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    16.36 Communication Systems Engineering: Mit Opencourseware

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    techgeek
    This document summarizes key concepts from a lecture on sampling theory and the sampling theorem: 1) The sampling theorem states that a continuous-time signal with bandwidth W can be reconstructed if sampled at a rate greater than 2W samples per second. 2) When sampled at the minimum rate of 2W, the reconstruction filter must be an ideal rectangular pulse. In practice, sampling is done with small rectangular pulses or zero-order hold. 3) If the sampling rate is below 2W, aliasing occurs as the replicated spectra overlap, and the original signal cannot be recovered from the samples.

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    16.36 Communication Systems Engineering: Mit Opencourseware

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    techgeek
    42 views16 pages
    This document summarizes key concepts from a lecture on sampling theory and the sampling theorem: 1) The sampling theorem states that a continuous-time signal with bandwidth W can be reconstructed if sampled at a rate greater than 2W samples per second. 2) When sampled at the minimum rate of 2W, the reconstruction filter must be an ideal rectangular pulse. In practice, sampling is done with small rectangular pulses or zero-order hold. 3) If the sampling rate is below 2W, aliasing occurs as the replicated spectra overlap, and the original signal cannot be recovered from the samples.

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    MIT16_36s09_lec02

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    This document summarizes key concepts from a lecture on sampling theory and the sampling theorem: 1) The sampling theorem states that a continuous-time signal with bandwidth W can be reconstructed if sampled at a rate greater than 2W samples per second. 2) When sampled at the minimum rate of 2W, the reconstruction filter must be an ideal rectangular pulse. In practice, sampling is done with small rectangular pulses or zero-order hold. 3) If the sampling rate is below 2W, aliasing occurs as the replicated spectra overlap, and the original signal cannot be recovered from the samples.

    Copyright:

    Attribution Non-Commercial (BY-NC)
    Download as PDF, TXT or read online from Scribd
    Download as pdf or txt
    42 views16 pages

    16.36 Communication Systems Engineering: Mit Opencourseware

    Uploaded by

    techgeek
    This document summarizes key concepts from a lecture on sampling theory and the sampling theorem: 1) The sampling theorem states that a continuous-time signal with bandwidth W can be reconstructed if sampled at a rate greater than 2W samples per second. 2) When sampled at the minimum rate of 2W, the reconstruction filter must be an ideal rectangular pulse. In practice, sampling is done with small rectangular pulses or zero-order hold. 3) If the sampling rate is below 2W, aliasing occurs as the replicated spectra overlap, and the original signal cannot be recovered from the samples.

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    Download as pdf or txt
    of 16

    MIT OpenCourseWare http://ocw.mit.

    edu

    16.36 Communication Systems Engineering


    Spring 2009

    For information about citing these materials or our Terms of Use, visit: http://ocw.mit.edu/terms.

    Lecture 2: The Sampling Theorem


    Eytan Modiano

    Eytan Modiano Slide 1

    Sampling


    Given a continuous time waveform, can we represent it using discrete samples?
    How often should we sample? Can we reproduce the original waveform?

    Eytan Modiano
    Slide 2

    The Fourier Transform

    Frequency representation of signals


    Denition:

    X( f ) =

    !#

    x(t)e ! j2"ft dt

    x(t) =

    !#

    X( f )e j 2 "ft df

    Notation: X(f) = F[x(t)] X(t) = F-1 [X(f)] x(t) X(f)

    Eytan Modiano Slide 3

    Unit impulse (t)

    ! (t) = 0, "t # 0

    &

    % $%

    ! (t)=1

    $ ! (t)x(t) = x(0)
    "# #

    ! (t)

    F[! (t)]
    1

    $ ! (t " % )x(% ) = x( t)
    "#

    F[! (t)] =

    "$

    ! (t)e " j 2#ft dt = e 0 = 1

    ! (t) & 1

    Eytan Modiano Slide 4

    Rectangle pulse

    !(t )
    | t |< 1 / 2 " 1 $ !(t) = #1 / 2 | t |= 1 / 2 $ 0 otherwise %
    1/2 1

    1/2

    F[!(t)] = ) !(t)e& j 2 ' ft dt = )


    &(

    1/2 &1/2

    e& j 2 ' ft dt

    e& j' f & e j' f Sin(' f ) = = Sinc( f ) & j2' f 'f

    Eytan Modiano Slide 5

    Properties of the Fourier transform

    Linearity
    x1(t) <=> X1(f), x2(t) <=>X2(f) => x1(t) + x2(t) <=> X1(f) + X2(f)

    Duality
    X(f) <=> x(t) => x(f) <=> X(-t) and x(-f)<=> X(t)

    Time-shifting: x(t-) <=> X(f)e-j2f Scaling: F[(x(at)] = 1/|a| X(f/a) Convolution: x(t) <=> X(f), y(t) <=> Y(f) then,
    F[x(t)*y(t)] = X(f)Y(f) Convolution in time corresponds to multiplication in frequency and vice versa
    x(t) * y(t ) =

    $ x(t ! ") y(" )d"


    !#

    Eytan Modiano
    Slide 6

    Fourier transform properties (Modulation)

    x(t) e j2!fo t " X( f # fo ) e jx + e # jx Now, cos( x) = 2 x(t)e j 2 !f o t + x( t)e # j 2!fo t x(t) cos( 2!fo t) = 2 Hence, x( t) cos(2!fot ) " X( f # fo ) + X( f + fo ) 2

    Example: x(t)= sinc(t), F[sinc(t)] = (f) Y(t) = sinc(t)cos(2fot) <=> ((f-fo)+(f+fo))/2

    1/2

    Eytan Modiano Slide 7

    -fo

    +fo

    More properties

    Power content of signal

    "

    !"

    | x( t) | dt =
    2

    "

    !"

    | X( f ) |2 df

    Autocorrelation

    Rx (! ) =

    "#

    x(t )x * (t " ! )dt

    Rx (! ) %| X( f ) |2

    Sampling

    x(to ) = x(t )! (t " to )

    x(t)

    n= "#

    $ ! (t " nt ) = sampled version of x(t)


    o n= "#

    1 F[ ! (t " nto )] = to n= "#

    $ !( f " t

    n
    o

    )]

    Eytan Modiano
    Slide 8

    The Sampling Theorem

    Band-limited signal
    Bandwidth < W
    X( f ) X( f ) = 0, for all f , | f | ! W

    -w

    Sampling Theorem: If we sample the signal at intervals Ts where Ts 1/ 2W then signal can be completely reconstructed from its samples using the formula
    x(t) =

    n =!"

    # 2W T x( nT )sin c[2W (t ! nT )]
    ' ' s s s

    "

    Where,

    W $ W' $

    1 !W Ts

    1 WithTs = = >x(t )= 2W
    "

    n= !"

    "

    x( nTs )sin c[(

    t ! n )] Ts

    Eytan Modiano Slide 9

    x(t) =

    n =!"

    # x( 2W )sin c[2W( t ! 2W )]
    n n

    Proof

    x! (t) = x(t) $ ! (t " nTs )


    n= "# #

    X! ( f ) = X( f ) * F[ $! (t " nTs )]
    n= "#

    1 F[ $! (t " nTs )] = Ts n= "#

    n= "#

    $ !(f "

    n ) Ts

    1 # n X! ( f ) = $ X( f " Ts ) Ts n="#

    The Fourier transform of the sampled signal is a replication of the Fourier transform of the original separated by 1/Ts intervals

    -2/Ts
    Eytan Modiano
    Slide 10

    -1/Ts

    -w

    1/Ts

    2/Ts

    Proof, continued

    If 1/Ts > 2W then the replicas of X(f) will not overlap and can be recovered How can we reconstruct the original signal?
    Low pass lter the sampled signal

    Ideal low pass lter is rectangular


    Its impulse response is a sinc function

    H( f ) = Ts!(

    f ) 2W

    Now the recovered signal after low pass ltering f X( f ) = X! ( f )Ts"( ) 2W f x(t) = F #1[X! ( f )Ts "( )] 2W $ t x(t) = % x(nTs )Sinc( # n) Ts n =#$

    Eytan Modiano
    Slide 11

    Notes about Sampling Theorem

    When sampling at rate 2W the reconstruction lter must be a rectangular pulse


    Such a lter is not realizable For perfect reconstruction must look at samples in the innite future and past

    In practice we can sample at a rate somewhat greater than 2W which makes reconstruction lters that are easier to realize Given any set of arbitrary sample points that are 1/2W apart, can construct a continuous time signal band-limited to W Sampling using impulses is also not practical
    Narrow pulses are difcult to implement In practice, sampling is done using small rectangular pulses or zero-order-hold

    Eytan Modiano
    Slide 12

    Zero-Order Hold


    A form of interpolation The sampled signal holds its value until the next sample time
    sampled values held values

    In principle, zero-order hold can be realized with a cascade of an impulse train sampling and an LTI system with rectangular impulse response
    p(t) =
    n = "#

    $ ! (t " nT )
    s

    x(t)
    Eytan Modiano Slide 13

    x! (t) = x(t) $ ! (t " nTs )


    n = "#

    h0 (t)
    1

    x0 (t)

    x0 (t)
    T

    Reconstruction from zero-order hold

    $ ! (t " nT )
    s #

    p(t) =

    H(f)
    h0 (t)
    hr (t) x0 (t)
    T

    n = "#

    x(t)

    x! (t)
    1

    x(t)

    We know from the sampling theorem that in order to reconstruct x(t) from the impulse train samples on the left (x(t)) the lter on the right (H(f)) must be an ideal rectangular lter f H ( f ) = Ts !( ) = Ts !(Ts f ) Hr ( f ) 2W
    H ( f ) = Ts !( f $ f ) = H 0 ( f )H r ( f ) & Ts !( )e j# fT # f 2W & 2W % ( Hr ( f ) = sin(# fT ) " j# fT sin(# fT ) & H0( f ) = e ( ) #f & '

    -w

    Eytan Modiano
    Slide 14

    Aliasing

    Sampling theorem requires that the signal be sampled at a frequency greater than twice its bandwidth When sampling at a frequency less than 2W, the replicas of the frequency spectrum overlap and cannot be separated using a low pass lter This is referred to as aliasing
    Higher frequencies are reected only lower frequencies Signal cannot be recovered

    The term aliasing refers to the fact that the higher frequency signals become indistinguishable from the lower frequency ones

    Eytan Modiano
    Slide 15

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