Cross-product of vectors

The big idea here: in three dimensions, and only in three, we can multiply vectors, position vectors and direction vectors, almost like we multiply numbers. This cross-product of vectors allows to write many rules for distance and area, and many equations in physics, more neatly.

The dot product of two vectors is an ordinary number (called a scalar). With cross product we can multiply two 3X3 vectors and get another 3X3 vector. So it's more like "real" multiplication. But not quite, as we'll see.

These rules are written on a stone plaque on a bridge in Ireland where William Hamilton first worked them out, and mathematicians go there each year to pay tribute.

But this multiplication fits physical reality. Example one - the moment of force, or torque

Example two: the electric motor effect

The cross product of vectors was invented by a physicist, Josiah Willard Gibbs, in the 1880s. It was based on the multiplication system already devised for quaternions by the mathematician William Rowan Hamilton in the 1840s. Real numbers are one-dimensional. Complex numbers are two-dimensional. There are no three-dimensional numbers. Quaternions are four-dimensional numbers, but with them the rule that a X b = b X a breaks down. The multiplication system Hamilton devised is the only one that works. The cross product of two vectors is the same as the non-real part of the product of two quaternions with no real parts. Cross products are three-dimensional, not four-dimensional. Space is three-dimensional, or at least we usually assume it is. Cross products work more neatly for physics, and quaternions are rarely used now.

More practice: do Ex.5A Q. 1 (d), (e), (f)

There are two other ways to describe cross product. One uses determinants, and we'll cover that next lesson. One uses trigonometry.

|r||F| sin is the rule you use to find the moment (turning effect) around a point B of a force F acting at a point A from the force vector and the vector r connecting A to B.The moment = r X F

Practise: do Ex.5A Q. 10 (a)

Homework: Ex. 5A Q.10 (b) and (c). Q.9, and Q.2 (and any of Q.1 you haven't finished in class)

Summing up: The cross product of two vectors a X b is another vector... In what direction? And with what magnitude? You already knew some cross-products in mechanics and physics without knowing that they were crossproducts: which? With cross products, does b X a = a X b? You can do cross products of vectors only with what size of vectors?

We'll learn how to work out cross products with determinants (often the easiest way), and how to use them to calculate areas and volumes.

For the determinant of a 2X2 matrix, we go along the top row, multiplying each element by the "opposite corner" of the matrix, counting the first multiplication as positive, the second as negative. Same idea for a 3X3 matrix. This time the "opposite corner" is a 2X2 determinant, not a number. Determinant = 1st element X "opposite corner" - 2nd element X "opposite corner" + 3rd element X "opposite corner".

Check out this determinant.

Do Ex.6B (yes, I know we're on chapter 5) Q.1 (a), (b), (c), (d)

Here is how to work out cross products with determinants

Areas and volumes Remember that 2X2 determinants tell us how much a linear transformation expands or reduces areas. We can use cross-products to calculate areas. |aXb| is the area of a parallelogram with sides described by vectors a and b |aXb| is the area of a triangle with sides described by vectors a and b

Practise: Ex.5B Q. 1. Look at example 8 on p.108, and do Ex.5B Q.8 (a parallelogram which doesn't have a corner at the origin) by calculating|(ba)X(d-a)|

The volume of a squashed box (parallelepiped) with three sides described by vectors a, b, and c is a.(bXc).

Homework: Do Ex.5C Q.4 [subtract (-1,0,1) from each of the other vertices to find the vectors a, b, and c for the scalar triple product a.(bXc)], and Ex.5B Q.8 [subtract i+j+k from the positions of B and D to find the vectors a and b for |aXb|

Summing up: what are the three methods to work out cross products? How do we work out 3X3 determinants? What is the connection between 2X2 determinants and areas? What is the connection between 3X3 determinants and volumes? What is the vector rule for the volume of a squashed box (parallelepiped)? What is the vector rule for the area of a parallelogram (same as for the size of the moment of a force)? What is the vector rule for the area of a triangle (half a parallelogram)?

We'll find out how to write equations for lines and planes in 3-D space using vectors. First, recap on lines in 2-D.

Summing up: Lines and planes in 3D can be described by vector equations The constant vectors in an equation for a line describe... what? The constant vectors in an equation for a plane describe... what? These vector equations will enable us to calculate:
# meeting points (points of intersection) of lines and planes # lines where planes meet (lines of intersection) # angles between lines and planes # angles between two planes # perpendicular distance from the origin (or another point) to a plane # shortest distance between parallel lines # shortest distance between skew (not-parallel) lines

Homework: Ex.5D Q. 1 (c) and Q. 3 (a) and (b); Ex.5E Q.1 (c), Q.3 (a),(b),(c)

Using vectors to find meeting points and lines, angles, shortest distances

Meeting point (point of intersection) of two lines Write the lines in form r1 = a1 + b1 and r2 = a2 + b2. [If necessary change them from form (r-a)Xb=0] Equate r1 = r2 This gives you three equations for two variables and . (Why three? don't we only need two?) Choose the easiest two to solve, find and , substitute back to find r1 and r2 Look at Example 27, p.121, and do Ex.5F Q.1(a) [Do (c) and (b) too if time, or if not note them down for homework]

Meeting point (point of intersection) of a line and a plane Write the line in form r1 = a1 + b1 and the plane in form r2.n=p Equate (a1 + b1).n = p This gives you one equation for one variable (unless... what?) Find , substitute back to find r1 Look at Example 28, p.122, and do Ex.5F Q.2(a) [(c) and (b) if you have time; if not, note them down for homework]

Line where two planes meet (line of intersection) Write the planes in form r1.n1=p1 and r2.n2=p2 The direction v of the line where the planes meet is perpendicular to both n1 and n2 , so n1 X n2 So in example 29 on p.122, the direction of the line where the planes meet must be (2i-2j-k)X(i-3j+k), which is -5i-3j-4k To make things easier, change that to 5i+3j+4k (same line, whether we count the direction positive or negative) We want a point on the line where the planes meet. Put z=0 in both of the plane equations, and we get: 2x - 2y = 2 x - 3y = 5 Solve: y=-2, x=-1 (If putting z=0 doesn't work, try y=0 or x=0. One of them must work). (-1,-2,0) is a point on both planes, and so on the line of intersection The line where the planes meet (line of intersection) is r = -i - 2j + (5i+3j+4k) Example 29 on p.122 gives a longer method with a more complicated answer which describes the same line. Do Ex.5F Q.3(a) [(c) and (b) too if time]

Acute angle between a line and a plane Write the line in form r1 = a + b and the plane in form r2.n=p The angle A between the line and the plane is 90 degrees minus the angle B between the angle between the line and the perpendicular to the plane, n n.b = |n|.|b| cos B Solve for B, calculate A. Look at Example 30, p.123, and do Ex.5F Q.6 [and 7 if time]

Angle between planes Write the planes in form r1.n=p1 and r2.m=p2 The angle between planes = the angle between the perpendiculars n and m n.m = |n|.|m| cos A. Solve for A. You're usually asked for the acute angle, so take 180 degrees minus A if A is bigger than 90 degrees. Look at Example 31, p.123, and do Ex.5F Q.4 [and 5 if time]

Distance from a point to a plane Write the plane in form r.n=D where n is a unit vector Then if s is the point at which a perpendicular from the origin meets the plane, s is in the same direction as n, and s.n = |s|.|n| = D, so D =|s| So the distance from the origin to the plane is D. (Example 32 in the book makes this more complicated than it need be). To get the distance to the plane from a point t which is not the origin Construct a plane parallel to the first one but going through t This is r.n=E where E=t.n Distance from t to first plane = E-D Look at Example 33, p.124-5, and do Ex.5F Q.9 (a) and (b) [and (c) and (d) if time]

Shortest distance from a point to a line Make a plane perpendicular to the line and containing the point, and find the distance from the point to where the line crosses the plane. Say the point is (1, 2, -1) and the line is r=i+j-3k + (2i-2j-k) The shortest distance is between (1, 2, -1) and where a plane perpendicular to the line and containing (1, 2, -1) meets the line. The planes with equation r.(2i-2j-k) = p for all p are perpendicular to the line Since the plane has the point (1, 2, -1) on it, p = (1, 2, -1).(2,-2,1) = -1 That plane meets the line at the point where is given by [(1,1,-3)+(2,-2,1)].(2,-2,1)=-1, so 2-2+3+9=-1 and =-4/9 That point is (1,1,-3)-4/9(2,-2,1) = (1/9,17/9,-23/9) (1, 2, -1) is (9/9,18/9,-9/9). Distance between that and (1/9,17/9,-23/9) is (82+12+142)/9 = 261/9 = 29/3 (Example 37 in the book makes this more complicated than it need be). Do Ex.5F Q.14 Shortest distance between two parallel lines Choose any point you like on the first line, and use the method above to find the shortest distance from that point to the second line. (Both methods in Example 34 in the book make this more complicated than it need be). Do Ex.5F Q.12.

Distance between two skew (not-parallel) lines Write the lines as r1 = a1 + 1b1 and r2 = a2 + 2b2 The shortest distance line is perpendicular to both b1 and b2, and thus in direction b1Xb2. Call its length s. The shortest-distance line meets the first line at some point a1 + 1b1 and the second point at some point a2 + 2b2 The shortest-distance vector connecting those two points is (a1 + 1b1 - a2 - 2b2) (a1 + 1b1 - a2 - 2b2).(b1Xb2) = s.|b1Xb2| since both vectors are in same direction s = (a1 - a2).(b1Xb2)/|b1Xb2| Example 35 on page 127 makes this more complicated than it need be. Do Ex.5F Q.11, and Q.13 (a) and (c) if time

Homework: Ex.5F Meeting point of lines: Q. 1 (c) and (b) Meeting point of line and plane: Q.2 (c) and (b) Line where two planes meet: Q.3 (c) and (b) Angle between line and plane: Q.7 Angle between planes: Q.5 Distance from point to plane: Q. 9 (c) and (d) Distance between parallel lines: Q.13 (b) Distance between skew lines: Q.13 (a) and (c) In Ex.5F Q.10, the answer to (a) is just 3 = (55-22)/(62+62+72). Do Ex.5F Q.10(b) by changing the equations of the two planes to r.n=p form and then using the same method as in part (a).

Summing up: We can use vector calculations to work out meeting points and angles and distances between lines and planes. Meeting point (point of intersection) of two lines: equate the formulas of the two lines Meeting point (point of intersection) of a line and a plane: substitute the line formula in the equation for the plane Line where two planes meet: calculate n1 X n2 as the direction of the line, and then put z=0 in the two equations for the two planes to find a point where the planes meet and so is on the line Angle between line and plane: find angle between the direction vector of line and the perpendicular to the plane, and then subtract from 90 degrees Angle between planes: find angle between the perpendiculars. If asked for the acute angle, and you get an obtuse one, subtract from 180 degrees Distance from a point to a plane: if the plane equation is written r.u=D, with u a unit vector, then the distance from the origin is D. If the point isn't the origin, make a plane parallel to the first one but through the point, and take the difference of the two distances from the origin. Shortest distance from a point to a line: make a plane perpendicular to the line and containing the point, and find the distance from the point to where the line crosses the plane Shortest distance between two parallel lines: pick any point on the first line, and find the shortest distance from that point to the second line Shortest distance between two skew (not-parallel) lines: it's the length of a vector (a1 + 1b1 - a2 - 2b2) which is parallel to b1Xb2. Take dot product of that vector with b1Xb2