 99, 1 1 0
H- 1 rocket, 90
H-2 rocket, 60, 90, 1 06
Hale, Edward Everen, 1 3
Hermes, 87, 1 1 0
Hestia, 1 26
High Energy Astronomical
Observatory, 63
Hi gh Energy Astrophysics
Obseratory, 1 23
Horizon- ] satellite, 94
Horizontal Take-off and
landi ng IHOTOL). 86
Horus. See Singer/Horus
HOTOL, 86
HST, 1 21
Hubble, Edwi n, 1 2 1
Hubble Space Telescope
I HST). 1 2 1 , 1 23, 1 54
Hyperbolic orbits, 45
Hypergolic propellants, 53
ICBM. See Intercontinental
Bal l i stic Missi les
ICE, 20
I ncl i nation of orbit, 46
1 58
I ndi a, 5, 93, 1 1 1
I ndi an rockets, 93
Inertial navigation, 49
Inerti al Upper Stage, 65, 75
lntelsat, 1 28
Intercontinental bal l i stic mi s
siles !I CBM). 63, 65,
77, 78, 1 00
lnterkasmos satellites, 79
International Cometary
Explorer l i CE) . 20
International Telecommuni
cations Satellite Orga
ni zation, 1 28
Interplanetary orbits, 48
Interstellar probes, 54, 1 54
ion rockets, 54, 1 49
I RBM, 91
I srael, 5, 94
Israeli rocket, 94
Italy, 84, 1 1 2
J l rocket, 81
Japan, 5, 20, 89, 90, 1 06,
1 1 1 , 1 42
Japanese rockets, 89-90
Jericho-2 rocket, 94
Jet Propulsion Laborator,
1 02
Ji uquan, 99, 1 08
Johnson Space Center, 1 02
Juno I , 57
Jupiter, 20, 2 1 , 23, 1 22,
1 24, 1 51
Jupiter-( rocket, 57, 58
Kagoshi ma, 99, 1 06
Kal i ni ngrad space control
center, 1 03, 1 04
Kapustin Yor, 99, 1 04
Kennedy Space Center
I KSC). 68, 98, 99,
1 00, 1 1 2
Kepler, Johannes, 1 2
Kepler's laws, 43
Keyhole satellites, 1 47
KH-9, - 1 1 , - 1 2 satellites,
1 47, 1 48
Kick motor, 72
Kosmos satellites, 79, 80,
1 44
Kourou l aunch site, 1 1 0
KSC. See Kennedy Space
Center
l4, L5 paints, 1 52
lacrosse satellite, 1 48
lages satellite, 1 1 9
lambda rockets, 89
landsat, 1 1 3, 1 3 1 , 1 32,
1 34
land sensi ng satellites, 1 32-
1 33
Longley Research Center,
1 02
launchers. See Rockets
launchi ng, costs, 56
launch pad, 95, 96
launch sites, 98- 1 1 3
lewis Research Center, 1 02
li ght, speed of, 23
lightsats, 7 6
li qui d-fuel rockets, 53
living i n space, 34-36
long March rockets, 60, 9 1 ,
92, 1 08
lovel l , James, 1 7
lunar boses, 1 50
lunar modul e, 1 7
lunar Orbiter, 1 6
luni k spacecrah, 1 6
lunokhod, 1 6
Manned Maneuvering Uni t
I MMU). 37, 38
Manufacturing i n space,
1 38
Mariner program, 20, 2 1 ,
63, 71
'
72, 1 25
Mari ner Tempel- 2,
spaceprobe, 1 26
Mars, 20, 2 1 , 22, 1 25,
1 50, 1 51
Mass ratio, 54
Medi um launch Vehicle, 64
Medi um-l i h vehicle, 8 1
Mercury, 20, 2 1 , 22
Mercury-Arlas, 1 5
Mercury-Redstone, 1 5
Mesosphere, 24
Meteoroids, 28-29
Meteoroid Technoloy
Satellite, 62
Meterologi cal satellites,
1 30, 1 45
Meteor satellites, 8 1
Metsats, 1 30, 1 45. See
Weather satellites
Microravity, 26, 1 38, 1 39
Mi l itar uses of space, 1 40,
1 44- 1 48
Mi r, 83, 1 40- 1 4 1
Mission Specialists, 39
MMU. O Manned Maneu
vering Unit
Mobile launch Platform, 68
Mal ni ya satellites, 1 29, 4
Momentum, 42
Moon, 5, , 38, 1 49, 1 51
exploration, 1 6
rocks, 1 7
Museries rockets, 89, 06
NASA (National Aeronau
ti cs and Space Admi n
istration). 7, 40, 50,
75, 98, 00, 02,
1 1 2, 1 23, 1 24
National Aerospace Pl ane,
70
National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Admi ni s
tration (NOAA). 1 36
Navigation, 49
inertial , 49, 50
Navigation satellites, 1 20,
1 45
Navstar, 1 37, 1 45, 1 46
Neptune, 20, 23
Newton's Laws of Motion,
38, 4 1 , 52
NOAA satellites, 1 36
North American Aerospace
Defense Command,
51
N-series rockets, 89, l 06
Nuclear detetion satellites,
1 46
Nuclear power suppl ies,
1 1 5
oberth, Hermann,
Obseratory satellites, 1 1 9
Ocean sureil l ance satel-
lites, 1 45, 1 46
Offeq- 1 satellite, 94
Orbital Maneuvering Sys
tem, 67, 68-69
Orbits, 42-48
peri od, 45, 47
reachi ng, 55
transfer, 46
Orientation, 50, 1 1 7
Osaki l aunch site, 06
Oxidizer, 52, 53
Oxygen, 34
Palmachi m, 94
PAM. O Payload Assist
Module
Particles and fields satellites,
1 1 9
Payload, 39, 56, 95
Payload Assist Module
( PAM). 55, 64, 73, 74
Payload Specialists, 39, 40
Pegasus rocket, 7 6
Perigee, 46
Perigee ki ck motor, 55
Peri hel i on, 48
Period of orbit, 45
Phobos spaceprobes, 1 25
Pioneer proram, 1 6, 20,
23, 72, 1 1 4, 1 1 8
Pitch, 50
Planetary mi ssion, manned,
33
Planets, 22, 1 1 9
Plesetsk, 99, 03
Pluto, 22, 23
Progress rocket, 78
Propellants. See Fuel, rocket
Propul si on, rocket, 52, 54
Proton, 6 1 , 80, 8 1 , 1 40
Radar Ocean Reonnai s-
sance Satellites, 1 45
Radar satellites, 1 3 1 , 1 48
Radiation, 32
Radio navigation, 49
Ramj ets, 70, 88, 1 54
Ranger spacerak, 1 6, 63
Reonnai ssance satellites,
91
Remote Mani pulator Ann,
38, 67
Remote sensi ng satellites,
1 30- 1 36
Resolution, 3 1
Rhyolite satellite, 1 46
Ri de, Sally, 1 5, 35
Robots, 1 40, 1 49
Rockets, 52, 60-61 . O
al so rocket names and
i ndi vi dual countries.
early, 9
observing, 7
Rockets (conti nued):
propul si on, 52, 54
soundi ng, 62, , 1 1 2
stages, 55
Roll, 50
Salyut space stations, 1 8,
30, 1 40
Sanger/Horus, 88
San Marco Equatorial
Range, 99, 1 1 2
Satellite Data System, 4
Satellites, 24, 42, 46, 1 1 4
amateur radio, 7, 62
anatomy of, 1 4- 1 1 8
appl i cations, 20
first, 1 4
fuel , 1 1 7
natural , 22
navigation subsystem,
1 1 7
observing, 7
power, 1 1 4
propul si on subsystem,
1 1 7
reserch, 1 9
thermal control, 27, 1 1 6
tracki ng, 1 8
Saturn, 20, 21 , 22
Saturn rokets, 1 9, 59, 60
Savitskaya, Svetlana, 1 8
Scout rokets, 60, 62, 02,
1 1 2
Scramjets, 70
Serch and Rescue System,
1 36
Sesat satellite, 1 3 1
Se-sensi ng satellites, 1 30
Semi moj or axis, 45
Sensats. Se Remote sensing
satellites
Setlements, space, 36, 1 52
Shar. O Sri hari kota
Shavit rocket, 94
Shepard, Al an B. , 1 5
Shutle. O Space shuttle
Si ngl e-stage-to-orbit, 86
Skylab, 1 9, 35, 59
Sl i ngshot orits, 48, 1 26
Sl-series rokets, 78- 81
SLV-3 roket, 93
Sl-W roket, 82
Sl-X roket, 81
Smal lsats, 76
1 59
Solar cel l s, 28, 1 1 4 Specific i mpulse, 53 Umbi l ical l i nes, 95
Solar probes, 1 1 9 Spectrum, 1 1 9, 1 35 Uni ted Ki ngdom, 84, 1 23
Solar sai l s, 1 49, 1 54 Spi nni ng Sol i d Upper Stage, Uni ted Nations, 1 1 1
Solar system, 22, 1 1 4 73 United States, 5, 6, 7, 1 4,
Solid-fuel rockets, 53, 97 Spot satellite, 1 1 3, 1 34 1 6, 1 7, 1 9, 1 32
Solid Rocket Boosters, 67 Sputni k, 1 4, 78, 1 04 first manned mi ssi on, 1 5
Soundi ng rockets, 62, 1 02, Spy satellites, 71 , 8 1 , 1 44, rockets, 1 4, 1 5, 57-76,
1 1 1 , 1 1 2, 1 1 3 1 47, 1 48 95
Soviet Union, 5, 1 4, 1 6, 1 8, Sri hari kota, 99, 1 1 1 Space Command, 51
93, 1 03- 1 04, 1 08, Stages, 55, 97 space shunl e. See Space
1 25, 1 29 Stars, 23, 1 1 9, 1 54 shunl e ( U. S. )
first manned flight, 1 5 Storm Booster rocket, 92 space stations, 1 9, 1 42-
first woman i n space, 1 5 Stratosphere, 24 1 43, 1 45
first woman spacewalker, Sun, 20, 22, 44, 1 1 4, 1 1 5, tracki ng, 50, 51 , 1 1 8
1 8 1 1 9, 1 22, 1 24 United States Air Force, 64,
rockets, 1 4, 57, 77-83, Sunl ight, 27 75
95, 1 40 Sun-synchronous orbit, 47 Uranus, 20, 23
spoceplane, 83, 1 04 Surveyor crak, 1 6, 63 U. S. S. R. See Soviet Union
space shunle. See Ener- Sweden, 1 1 3, 1 25
gi a/Buran Swing arms, 95 V-2 rocket, 57, 1 04, 1 1 2
space stations, 1 8, 30, Vacuum of space, 24, 26
82, 1 40- 1 4 1 Takesaki launch site, 1 06 Van Allen belts, 32, 33
tracki ng, 51 T anegashi ma Space Center, Vandenberg Air Force Base,
Soyuz rockets, 1 8, 78, 79 99, 1 06 68 , 99, 1 00
Space adaptation syn- T ereshkova, Valenti na, 1 5 Vanguard, 1 4, 59
drome, 3 1 Thermoshere, 24 Vehicl e Assembl y Bui l di ng,
Space Age, 5, 1 4 Thor roc et, 71 68
Space fighter, 83 Thrust, 53 Vel a satel l i tes, 1 46
Spoceplanes, 70, 83, 86, Thrusters, 52 Venera spaceprobes, 20
87, 1 1 0 Thumba , 99, 1 1 1 Venus, 20, 2 1 , 22, 1 26
Spaceport. See Launch sites Titan rockets, 61 , 65, 71 , Vi ki ng, 20, 2 1 , 72
Spoceprobes, 20, 23, 1 20 72, 74, 1 26, 1 47 Volgograd Station, 1 04
Space shunl e (Soviet). See Ti tov, Gherman, 1 5 Von Braun, Wernher, 2 , 57
Energi a/Buran "T-0," 97 Vostok rockets, 1 5, 78
Space shunle (U. S. ) , 1 5, Toilet, zero-g, 36 Voyager spoceprobes, 20,
35, 38, 39, 45, 55, Tracking, 7, 50, 51 , 1 1 8 2 1 , 72, 1 1 5
61
'
66-69, 73, 75, Tracking, Telemetry, and
95, 1 2 1 , 1 45 Control, 1 1 8 Wallops Fl i ght Center, 99,
external tank, 68 Trai ni ng, astronaut, 39 1 02
orbit, 25 Traj ectory, 46, 48 Waste el i mi nation, 36
orbiter, 66, 68 Transfer orbit, 46 Weather satellites, 81 , 1 30,
payload bay, 67 Transfer Orbit Stage, 7 4 1 35, 1 36
Space sickness, 3 1 Transponders, 1 27
'
Weaver Girl" rocket, 92
Space stations (Soviet), 1 8, T reoties, space, 8 Weightlessness, 26, 3 1 , 34,
82, 1 40- 1 41 Troposphere, 24 36, 38, 1 38- 1 39
Space stations ( U. S. I , 1 9, Tsiol kovsky, Konstantin, 1 1 Western Test Range, 00
1 42- 1 43, 1 45 T sukuba Space Center, 1 06 White Sands, 1 1 2
Spacesuits, 3 1 , 37 1L, 1 1 8
Space Survei l l ance System, Tyuratam, 1 4, 99, 1 04, X- 1 5 rocket pl ane, 40
51 1 40 Xi chang, 99, 1 08
Space Transportation Sys
ter, 66 Uchi noura, 99, 1 06 Yaw, 50
Spocetugs, 1 42 Uhuru satelite, 1 1 2, 1 23
Spotionauts, 39 Ulysses spoceprobe, 1 24 Zero g. See Weightlessness
1 60
BCDEF
EXPLORING SPACE
A GOLDEN GUIDE
MARK R. CHARTRAND, Ph. D. , is an astronomer
and a science writer and lecturer. He wrote the
Golden Field Guide Skyguide, and revised and
updated the Golden Guide Stars . He was for many
years Chairman of New York City's Hayden Plane
tarium, and has been Executive Director of the
National Space Society. In addition to teaching at
several universities, he has been widely published
in popular science magazines, and appears fre
quently on radio and television.
RON MILLER graduated from the Columbus Col
lege of Art and Design and has spent 15 of the 20
years since then specializing in scientific and astro
nomical subjects. His work has appeared in numer
ous publications worldwide, in motion pictures,
and in a series of best-selling books he has co
authored. His original space art has been exhibited
interationally and hangs in many private and pub
lc collections. He is considered one of the most
prolific and influential space artists now living. He
lives with his wife, daughter, and six cats in Fred
ericksburg, Virginia.
GOLDEN PRESS NEW YORK
24078
A GOLDEN GUIDE 1