Complex Numbers Notes

Advanced Higher Notes (Unit 2) Complex Numbers
Complex Numbers
Prerequisites: Expanding brackets; solving quadratics; finding angles using
basic trigonometry; exact values.
Maths Applications: Deriving trig. identities; solving polynomials.
Real-World Applications: Electrical circuits; quantum mechanics;

relativity.
Number Systems and Complex Numbers
History of Complex Numbers
There are lots of different types of numbers. The ones we know about
include whole numbers (ॾ), natural numbers (ℕ), integers (ℤ), rational
numbers (ℚ) and real numbers (ℝ). Historically, the above types of
numbers arose out of the need to solve real world problems, eventually
extending to the need for solving equations.
Complex numbers arose out of a similar need to solve cubic equations.

There is a very complicated formula, called the Cubic Formula, for solving
any cubic equation (just like for the quadratic equation there is the
Quadratic Formula). The equation x 3 − x = 0 obviously has the 3 real
roots x = 0, 1 and − 1. However, the Cubic Formula gives (ask your
teacher how),
 
1  1
1 
x = 
3 
( −1 ) 3
+ 1



 ( −1 ) 3


Clearly, there has to be some way of getting the 3 real roots from this.
The square root of − 1 has a crucial role here. Clearly, we can’t ‘ take the
square root of − 1 ’. Or can we ? Until fairly recent times, people did not
believe in negative numbers. During the 18th century, negative solutions to
equations were ignored. So, what we do to reconcile the above
discrepancy is to introduce a new symbol, denoted by i, for the square
root of − 1 (just like − 4 is a symbol for the ‘ solution ’ to x + 4 = 0; in
the 18th century, a ‘ solution ’ was normally a positive number). Then we
M Patel (April 2012) 1 St. Machar Academy

just get on with it. We will solve the above problem in a later section.
Numbers involving i were called imaginary numbers, but they now go by a
different name.
Cartesian Form of a Complex Number
Definition:
A complex number is a number of the form z = x + iy where x, y ∈ ℝ

and i 2 = − 1. The real number x is called the real part of z (Re(z)) and
the real number y is called the imaginary part of z (Im(z)).
Writing a complex number as z = x + iy is known as the Cartesian

form of z.
Theorem:
Complex numbers are equal if they have the same real parts and the same
imaginary parts (and vice versa).
Example 1
If the complex numbers z = 4 + 5 i and w = (2p − q)x + (p + q)

i are equal, find p and q.
As z and w are equal, their real and imaginary parts can be equated to
give,
2p − q = 4
p + q = 5
The solution of these simultaneous equations is p = 3 and q = 2.
Definition:
The set of all complex numbers is the set defined by,
def
ℂ = {x + iy : x, y ∈ ℝ, i 2 = − 1 }

The Algebra of Complex Numbers
Addition, Subtraction and Multiplication
Theorem:
Complex numbers are added (subtracted) by adding (subtracting) the real

parts together and by adding (subtracting) the imaginary parts together,
( a + ib ) ± ( c + id ) = ( a ± c) + i (b ± d)
Example 2
Add the complex numbers z = 4 + 5 i and w = − 7 + i.
z + w = (4 + 5 i) + ( − 7 + i)
= (4 − 7 ) + (5 + 1) i
= −3 + 6 i
Example 3
Find z − w when z = 5 + 2 i and w = 4 − 9 i.
z − w = (5 + 2 i) − (4 − 9 i)
= (5 − 4 ) + (2 + 9) i
= 1 + 11 i
Multiplication has a slightly more complicated rule.
Theorem:
Complex numbers are multiplied according to the rule,
(a + ib ) (c + id ) = (ac − bd ) + i (ad + bc )

In practice, this rule isn’t memorised; just expand brackets, remember to

use i 2 = − 1 and simplify.
Example 4
Find the product of z = − 6 + 4 i and w = 2 − 3 i.
z w = ( − 6 + 4 i) (2 − 3 i)
= − 12 + 8 i + 18 i − 12 i 2
= − 12 + 26 i + 12
= 26 i
The Complex Conjugate and Division
Definition:
The complex conjugate of a complex number z = x + iy is the

complex number defined by,
def
z = x − iy
The complex conjugate is obtained by changing the sign of the imaginary

part while keeping the real part unchanged.
Theorem:
The complex conjugate of z = x + iy satisfies,
z z = x2 + y2
Notice that this product is always a real number.
Example 5
Evaluate z z + 2 z when z = 8 − 7 i.
The conjugate is z = 8 + 7 i. Hence,

zz + 2z = 82 + 72 + 2(8 + 7 i)
= 64 + 49 + 16 + 14 i
= 129 + 14 i
The conjugate is used to divide complex numbers. The trick is to multiply

the denominator of the fraction by the complex conjugate of the
denominator.
Example 6
Divide − 3 + 4 i by 2 + 3 i, expressing the answer in Cartesian form.
−3 + 4 i −3 + 4 i 2 − 3i
= ×
2 + 3i 2 + 3i 2 − 3i
( −3 + 4 i)(2 − 3 i)
=
(2 + 3 i)(2 − 3 i)
−6 + 8 i + 9 i − 12 i2
=
4 + 9
6 + 17 i
=
13
6 17
= + i
13 13
Solving any Quadratic Equation
Complex numbers allow any quadratic equation to be solved (more lies

from your Higher teacher ?).
Example 7
Solve z 2 − 2z + 5 = 0.
The Quadratic Formula gives,

2 ± 4 − 4(1)(5)
z =
2
2 ± − 16
z =
2
2 ± 4i
z =
2
z = 1 ± 2i
Example 8
Find the square roots of 15 − 8 i.
Let a + b i be a square root of 15 − 8 i, i.e.,
(a + b i) 2 = 15 − 8 i
( a 2 − b 2 ) + (2ab) i = 15 − 8 i
Equating real and imaginary parts gives,
a 2 − b 2 = 15
2ab = − 8
The second equation gives, since a ≠ 0 (why ?),
4
b = −
a
Substituting this into the first equation then gives,
16
a2 − = 15
a2
a 4 − 16 = 15 a 2
a 4 − 15 a 2 − 16 = 0

This is a quadratic equation for a 2 which factorises nicely as,
( a 2 − 16) ( a 2 + 1) = 0
Hence, either a 2 = 16 or a 2 = − 1. This second possibility cannot arise,

as a ∈ ℝ. Hence, a = ± 4. Thus, b = ∓ 1. So, the square roots of 15 −
8 i are 4 − i and − 4 + i.
The Geometry of Complex Numbers
Modulus, Argument and Argand Diagrams
Complex numbers can be thought of as 2D vectors, the real and imaginary

parts corresponding to x and y components, respectively. Vectors are
also thought of as quantities that have magnitude (size) and direction.
These quantities correspond to quantities known as the modulus and
argument, respectively.
Definition:
The Complex Plane (aka Argand Plane) is the 2D plane showing ℂ. The
horizontal axis is called the real axis (consisting of all complex numbers
of the form a + 0 i ), whereas the vertical axis is called the imaginary
axis (consisting of all complex numbers of the form 0 + b i ).
Imaginary axis
Real axis

Definition:
An Argand diagram (aka Wessel diagram) is a plot of one or more

complex numbers in the Complex Plane.
The above 2 concepts are sometimes used interchangeably, but

technically there is a difference.
Definition:
The modulus of a complex number z = x + iy is the distance of the

complex number from the origin of the Complex Plane and defined as,
def
r ≡ z = x2 + y2
Definition:
The principal argument of a complex number z is the angle in the interval

( − π, π] from the positive x – axis to the ray joining the origin to z and
defined as,
def y 
θ ≡ arg z = tan −1  
x 
y z = x + iy
θ
x

The convention for the angle range is chosen randomly, another common
one being (0, 2π]. We will use the one in the definition.
Definition:
An argument of a complex number z = x + iy, denoted by Arg z, is

defined as,
def
Arg z = {arg z + 2πn : n ∈ ℤ }
A complex number has infinitely many arguments, but obviously only 1

principal argument. When asked for the ‘ argument ’ of a complex number,
it almost always means the principal argument.
Example 9
Find the modulus and argument (in degrees) of z = 3 + 4 i.
The modulus is z = 32 + 42 , i.e. z = 5. The Argand diagram for 3

+ 4 i shows that it lies in the first quadrant. The argument is found by
solving tan θ = 4/3. The related angle is tan −1 (4/3) = 53 · 1 ° to 1 d.p..
So the principal argument is θ = 53 · 1 °.
Example 10
Find the modulus and argument (in degrees, to 1 d.p., and radians, to 3
s.f.) of z = − 3 − 4 i.
The modulus is obviously r = 5. A plot of − 3 − 4 i shows that it lies in

the third quadrant. The related angle is 53 · 1 °. Hence, the principal
argument is 180 ° − 53 · 1 °, i.e. θ = 126 · 9 ° or 2 · 21 rads.
Complex Loci
Definition:
A complex locus (plural: loci) is a subset of the complex plane.
In English, a complex locus is the set of all complex numbers satisfying a

given condition. The following examples should clarify this.

Example 11
Describe the locus of points z = x + iy in the Complex Plane

satisfying z = 8.
Putting z = x + iy into the condition z = 8 gives,
x2 + y2 = 8
x 2 + y 2 = 82
This is the equation of a circle with centre the origin and radius 8. Hence,
the locus is the set of all points on the circle with centre (0, 0) and radius
8.
Example 12

satisfying z < 5.
Based on the analysis of Example 11, the locus is the set of all points
inside the circle with centre (0, 0) and radius 5.

Example 13

satisfying
z > 7.
The locus is the set of all points outside the circle with centre (0, 0) and
radius 7.
Example 14

satisfying z − 6 + i ≥ 3.
We have,
( x + iy ) − 6 + i ≥ 3
(x − 6) + ( y + 1) i ≥ 3
(x − 6)2 + (y + 1)2 ≥ 3
(x − 6)2 + (y + 1)2 ≥ 32
This locus is the set of all points on or outside the circle with centre
(6, − 1) and radius 3.
Example 15

satisfying z − 3 = z + 4i .
Putting z = x + iy into the condition gives,
x + iy − 3 = x + iy + 4i
(x − 3) + iy = x + i (y + 4)

(x − 3)2 + y 2 = x 2 + (y + 4)2
(x − 3)2 + y 2 = x 2 + (y + 4)2
x 2 − 6x + 9 + y 2 = x 2 + y 2 + 8y + 16
− 6x + 9 = 8y + 16
6x + 8y + 7 = 0
Hence, the locus is the set of all points on the straight line 6x + 8y +
7 = 0.
Example 16

3π
satisfying arg z = − .
4
Complex numbers satisfying the stated condition have an argument of

3π
− . Hence, they lie in the third quadrant and satisfy,
4
y  3π
tan −1   = −
x  4
y  3π 
= tan  − 
x  4 
y
= 1
x
y = x
Be careful. The locus is not the straight line y = x. The locus is the set
of points on the straight line y = x with x < 0 (make a sketch).

Polar Form of a Complex Number
The modulus and argument of a complex number can be used to write it in

another form. From the diagram on page 8, x = r cos θ and y = r sin θ.
Definition:
A complex number z = x + iy is in polar form when it is written as,
z = r (cos θ + i sin θ ) ≡ r cis θ
Here, r is the modulus of z and θ is the principal argument. Note that,

with z as above, the complex conjugate of z is written in polar form as
z = r (cos θ − i sin θ ).
Any complex number can be changed from Cartesian form into polar from
(and vice versa).
Example 17
Change z = 3 + 3 i into polar form.
We need the modulus and principal argument. z = 18 = 3 2 . z lies in

π
the first quadrant. θ = tan −1 1 = rads. or 45 °. Hence,
4
π
z = 3 2 cis = 3 2 (cos 45 ° + i sin 45 °)
4
Example 18
Change z = 3 (cos π/6 + i sin π/6) into Cartesian form.
We use x = r cos θ and y = r sin θ. Here, r = 3 and θ = π/6. Hence,

x = 3 cos (π/6) = 3/2 and y = 3 sin (π/6) = 3 /2. Hence,
3 3
z = + i
2 2

Writing complex numbers in polar form makes multiplying and dividing

them a lot easier.
Theorem:
Given 2 complex numbers z and w in polar form, the following hold,
zw = z w , Arg zw = Arg z + Arg w
‘ Multiply the moduli and add the arguments ’ is a nice wee way of
remembering these results.
Example 19
Simplify z w where z = 7 (cos 45 ° + i sin 45 °) and w = (cos 135 °

+ i sin 135 °).
zw = 7 × 1 . cis (45 + 135) °
= 7 cis 180 °
= 7 ( − 1 + 0 i)
= − 7
As is evident, the shorthand polar form notation is very handy.
Theorem:
Given 2 complex numbers z and w in polar form, the following hold,
z z z
= , Arg = Arg z − Arg w
w w w
‘ Divide the moduli and subtract the arguments ’ is a way of remembering

these results.

Example 20
π
Simplify z ÷ w where z = 2 cis and w = 2 cis 3π.
4
2 π 
z ÷ w = cis  − 3π 
2 4 
1  11π 
= cis  − 
2  4 
11π
As − is not in the required range for a principal argument (it is too
4
11π
negative), we must add multiples of 2π to it to get it in ( − π, π]. As −
4
8π
is slightly bigger than − 3π, add 2π, which is the same as , to get,
4
1  3π 
z ÷ w = cis  − 
2  4 
1  1 1 
= − − i
2  2 2 
1 1
= − − i
2 2
Powers and de Moivre’s Theorem
Theorem (de Moivre’s Theorem):
Given a complex number z = r (cos θ + i sin θ ), then for k ∈ ℝ,
z k = r k (cos kθ + i sin kθ )
De Moivre’s Theorem makes taking powers of complex numbers much

easier than the traditional approach (expanding brackets). It is a very
powerful (pun intended) theorem.

Example 21
Express (1 + i) 19 in Cartesian form.
π
In polar form, 1 + i becomes 2 cis . Hence,
4
19
19  π
(1 + i) =  2 cis 
 4
Using de Moivre’s Theorem this becomes,
19
19π
(1 + i) 19 = ( )2 cis
4
19π
= 29 2 cis
4
19π
= 512 2 cis
4
3π
= 512 2 cis
4
 1 1 
= 512 2  − + i
 2 2 
= − 512 + 512 i
Trigonometric Identities
A funky application of de Moivre’s Theorem occurs in deriving

trigonometric identities by using the Binomial Theorem.
It is to be noted that the Binomial Theorem applies to complex numbers.
Example 22
Derive the double angle formulae for sine and cosine.

The idea is to write (cos θ + i sin θ ) 2 in 2 ways. On the one hand, de

Moivre’s Theorem states that,
(cos θ + i sin θ ) 2 = cos 2θ + i sin 2θ
On the other hand, the Binomial Theorem says that,
(cos θ + i sin θ ) 2 = cos 2 θ + 2i cos θ sin θ − sin 2 θ
(cos θ + i sin θ ) 2 = cos 2 θ − sin 2 θ + (2 sin θ cos θ ) i
Equating these 2 expressions for (cos θ + i sin θ ) 2 gives,
cos 2θ + i sin 2θ = cos 2 θ − sin 2 θ + (2 sin θ cos θ ) i
Equating real and imaginary parts gives,
cos 2θ = cos 2 θ − sin 2 θ
sin 2θ = 2 sin θ cos θ
Example 23
Express cos 3θ in terms of powers of cos θ.
By de Moivre’s Theorem,
(cos θ + i sin θ ) 3 = cos 3θ + i sin 3θ
By the Binomial Theorem, this also equals (after simplification),
cos 3 θ 2
− 3 cos θ sin θ + 3i cos 2 θ sin θ − i sin 3 θ
Equating real parts gives,
cos 3θ = cos 3 θ 2
− 3 cos θ sin θ
The Pythagorean identity then gives,
− 3 cos θ (1 − cos θ )

− 3 cos θ + 3 cos θ
cos 3θ = 4 cos 3 θ − 3 cos θ
th
The n Roots of any Complex Number
As de Moivre’s Theorem holds for fractional powers as well, this makes it

a useful tool for taking roots.
Solving z n = w
th
Theorem (n Roots Theorem):
Given w = r (cos θ + i sin θ ), then the n solutions of the equation

z n = w are given by,
1   θ + 2πk   θ + 2πk  
zk = r n
 cos   + sin  
  n   n 
(k = 0, 1, 2, … , n − 1)
The following examples will illustrate how to use this horrible formula.
Example 24
Find the fourth roots of 4 + 4 i.
We translate the problem so that the theorem can be used. Letting w =

2 + 2 i, the problem is now to solve z 4 = w. Writing w in polar form
gives (check !),
π
z 4 = 4 2 cis
4
By the theorem,
1 1  π / 4 + 2πk 
zk = 4 4
2 8
cis  
 4 

5  π (8k + 1) 
zk = 2 8
cis   (k = 0, 1, 2 and 3)
 16 
So,
5 π
z0 = 2 8
cis
16
5 9π
z1 = 2 8
cis
16
5 17π
z2 = 2 8
cis
16
5 25π
z3 = 2 8
cis
16
As z 2 and z 3 are not in ( − π, π], we must take away multiples of 2π from

the arguments given above to get,
5 π
z0 = 2 8
cis
16
5 9π
z1 = 2 8
cis
16
5  15π 
z2 = 2 8
cis  − 
 16 
5  7π 
z3 = 2 8
cis  − 
 16 
These are the roots of 4 + 4 i. Don’t expect a horrible formula to give

unhorrible answers.
th
There is a geometric interpretation to the problem of finding n roots
of a complex number. The next example will demonstrate this.

Example 25
Solve z 3 = 8 i.
π
In polar form, 8 i = 8 cis . Hence,
2
 π / 2 + 2πk 
z k = 2 cis  
 3 
 π (4k + 1) 
z k = 2 cis   (k = 0, 1 and 2)
 6 
Check that the solutions are,
z0 = 3 + i
z1 = − 3 + i
z2 = − 2 i
Now plot these solutions on an Argand diagram.
z1 y z0
z2
As all the solutions have the same modulus, they lie on a circle with
centre (0, 0) and radius 2 . The angle between any 2 of the lines (loosely
referred to as the ‘ angle between the solutions ’) is 2π/3 radians. This
situation is a specific case of a more general phenomenon.

Theorem:
1
The n solutions of z n = w lie on a circle with radius w n
and are equally
spaced, the angle between any 2 successive roots being 2π/n radians.
The problem given near the start of this topic can now be solved. It is
3 1 3 1
easy to see that the cube roots of i are + i, − + i and − i.
2 2 2 2
Taking each of these roots and substituting them into the formula on
page 1 gives the 3 real solutions of x 3 − x = 0. We have come full circle
(no pun intended).
Notice that the sum of all the solutions of z n = w add up to 0. This is no

coincidence, especially by remembering the vector interpretation of
complex numbers.
Theorem:
The n th roots of z n = w sum to 0.
Roots of Unity
The solution to the problem z n = 1 is called finding the n th roots of

unity. The special case of the last theorem for roots of unity is often
stated separately.
Theorem:
The n th roots of unity (n > 1) satisfy,
n −1
∑z
k = 0
k
= 0
Example 26
Find the 6th roots of unity.
To solve z 6 = 1, we use the n th Roots Theorem, noting that 1 = cis 0,

 πk 
z k = cis   (k = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5)
 3 
Thus,
z0 = 1
1 3
z1 = + i
2 2
1 3
z2 = − + i
2 2
z3 = − 1
1 3
z4 = − − i
2 2
1 3
z5 = − i
2 2
Notice that the roots occur in conjugate pairs ( z 0 and z 3 , z1 and z 5 , z 2

and z 4 ).
Solving Polynomials
The true power of complex numbers stems from the fact that they can
be used to solve any polynomial equation.
Definition:
A repeated root (occurring m times) of a polynomial p is called a root of

multiplicity m.
The next theorem is one of the most important results in mathematics.
Theorem (Fundamental Theorem of Algebra):
Every non-constant polynomial with complex coefficients has at least one

complex root.

Compare this theorem with the case of polynomials with only real
coefficients; many quadratics can’t be solved using real numbers. The
Fundamental Theorem of Algebra implies the following result.
Corollary:
Every polynomial of degree n ( ≥ 1) with complex coefficients has exactly

n complex roots (including multiplicities).
Theorem:
A polynomial p of degree at least 1 with complex coefficients can be

factorised into a product of n linear factors,
p (z) = ∏ (z
r =1
− zr )
Theorem:
If a polynomial p of degree n with all coefficients real has a non-real

root, then the conjugate of this root is also a root of p.
Theorem:
A polynomial of degree n with all coefficients real can be factorised into

a product of real linear factors and real irreducible quadratic factors,
t (n − t )/2
p (z) =
∏z
r =1
( − dr ) ×
∏
s=1
(as z 2 + bs z + cs )
where the second product only exists if n > t.
Cubic with 2 Complex Roots and 1 Real Root
Example 27
Given that z = 3 is a root p (z) = z 3 − 3 z 2 + 4z − 12, find the

other roots of p.

As z = 3 is a root, (z − 3) is a factor of p. Dividing p by (z − 3) gives

(check !),
p (z) = (z − 3) ( z 2 + 4)
In the language of the last theorem, n = 3, t = 1 (and hence r = 1

only), d1 = 3, s = 1 only, a1 = 1, b1 = 1 and c1 = 4. The roots of p are
obtained by solving (z − 3) ( z 2 + 4) = 0; hence, z − 3 = 0 and z 2
+ 4 = 0, which implies z = 3 (which we already know about) and z =
± 2 i. Thus, p has roots z = 3 and z = ± 2 i.
Cubic with 3 Real Roots
Example 28
Factorise z 3 − 8 z 2 + 11z + 20 in to a product of 3 linear factors.
It can be checked that z = − 1 is a solution of z 3 − 8 z 2 + 11z +

20 = 0. Hence, (z + 1) is a factor of the cubic. Long division yields,
z 3 − 8 z 2 + 11z + 20 = (z + 1) ( z 2 − 9z + 20)
The quadratic can be easily factorised, or, if that is too much for your
brain to handle, use the Quadratic Formula to get the roots (and hence
the factors), into z 2 − 9z + 20 = (z − 4) (z − 5). Hence,
z 3 − 8 z 2 + 11z + 20 = (z + 1) (z − 4) (z − 5)
In terms of the last theorem, n = 3, t = 3 (and r ranges from 1 to 3),

d1 = − 1, d2 = 4 and d3 = 5 (there are no irreducible quadratic
factors, as can be deduced from the fact that n = t ).
Quartic with 4 Complex Roots
Example 29
Given that z = 2 + 3 i is a root of the quartic p (z) = z 4 − 6 z 3

+ 23 z 2 − 34z + 26, find the other 3 roots of p and express p as (i)
a product of complex linear factors (ii) a product of real irreducible
quadratic factors.

As p has all coefficients real, the conjugate z = 2 − 3 i is also a

root. Hence, z − (2 + 3 i) and z − (2 − 3 i) are factors of p; thus,
(z − (2 + 3 i)) (z − (2 − 3 i)) = z 2 − 4z + 13 is also a factor
of p. To find the other roots, divide this quadratic factor into p (the long
division process also works for quadratic factors),
z 2 − 2z + 2
z 2 − 4z + 13 z 4 − 6 z 3 + 23 z 2 − 34z + 26
z 4 − 4z 3 + 13 z 2
3
− 2z + 10 z 2 − 34z + 26
3
− 2z + 8 z 2 − 26z
2z 2 − 8z + 26
2z 2 − 8z + 26
As the remainder is 0, we have that z 2 − 2z + 2 is a factor of p.

Hence, the roots of p are given by,
( z 2 − 4z + 13) ( z 2 − 2z + 2) = 0
Putting the first factor equal to zero gives us the roots we know about.
Putting the second factor equal to zero and using the quadratic formula
gives z = 1 ± i. Hence, the roots of p are z = 2 ± 3 i and z = 1 ±
i.
For part (i),
p (z) = (z − (2 + 3 i))(z − (2 − 3 i))(z − (1 + i))(z − (1 − i))
For part (ii),
p (z) = ( z 2 − 4z + 13) ( z 2 − 2z + 2)

Quartic with 2 Complex Roots and 2 Real Roots
Example 30
Verify that z = 1 + 3 i is a root of p (z) = z4 − 2z

3
+ 9z 2 +
2z − 10 and find all the other roots.
Substituting z = 1 + 3 i into p (z) gives,
p (1 + 3 i) = (1 + 3 i) 4 − 2 (1 + 3 i) 3 + 9 (1 + 3 i) 2
+ 2 (1 + 3 i) − 10
We need to work out (1 + 3 i) 2 , (1 + 3 i) 3 and (1 + 3 i) 4 . We have

(check !),
(1 + 3 i) 2 = − 8 + 6 i
(1 + 3 i) 3 = − 26 − 18 i
(1 + 3 i) 4 = 28 − 96 i
Thus,
p (1 + 3 i) = 28 − 96 i − 2 ( − 26 − 18 i) + 9 ( − 8 + 6 i)
+ (2 + 6 i) − 10
= 28 − 96 i + 52 + 36 i − 72 + 54 i
+ 2 + 6 i − 10
= (28 + 52 − 72 − 8) + ( − 96 + 36 + 54 + 6)
i
= 0
Hence, as p (1 + 3 i) = 0, z = 1 + 3 i is a root of p. As p has all

coefficients real, z = 1 − 3 i is also a root. Hence, z − (1 + 3 i)
and z − (1 − 3 i) are factors of p; thus, (z − (1 + 3 i)) (z − (1 − 3
i)) = z 2 − 2z + 10 is also a factor of p. Long dividing p by z 2 − 2z
+ 10 gives,

p (z) = ( z 2 − 2z + 10) ( z 2 − 1)
Solving p (z) = 0 gives z = 1 ± 3 i and z = ± 1.
Quartic with 4 Real Roots
Example 31
Show that z 4 − 8 z 3 + 17 z 2 + 2z − 24 can be written in the form

(z + 1) (z − 2) (z − 3) (z − 4).
Performing synthetic division on the polynomial gives,
z 4 − 8 z 3 + 17 z 2 + 2z − 24 = (z + 1)( z 3 − 8 z 2 + 11z +
20)
Performing synthetic division on the cubic gives,
z 3 − 8 z 2 + 11z + 20 = (z − 2) ( z 2 − 7z + 12)
Factorising the quadratic gives,
z 2 − 7z + 12 = (z − 3) (z − 4)
Putting these 3 pieces of information together gives,
z 4 − 8 z 3 + 17 z 2 + 2z − 24 = (z + 1) (z − 2) (z − 3) (z −
4)
Examples 27, 29 and 30 are the most likely cases that you will encounter
in this course (as they are ones that involve complex numbers !); the
other 2 examples are given for the sake of completeness.


Complex Numbers Notes

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Complex Numbers Notes

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Advanced Higher Notes (Unit 2) Complex Numbers

Maths Applications: Deriving trig. identities; solving polynomials.

Real-World Applications: Electrical circuits; quantum mechanics;

Number Systems and Complex Numbers

History of Complex Numbers

Complex numbers arose out of a similar need to solve cubic equations.

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Cartesian Form of a Complex Number

A complex number is a number of the form z = x + iy where x, y ∈ ℝ

Writing a complex number as z = x + iy is known as the Cartesian

If the complex numbers z = 4 + 5 i and w = (2p − q)x + (p + q)

The solution of these simultaneous equations is p = 3 and q = 2.

The set of all complex numbers is the set defined by,

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The Algebra of Complex Numbers

Addition, Subtraction and Multiplication

Complex numbers are added (subtracted) by adding (subtracting) the real

Add the complex numbers z = 4 + 5 i and w = − 7 + i.

Find z − w when z = 5 + 2 i and w = 4 − 9 i.

Multiplication has a slightly more complicated rule.

Complex numbers are multiplied according to the rule,

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In practice, this rule isn’t memorised; just expand brackets, remember to

Find the product of z = − 6 + 4 i and w = 2 − 3 i.

The Complex Conjugate and Division

The complex conjugate of a complex number z = x + iy is the

The complex conjugate is obtained by changing the sign of the imaginary

The complex conjugate of z = x + iy satisfies,

Notice that this product is always a real number.

The conjugate is z = 8 + 7 i. Hence,

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The conjugate is used to divide complex numbers. The trick is to multiply

Divide − 3 + 4 i by 2 + 3 i, expressing the answer in Cartesian form.

Solving any Quadratic Equation

Complex numbers allow any quadratic equation to be solved (more lies

The Quadratic Formula gives,

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Find the square roots of 15 − 8 i.

Let a + b i be a square root of 15 − 8 i, i.e.,

Equating real and imaginary parts gives,

The second equation gives, since a ≠ 0 (why ?),

Substituting this into the first equation then gives,

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This is a quadratic equation for a 2 which factorises nicely as,

Hence, either a 2 = 16 or a 2 = − 1. This second possibility cannot arise,

The Geometry of Complex Numbers

Modulus, Argument and Argand Diagrams

Complex numbers can be thought of as 2D vectors, the real and imaginary

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An Argand diagram (aka Wessel diagram) is a plot of one or more

The above 2 concepts are sometimes used interchangeably, but

The modulus of a complex number z = x + iy is the distance of the

The principal argument of a complex number z is the angle in the interval

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An argument of a complex number z = x + iy, denoted by Arg z, is

A complex number has infinitely many arguments, but obviously only 1

Find the modulus and argument (in degrees) of z = 3 + 4 i.

The modulus is z = 32 + 42 , i.e. z = 5. The Argand diagram for 3

The modulus is obviously r = 5. A plot of − 3 − 4 i shows that it lies in

A complex locus (plural: loci) is a subset of the complex plane.

In English, a complex locus is the set of all complex numbers satisfying a

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Describe the locus of points z = x + iy in the Complex Plane

Putting z = x + iy into the condition z = 8 gives,

Describe the locus of points z = x + iy in the Complex Plane

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Describe the locus of points z = x + iy in the Complex Plane

Describe the locus of points z = x + iy in the Complex Plane

Describe the locus of points z = x + iy in the Complex Plane

Putting z = x + iy into the condition gives,

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Describe the locus of points z = x + iy in the Complex Plane

Complex numbers satisfying the stated condition have an argument of

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Polar Form of a Complex Number

The modulus and argument of a complex number can be used to write it in