Network Layer: Computer Networking: A Top Down Approach

Chapter 4
Network Layer
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Computer
Networking: A
Top Down
Approach
6th edition
Jim Kurose, Keith Ross
Addison-Wesley
March 2012
All material copyright 1996-2012

J.F Kurose and K.W. Ross, All Rights Reserved
Network Layer 4-1
Chapter 4: network layer

chapter goals:
understand principles behind network layer

services:
network layer service models

forwarding versus routing
how a router works
routing (path selection)
broadcast, multicast
instantiation, implementation in the Internet
Network Layer 4-2
Chapter 4: outline
4.1 introduction
4.2 virtual circuit and
datagram networks
4.3 whats inside a router
4.4 IP: Internet Protocol
datagram format
IPv4 addressing
ICMP
IPv6
4.5 routing algorithms

link state
distance vector
hierarchical routing
4.6 routing in the Internet

RIP
OSPF
BGP
4.7 broadcast and

multicast routing
Network Layer 4-3
Network layer
transport segment from

sending to receiving
host
on sending side
encapsulates segments
into datagrams
on receiving side,
delivers segments to
transport layer
network layer protocols
in every host, router
router examines header
fields in all IP
datagrams passing
application
transport
network
data link
physical
network
data link
physical
network
data link
physical
network
data link
physical
network
data link
physical
network
data link
physical
network
data link
physical
network
data link
physical
network
data link
physical
network
data link
physical
network
data link
physical
network
data link
physical
application
transport
network
data link
physical
Network Layer 4-4
Two key network-layer

functions
forwarding: move
packets from routers
input to appropriate
router output
routing: determine
route taken by packets
from source to dest.
routing algorithms
analogy:
routing: process of
planning trip from
source to dest
forwarding: process of
getting through single
interchange
Network Layer 4-5
Interplay between routing and forwarding

routing algorithm
routing algorithm determines

end-end-path through network
local forwarding table

header value output link
forwarding table determines

local forwarding at this router
0100
0101
0111
1001
3
2
2
1
value in arriving
packets header
0111
1
3 2
Network Layer 4-6
Connection setup
3rd important function in some network

architectures:
ATM, frame relay, X.25
before datagrams flow, two end hosts and

intervening routers establish virtual connection
routers get involved
network vs transport layer connection service:

network: between two hosts (may also involve
intervening routers in case of VCs)
transport: between two processes
Network Layer 4-7
Network service model

Q: What service model for channel
transporting datagrams from sender to
receiver?
example services for a
example services for
flow of datagrams:
individual
datagrams:
in-order datagram
guaranteed delivery
guaranteed delivery
with less than 40 msec
delay
delivery
guaranteed minimum
bandwidth to flow
restrictions on changes
in inter-packet spacing
Network Layer 4-8
Network layer service models:

Network
Architecture
Internet
Service
Model
Guarantees ?
Congestion
Bandwidth Loss Order Timing feedback
best effort none
ATM
CBR
ATM
VBR
ATM
ABR
ATM
UBR
constant
rate
guaranteed
rate
guaranteed
minimum
none
no
no
no
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
no
yes
no
no (inferred
via loss)
no
congestion
no
congestion
yes
no
yes
no
no
Network Layer 4-9
Chapter 4: outline
4.1 introduction
datagram networks
datagram format
IPv4 addressing
ICMP
IPv6

link state
distance vector

RIP
OSPF
BGP
4.7 broadcast and

multicast routing
Network Layer 4-10
Connection, connection-less
service
datagram network provides network-layer

connectionless service
virtual-circuit network provides network-layer
connection service
analogous to TCP/UDP connecton-oriented /
connectionless transport-layer services, but:
service: host-to-host
no choice: network provides one or the
other
implementation: in network core
Network Layer 4-11
Virtual circuits
source-to-dest path behaves much like
telephone circuit
performance-wise
network actions along source-to-dest path
call setup, teardown for each call before data can

flow
each packet carries VC identifier (not destination
host address)
every router on source-dest path maintains state
for each passing connection
link, router resources (bandwidth, buffers) may be
allocated to VC (dedicated resources = predictable
service)
Network Layer 4-12
VC implementation
a VC consists of:
1. path from source to destination
2. VC numbers, one number for each link along
path
3. entries in forwarding tables in routers along path
packet belonging to VC carries VC number

(rather than dest address)
VC number can be changed on each link.
new VC number comes from forwarding table
Network Layer 4-13
VC forwarding table
22
12
1
2
3
1
VC number
interface
number
forwarding table in
northwest router:
Incoming interface
32
Incoming VC #
12
63
7
97
Outgoing interface
Outgoing VC #
3
1
2
3
22
18
17
87
VC routers maintain connection state informati

Network Layer 4-14
Virtual circuits: signaling

protocols
used to setup, maintain teardown VC

used in ATM, frame-relay, X.25
not used in todays Internet
application
transport 5. data flow begins
network 4. call connected
data link 1. initiate call
physical
application
transport
3. accept call
network
2. incoming call data link
physical
6. receive data
Network Layer 4-15
Datagram networks
no call setup at network layer

routers: no state about end-to-end connections
no network-level concept of connection
packets forwarded using destination host

address
application
transport
network 1. send datagrams
data link
physical
application
transport
2. receive datagrams network
data link
physical
Network Layer 4-16
Datagram forwarding table

routing algorithm

dest address output link
address-range 1
address-range 2
address-range 3
address-range 4
3
2
2
1
4 billion IP addresses,
so rather than list
individual destination
address
list range of addresses
(aggregate table
entries)
IP destination address in
arriving packets header
1
3 2
Network Layer 4-17
Datagram forwarding table

Destination Address Range
Link Interface
11001000 00010111 00010000 00000000

through
11001000 00010111 00010111 11111111
11001000 00010111 00011000 00000000

through
11001000 00010111 00011000 11111111
11001000 00010111 00011001 00000000

through
11001000 00010111 00011111 11111111
otherwise
Q: but what happens if ranges dont divide up so nicely?

Network Layer 4-18
Longest prefix matching

longest prefix matching
when looking for forwarding table entry for given
destination address, use longest address prefix
that matches destination address.
Destination Address Range
Link interface
11001000 00010111 00010*** *********
11001000 00010111 00011000 *********
11001000 00010111 00011*** *********
otherwise
examples:
DA: 11001000 00010111 00010110 10100001
DA: 11001000 00010111 00011000 10101010
which interface?
which interface?
Network Layer 4-19
Datagram or VC network: why?

Internet (datagram)
data exchange among

computers
ATM (VC)
strict timing, reliability

requirements
need for guaranteed
service
elastic service, no strict

timing req.
many link types

different characteristics
uniform service difficult
smart end systems

(computers)
evolved from telephony

human conversation:
dumb end systems

telephones
complexity inside
network
can adapt, perform control,

error recovery
simple inside network,
complexity at edge
Network Layer 4-20
Chapter 4: outline
4.1 introduction
datagram networks
datagram format
IPv4 addressing
ICMP
IPv6

link state
distance vector

RIP
OSPF
BGP
4.7 broadcast and

multicast routing
Network Layer 4-21
Router architecture overview

two key router functions:
run routing algorithms/protocol (RIP, OSPF, BGP)

forwarding datagrams from incoming to outgoing link
forwarding tables computed,

pushed to input ports
routing
processor
routing, management
control plane (software)
forwarding data
plane (hardware)
high-seed
switching
fabric
router input ports
router output ports

Network Layer 4-22
Input port functions

link
layer
protocol
(receive)
line
termination
lookup,
forwarding
switch
fabric
queueing
physical layer:
bit-level reception
data link layer:
e.g., Ethernet
see chapter 5
decentralized switching:
given datagram dest., lookup output

port using forwarding table in input port
memory (match plus action)
goal: complete input port processing at
line speed
queuing: if datagrams arrive faster than
forwarding rate into switch fabric
Network Layer 4-23
Switching fabrics
transfer packet from input buffer to

appropriate output buffer
switching rate: rate at which packets can be
transfer from inputs to outputs
often measured as multiple of input/output line rate
N inputs: switching rate N times line rate desirable
three types of switching fabrics

memory
memory
bus
crossbar
Network Layer 4-24
Switching via memory

first generation routers:
traditional
computers with switching under direct

control of CPU
packet copied to systems memory
speed limited by memory bandwidth (2 bus crossings
per datagram)
input
port
(e.g.,
Ethernet)
memory
output
port
(e.g.,
Ethernet)
system bus
Network Layer 4-25
Switching via a bus
datagram from input port

memory
to output port memory via a
shared bus
bus contention: switching
speed limited by bus bandwidth
32 Gbps bus, Cisco 5600:
sufficient speed for access and
enterprise routers
bus
Network Layer 4-26
Switching via interconnection

network
overcome bus bandwidth

limitations
banyan networks, crossbar, other
interconnection nets initially
developed to connect processors
in multiprocessor
advanced design: fragmenting
datagram into fixed length cells,
switch cells through the fabric.
Cisco 12000: switches 60 Gbps
through the interconnection
network
crossbar
Network Layer 4-27
Output ports
switch
fabric
datagram
buffer
queueing
link
layer
protocol
(send)
line
termination
buffering required when datagrams arrive

from fabric faster than the transmission rate
scheduling discipline chooses among queued
datagrams for transmission
Network Layer 4-28
Output port queueing
switch
fabric
at t, packets more
from input to output
switch
fabric
one packet time later
buffering when arrival rate via switch exceeds

output line speed
queueing (delay) and loss due to output port
buffer overflow!
Network Layer 4-29
How much buffering?
RFC 3439 rule of thumb: average buffering

equal to typical RTT (say 250 msec) times
link capacity C
e.g., C = 10 Gpbs link: 2.5 Gbit buffer
recent recommendation: with N flows,

buffering equal to
RTT . C
N
Network Layer 4-30
Input port queuing
fabric slower than input ports combined -> queueing

may occur at input queues
queueing delay and loss due to input buffer overflow!
Head-of-the-Line (HOL) blocking: queued datagram at
front of queue prevents others in queue from moving
forward
switch
fabric
output port contention:

only one red datagram can be
transferred.
lower red packet is blocked
switch
fabric
one packet time

later: green packet
experiences HOL
blocking
Network Layer 4-31
Chapter 4: outline
4.1 introduction
datagram networks
datagram format
IPv4 addressing
ICMP
IPv6

link state
distance vector

RIP
OSPF
BGP
4.7 broadcast and

multicast routing
Network Layer 4-32
The Internet network layer

host, router network layer functions:
transport layer: TCP, UDP
IP protocol
routing protocols
network
layer
addressing conventions
datagram format
packet handling conventions
path selection
RIP, OSPF, BGP
forwarding
table
ICMP protocol
error reporting
router
signaling
link layer
physical layer
Network Layer 4-33
IP datagram format
IP protocol version
number
header length
(bytes)
type of data
max number
remaining hops
(decremented at
each router)
upper layer protocol
to deliver payload to
how much overhead?

20 bytes of TCP
20 bytes of IP
= 40 bytes + app
layer overhead
32 bits
head. type of
length
ver
len service
fragment
flgs
16-bit identifier
offset
upper
time to
header
layer
live
checksum
total datagram
length (bytes)
for
fragmentation/
reassembly
32 bit source IP address

32 bit destination IP address
options (if any)
data
(variable length,
typically a TCP
or UDP segment)
e.g. timestamp,
record route
taken, specify
list of routers
to visit.
Network Layer 4-34
IP fragmentation, reassembly
fragmentation:
in: one large datagram
out: 3 smaller datagrams
reassembly
network links have MTU

(max.transfer size) largest possible linklevel frame
different link types,
different MTUs
large IP datagram
divided (fragmented)
within net
one datagram
becomes several
datagrams
reassembled only
at final destination
IP header bits used
to identify, order
Network Layer 4-35
IP fragmentation, reassembly
example:
4000 byte datagram

MTU = 1500 bytes
1480 bytes in
data field
offset =
1480/8
length ID fragflag
=4000 =x
=0
offset
=0
one large datagram becomes

several smaller datagrams
length ID fragflag
=1500 =x
=1
offset
=0
length ID fragflag
=1500 =x
=1
offset
=185
length ID fragflag
=1040 =x
=0
offset
=370
Network Layer 4-36
Chapter 4: outline
4.1 introduction
datagram networks
datagram format
IPv4 addressing
ICMP
IPv6

link state
distance vector

RIP
OSPF
BGP
4.7 broadcast and

multicast routing
Network Layer 4-37
IP addressing: introduction
223.1.1.1
IP address: 32-bit
identifier for host,

router interface
223.1.1.2
interface: connection
between host/router
and physical link
223.1.2.1
223.1.1.4
223.1.3.27
223.1.1.3
223.1.2.2
routers typically have

multiple interfaces
host typically has one or
two interfaces (e.g.,
wired Ethernet, wireless
802.11)
IP addresses
associated with each
interface
223.1.2.9
223.1.3.1
223.1.3.2
223.1.1.1 = 11011111 00000001 00000001 00000001

223
Network Layer 4-38
IP addressing: introduction
223.1.1.1
Q: how are interfaces

actually connected?
A: well learn about 223.1.1.2
that in chapter 5, 6.
223.1.2.1
223.1.1.4
223.1.1.3
223.1.2.9
223.1.3.27
223.1.2.2
A: wired Ethernet interfaces

connected by Ethernet switches
223.1.3.1
For now: dont need to worry

about how one interface is
connected to another (with no
intervening router)
223.1.3.2
A: wireless WiFi interfaces

connected by WiFi base station
Network Layer 4-39
Subnets
IP
address:
subnet part - high

order bits
host part - low order
bits
what
s a subnet ?
device interfaces with

same subnet part of
IP address
can physically reach
each other without
intervening router
223.1.1.1
223.1.1.2
223.1.1.4
223.1.2.1
223.1.2.9
223.1.2.2
223.1.1.3
223.1.3.27
subnet
223.1.3.1
223.1.3.2
network consisting of 3 subnets
Network Layer 4-40
Subnets
223.1.1.0/24
223.1.2.0/24
recipe
to determine the
subnets, detach
each interface from
its host or router,
creating islands of
isolated networks
each isolated
network is called a
subnet
223.1.1.1
223.1.1.2
223.1.1.4
223.1.2.1
223.1.2.9
223.1.2.2
223.1.1.3
223.1.3.27
subnet
223.1.3.1
223.1.3.2
223.1.3.0/24
subnet mask: /24

Network Layer 4-41
Subnets
223.1.1.2
how many?
223.1.1.1
223.1.1.4
223.1.1.3
223.1.9.2
223.1.7.0
223.1.9.1
223.1.7.1
223.1.8.1
223.1.8.0
223.1.2.6
223.1.2.1
223.1.3.27
223.1.2.2
223.1.3.1
223.1.3.2
Network Layer 4-42
IP addressing: CIDR
CIDR: Classless InterDomain Routing
subnet portion of address of arbitrary length
address format: a.b.c.d/x, where x is # bits in
subnet portion of address
subnet
part
host
part
11001000 00010111 00010000 00000000

200.23.16.0/23
Network Layer 4-43
IP addresses: how to get one?

Q: How does a host get IP address?
hard-coded by system admin in a file

Windows: control-panel->network->configuration>tcp/ip->properties
UNIX: /etc/rc.config
DHCP: Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol:

dynamically get address from as server
plug-and-play
Network Layer 4-44
DHCP: Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol

goal: allow host to dynamically obtain its IP address from
network server when it joins network
can renew its lease on address in use
allows reuse of addresses (only hold address while
connected/on)
support for mobile users who want to join network (more
shortly)
DHCP overview:
host broadcasts DHCP discover msg [optional]

DHCP server responds with DHCP offer msg [optional]
host requests IP address: DHCP request msg
DHCP server sends address: DHCP ack msg
Network Layer 4-45
DHCP client-server scenario

DHCP
server
223.1.1.0/24
223.1.2.1
223.1.1.1
223.1.1.2
223.1.1.4
223.1.1.3
223.1.2.9
223.1.3.27
223.1.2.2
arriving DHCP
client needs
address in this
network
223.1.2.0/24
223.1.3.2
223.1.3.1
223.1.3.0/24
Network Layer 4-46
DHCP client-server
scenario
DHCP server: 223.1.2.5
DHCP discover
src : 0.0.0.0, 68
dest.: 255.255.255.255,67
yiaddr: 0.0.0.0
transaction ID: 654
arriving
client
DHCP offer
src: 223.1.2.5, 67
dest: 255.255.255.255, 68
yiaddrr: 223.1.2.4
transaction ID: 654
lifetime: 3600 secs
DHCP request
src: 0.0.0.0, 68
dest:: 255.255.255.255, 67
yiaddrr: 223.1.2.4
transaction ID: 655
lifetime: 3600 secs
DHCP ACK
src: 223.1.2.5, 67
dest: 255.255.255.255, 68
yiaddrr: 223.1.2.4
transaction ID: 655
lifetime: 3600 secs
Network Layer 4-47
DHCP: more than IP

addresses
DHCP can return more than just allocated IP
address on subnet:
address of first-hop router for client
name and IP address of DNS sever
network mask (indicating network versus host
portion of address)
Network Layer 4-48
DHCP: example
DHCP
UDP
IP
Eth
Phy
DHCP
DHCP
DHCP
DHCP
DHCP
DHCP
DHCP
DHCP
DHCP
DHCP
UDP
IP
Eth
Phy
168.1.1.1
router with DHCP

server built into
router
connecting laptop
needs its IP address,
addr of first-hop router,
addr of DNS server:
use DHCP
DHCP request
encapsulated in UDP,
encapsulated in IP,
encapsulated in 802.1
Ethernet frame broadcast
(dest: FFFFFFFFFFFF) on
LAN, received at router
running DHCP server
Ethernet demuxed to IP
demuxed, UDP demuxed
to DHCP
Network Layer 4-49
DHCP: example
DHCP
UDP
IP
Eth
Phy
DHCP
DHCP
DHCP
DHCP
DHCP
DHCP
DHCP
DHCP
DHCP
DHCP
UDP
IP
Eth
Phy
router with DHCP

server built into
router
DCP server formulates

DHCP ACK containing
clients IP address, IP
address of first-hop
router for client, name
& IP address of DNS
server
encapsulation
of
DHCP server, frame
forwarded to client,
demuxing up to DHCP
at client
client now knows its IP
address, name and IP
address of DSN server,
IP address of its firsthop router
Network Layer 4-50
DHCP:
Wireshark output
(home LAN)
Message type: Boot Request (1)

Hardware type: Ethernet
Hardware address length: 6
Hops: 0
Transaction ID: 0x6b3a11b7
Seconds elapsed: 0
Bootp flags: 0x0000 (Unicast)
Client IP address: 0.0.0.0 (0.0.0.0)
Your (client) IP address: 0.0.0.0 (0.0.0.0)
Next server IP address: 0.0.0.0 (0.0.0.0)
Relay agent IP address: 0.0.0.0 (0.0.0.0)
Client MAC address: Wistron_23:68:8a (00:16:d3:23:68:8a)
Server host name not given
Boot file name not given
Magic cookie: (OK)
Option: (t=53,l=1) DHCP Message Type = DHCP Request
Option: (61) Client identifier
Length: 7; Value: 010016D323688A;
Option: (t=50,l=4) Requested IP Address = 192.168.1.101
Option: (t=12,l=5) Host Name = "nomad"
Option: (55) Parameter Request List
Length: 11; Value: 010F03062C2E2F1F21F92B
1 = Subnet Mask; 15 = Domain Name
3 = Router; 6 = Domain Name Server
44 = NetBIOS over TCP/IP Name Server
request
Message type: Boot Reply (2)

Hardware address length: 6
Hops: 0
Transaction ID: 0x6b3a11b7
Seconds elapsed: 0
Bootp flags: 0x0000 (Unicast)
Client IP address: 192.168.1.101 (192.168.1.101)
Your (client) IP address: 0.0.0.0 (0.0.0.0)
Next server IP address: 192.168.1.1 (192.168.1.1)
Relay agent IP address: 0.0.0.0 (0.0.0.0)
Server host name not given
Boot file name not given
Magic cookie: (OK)
Option: (t=53,l=1) DHCP Message Type = DHCP ACK
Option: (t=54,l=4) Server Identifier = 192.168.1.1
Option: (t=1,l=4) Subnet Mask = 255.255.255.0
Option: (t=3,l=4) Router = 192.168.1.1
Option: (6) Domain Name Server
Length: 12; Value: 445747E2445749F244574092;
IP Address: 68.87.71.226;
IP Address: 68.87.73.242;
IP Address: 68.87.64.146
Option: (t=15,l=20) Domain Name = "hsd1.ma.comcast.net."
reply
Network Layer 4-51
IP addresses: how to get one?

Q: how does network get subnet part of IP addr?
A: gets allocated portion of its provider ISPs
address space
ISP's block
11001000 00010111 00010000 00000000
200.23.16.0/20
Organization 0
Organization 1
Organization 2
...
11001000 00010111 00010000 00000000

11001000 00010111 00010010 00000000
11001000 00010111 00010100 00000000
..
.
200.23.16.0/23
200.23.18.0/23
200.23.20.0/23
.
Organization 7
11001000 00010111 00011110 00000000
200.23.30.0/23
Network Layer 4-52
Hierarchical addressing: route

aggregation
hierarchical addressing allows efficient advertisement of routing

information:
Organization 0
200.23.16.0/23
Organization 1
200.23.18.0/23
Organization 2
200.23.20.0/23
Organization 7
.
.
.
.
.
.
Fly-By-Night-ISP
Send me anything
with addresses
beginning
200.23.16.0/20
Internet
200.23.30.0/23
ISPs-R-Us
Send me anything
with addresses
beginning
199.31.0.0/16
Network Layer 4-53
Hierarchical addressing: more specific

routes
ISPs-R-Us has a more specific route to Organization 1
Organization 0
200.23.16.0/23
Organization 2
200.23.20.0/23
Organization 7
.
.
.
.
.
.
Fly-By-Night-ISP
Send me anything
with addresses
beginning
200.23.16.0/20
Internet
200.23.30.0/23
ISPs-R-Us
Organization 1
200.23.18.0/23
Send me anything
with addresses
beginning 199.31.0.0/16
or 200.23.18.0/23
Network Layer 4-54
IP addressing: the last word...

Q: how does an ISP get block of addresses?
A: ICANN: Internet Corporation for Assigned
Names and Numbers http://www.icann.org/
allocates addresses
manages DNS
assigns domain names, resolves disputes
Network Layer 4-55
NAT: network address

translation
rest of
Internet
local network
(e.g., home network)
10.0.0/24
10.0.0.1
10.0.0.4
10.0.0.2
138.76.29.7
10.0.0.3
all datagrams leaving

local
network have same
single source NAT IP
address:
138.76.29.7,different
datagrams with source or

destination in this network
have 10.0.0/24 address for
source, destination (as usual)
Network Layer 4-56

translation
motivation: local network uses just one IP address
as far as outside world is concerned:
range of addresses not needed from ISP: just
one IP address for all devices
can change addresses of devices in local
network without notifying outside world
can change ISP without changing addresses of
devices in local network
devices inside local net not explicitly
addressable, visible by outside world (a
security plus)
Network Layer 4-57

translation
implementation: NAT router must:
outgoing datagrams: replace (source IP address, port #)
of every outgoing datagram to (NAT IP address, new
port #)
. . . remote clients/servers will respond using (NAT IP
address, new port #) as destination addr
remember (in NAT translation table) every (source IP

address, port #) to (NAT IP address, new port #)
translation pair
incoming datagrams: replace (NAT IP address, new port
#) in dest fields of every incoming datagram with
corresponding (source IP address, port #) stored in NAT
table
Network Layer 4-58

translation
2: NAT router
changes datagram
source addr from
10.0.0.1, 3345 to
138.76.29.7, 5001,
updates table
NAT translation table

WAN side addr
LAN side addr
1: host 10.0.0.1
sends datagram to
128.119.40.186, 80
138.76.29.7, 5001 10.0.0.1, 3345
S: 10.0.0.1, 3345
D: 128.119.40.186, 80
10.0.0.1
1
2
S: 138.76.29.7, 5001
D: 128.119.40.186, 80
138.76.29.7
S: 128.119.40.186, 80
D: 138.76.29.7, 5001
3: reply arrives
dest. address:
138.76.29.7, 5001
10.0.0.4
S: 128.119.40.186, 80
D: 10.0.0.1, 3345
10.0.0.2
10.0.0.3
4: NAT router
changes datagram
dest addr from
138.76.29.7, 5001 to 10.0.0.1, 3345
Network Layer 4-59

translation
16-bit port-number field:

60,000 simultaneous connections with a
single LAN-side address!
NAT is controversial:
routers should only process up to layer 3
violates end-to-end argument
NAT possibility must be taken into account by
app designers, e.g., P2P applications
address shortage should instead be solved

by IPv6
Network Layer 4-60
NAT traversal problem
client wants to connect to

server with address 10.0.0.1
server address 10.0.0.1 local to client
LAN (client cant use it as
destination addr)
only one externally visible
NATed address: 138.76.29.7
solution1: statically configure

NAT to forward incoming
connection requests at given
port to server
10.0.0.1
138.76.29.7
10.0.0.4
NAT
router
e.g., (123.76.29.7, port 2500)

always forwarded to 10.0.0.1
port 25000
Network Layer 4-61
solution 2: Universal Plug and

Play (UPnP) Internet Gateway
Device (IGD) Protocol. Allows
NATed host to:
learn public IP address
(138.76.29.7)
add/remove port mappings
(with lease times)
10.0.0.1
IGD
NAT
router
i.e., automate static NAT port

map configuration
Network Layer 4-62
solution 3: relaying (used in Skype)

NATed client establishes connection to relay
external client connects to relay
relay bridges packets between to connections
2. connection to
relay initiated
by client
client
1. connection to
relay initiated
by NATed host
10.0.0.1
3. relaying
established
138.76.29.7
NAT
router
Network Layer 4-63
Chapter 4: outline
4.1 introduction
datagram networks
datagram format
IPv4 addressing
ICMP
IPv6

link state
distance vector

RIP
OSPF
BGP
4.7 broadcast and

multicast routing
Network Layer 4-64
ICMP: internet control message

protocol
used by hosts & routers

to communicate
network-level
information
error reporting:
unreachable host,
network, port, protocol
echo request/reply (used
by ping)
network-layer above
IP:
ICMP msgs carried in IP
datagrams
ICMP message: type,

code plus first 8 bytes
of IP datagram causing
error
Type
0
3
3
3
3
3
3
4
Code
0
0
1
2
3
6
7
0
8
9
10
11
12
0
0
0
0
0
description
echo reply (ping)
dest. network unreachable
dest host unreachable
dest protocol unreachable
dest port unreachable
dest network unknown
dest host unknown
source quench (congestion
control - not used)
echo request (ping)
route advertisement
router discovery
TTL expired
bad IP header
Network Layer 4-65
Traceroute and ICMP
source sends series of

UDP segments to dest
first set has TTL =1
second set has TTL=2,
etc.
unlikely port number
when nth set of

datagrams arrives to
nth router:
router discards datagrams
and sends source ICMP
messages (type 11, code
0)
ICMP messages includes
name of router &3 IP
probes
3 probes
address
when ICMP messages

arrives, source records
RTTs
stopping criteria:
UDP segment
eventually arrives at
destination host
destination returns
ICMP port
unreachable message
(type 3, code 3)
source stops
3 probes
Network Layer 4-66
IPv6: motivation
initial motivation: 32-bit address space soon to

be completely allocated.
additional motivation:
header format helps speed processing/forwarding
header changes to facilitate QoS
IPv6 datagram format:

fixed-length 40 byte header
no fragmentation allowed
Network Layer 4-67
IPv6 datagram format

priority: identify priority among datagrams in flow
flow Label: identify datagrams in same flow.
(concept offlow not well defined).
next header: identify upper layer protocol for data
ver
pri
flow label
hop limit
payload len
next hdr
source address
(128 bits)
destination address
(128 bits)
data
32 bits
Network Layer 4-68
Other changes from IPv4
checksum: removed entirely to reduce

processing time at each hop
options: allowed, but outside of header,
indicated by Next Header field
ICMPv6: new version of ICMP
additional message types, e.g. Packet Too Big
multicast group management functions
Network Layer 4-69
Transition from IPv4 to IPv6
not all routers can be upgraded simultaneously

no flag days
how will network operate with mixed IPv4 and
IPv6 routers?
tunneling: IPv6 datagram carried as payload in
IPv4 datagram among IPv4 routers
IPv4 header fields
IPv4 source, dest addr
IPv6 header fields

IPv6 source dest addr
IPv4 payload
UDP/TCP payload
IPv6 datagram
IPv4 datagram
Network Layer 4-70
Tunneling
IPv4 tunnel
connecting IPv6 routers
IPv6
IPv6
IPv6
IPv6
IPv4
logical view:
IPv6
IPv6
IPv4
IPv6
IPv6
physical view:
Network Layer 4-71
Tunneling
IPv4 tunnel
connecting IPv6 routers
IPv6
IPv6
IPv6
IPv6
IPv4
logical view:
IPv6
IPv6
IPv4
IPv6
IPv6
physical view:
flow: X
src: A
dest: F
data
A-to-B:
IPv6
src:B
dest: E
src:B
dest: E
Flow: X
Src: A
Dest: F
Flow: X
Src: A
Dest: F
data
data
B-to-C:
IPv6 inside
IPv4
B-to-C:
IPv6 inside
IPv4
flow: X
src: A
dest: F
data
E-to-F:
IPv6
Network Layer 4-72
Chapter 4: outline
4.1 introduction
datagram networks
datagram format
IPv4 addressing
ICMP
IPv6

link state
distance vector

RIP
OSPF
BGP
4.7 broadcast and

multicast routing
Network Layer 4-73
Interplay between routing, forwarding

routing algorithm determines
end-end-path through network
routing algorithm

dest address output link
address-range 1
address-range 2
address-range 3
address-range 4
forwarding table determines

local forwarding at this router
3
2
2
1
IP destination address in
arriving packets header
1
3 2
Network Layer 4-74
Graph abstraction
5
2
1
graph: G = (N,E)
N = set of routers = { u, v, w, x, y, z }
E = set of links ={ (u,v), (u,x), (v,x), (v,w), (x,w), (x,y), (w,y), (w,z), (y,z) }
aside: graph abstraction is useful in other network contexts, e.g.,

P2P, where N is set of peers and E is set of TCP connections
Network Layer 4-75
Graph abstraction: costs

5
2
1
y
1
c(x,x) = cost of link (x,x)

e.g., c(w,z) = 5
cost could always be 1, or

inversely related to bandwidth,
or inversely related to
congestion
cost of path (x1, x2, x3,, xp) = c(x1,x2) + c(x2,x3) + + c(xp-1,xp)
key question: what is the least-cost path between u and z ?

routing algorithm: algorithm that finds that least cost path
Network Layer 4-76
Routing algorithm classification

Q: global or decentralized
information?
global:
all routers have complete
topology, link cost info
link state algorithms
decentralized:
router knows physicallyconnected neighbors, link
costs to neighbors
iterative process of
computation, exchange of
info with neighbors
distance vector
algorithms
Q: static or dynamic?
static:
routes change slowly
over time
dynamic:
routes change more
quickly
periodic update
in response to link
cost changes
Network Layer 4-77
Chapter 4: outline
4.1 introduction
datagram networks
datagram format
IPv4 addressing
ICMP
IPv6

link state
distance vector

RIP
OSPF
BGP
4.7 broadcast and

multicast routing
Network Layer 4-78
A Link-State Routing Algorithm

Dijkstras algorithm
net topology, link costs

known to all nodes
accomplished via link
state broadcast
all nodes have same info
computes least cost

paths from one node
(source) to all other
nodes
gives forwarding table for
that node
iterative: after k
iterations, know least
cost path to k dest.s
notation:
c(x,y): link cost from
node x to y; = if not
direct neighbors
D(v): current value of
cost of path from source
to dest. v
p(v): predecessor node
along path from source
to v
N': set of nodes whose
least cost path
definitively known
Network Layer 4-79
Dijsktras Algorithm
1 Initialization:
2 N' = {u}
3 for all nodes v
4
if v adjacent to u
5
then D(v) = c(u,v)
6
else D(v) =
7
8 Loop
9 find w not in N' such that D(w) is a minimum
10 add w to N'
11 update D(v) for all v adjacent to w and not in N' :
12
D(v) = min( D(v), D(w) + c(w,v) )
13 /* new cost to v is either old cost to v or known
14 shortest path cost to w plus cost from w to v */
15 until all nodes in N'
Network Layer 4-80
Dijkstras algorithm: example

D(v) D(w) D(x) D(y) D(z)
Step
0
1
2
3
4
5
N'
p(v)
p(w)
p(x)
u
uw
uwx
uwxv
uwxvy
uwxvyz
7,u
6,w
6,w
3,u
5,u
5,u 11,w
11,w 14,x
10,v 14,x
12,y
p(y)
p(z)
x
9
notes:
construct shortest path tree

by tracing predecessor
nodes
ties can exist (can be broken
arbitrarily)
4
8
3
y
2
3
v
Network Layer 4-81
Dijkstras algorithm: another

example
Step
0
1
2
3
4
5
N'
u
ux
uxy
uxyv
uxyvw
uxyvwz
D(v),p(v) D(w),p(w)
2,u
5,u
2,u
4,x
2,u
3,y
3,y
D(x),p(x)
1,u
D(y),p(y)
2,x
D(z),p(z)
4,y
4,y
4,y
2
1
1
Network Layer 4-82
Dijkstras algorithm: example (2)

resulting shortest-path tree from u:
v
z
x
resulting forwarding table in u:

destination
link
v
x
(u,v)
(u,x)
(u,x)
(u,x)
(u,x)
Network Layer 4-83
Dijkstras algorithm, discussion

algorithm complexity: n nodes
each iteration: need to check all nodes, w, not in N

n(n+1)/2 comparisons: O(n2)
more efficient implementations possible: O(nlogn)
oscillations possible:
e.g., support link cost equals amount of carried

traffic:
A
D
1
0
0
1+e
2+e
1+e 1
0
A
0
2+e
0
1+e
2+e
1+e 1
0
1
e
initially
given these costs,

given these costs, given these costs,
find new routing.
find new routing. find new routing.
resulting in new costs resulting in new costsresulting in new costs
Network Layer 4-84
Chapter 4: outline
4.1 introduction
datagram networks
datagram format
IPv4 addressing
ICMP
IPv6

link state
distance vector

RIP
OSPF
BGP
4.7 broadcast and

multicast routing
Network Layer 4-85
Distance vector algorithm

Bellman-Ford equation (dynamic programming)
let
dx(y) := cost of least-cost path from x to y
then
dx(y) = min
{c(x,v) + dv(y) }
v
cost from neighbor v to destination y
cost to neighbor v
min taken over all neighbors v of x
Network Layer 4-86
Bellman-Ford example
5
2
1
y
1
clearly, dv(z) = 5, dx(z) = 3, dw(z) = 3
B-F equation says:
du(z) = min { c(u,v) + dv(z),

c(u,x) + dx(z),
c(u,w) + dw(z) }
= min {2 + 5,
1 + 3,
5 + 3} = 4
node achieving minimum is next

hop in shortest path, used in forwarding table
Network Layer 4-87
Dx(y) = estimate of least cost from x to y
x maintains distance vector Dx = [Dx(y): y N ]
node x:
knows cost to each neighbor v: c(x,v)
maintains its neighbors distance vectors.
For each neighbor v, x maintains
Dv = [Dv(y): y N ]
Network Layer 4-88

key idea:
from time-to-time, each node sends its own

distance vector estimate to neighbors
when x receives new DV estimate from
neighbor, it updates its own DV using B-F
equation:
Dx(y) minv{c(x,v) + Dv(y)} for each node y N
under minor, natural conditions, the estimate

Dx(y) converge to the actual least cost dx(y)
Network Layer 4-89

iterative,
asynchronous: each
local iteration caused

by:
local link cost change
DV update message
from neighbor
distributed:
each node notifies

neighbors only when its
DV changes
each node:
wait for (change in local link
cost or msg from neighbor)
recompute estimates
if DV to any dest has
changed, notify neighbors
neighbors then notify

their neighbors if
necessary
Network Layer 4-90
Dx(y) = min{c(x,y) + Dy(y), c(x,z) + Dz(y)}

= min{2+0 , 7+1} = 2
x y z
x 0 2 7
y
z
x 0 2 3
y 2 0 1
z 7 1 0
cost to
from
from
node x
cost to
table x y z
Dx(z) = min{c(x,y) +
Dy(z), c(x,z) + Dz(z)}
= min{2+1 , 7+0} = 3
from
node y cost to
table x y z
y
2
x
y 2 0 1
z
x
7
from
node z cost to
table x y z
x
y
z 7 1 0
time
Network Layer 4-91
Dx(y) = min{c(x,y) + Dy(y), c(x,z) + Dz(y)}

= min{2+0 , 7+1} = 2
x y z
x y z
x 0 2 7
y
z
x 0 2 3
y 2 0 1
z 7 1 0
x 0 2 3
y 2 0 1
z 3 1 0
cost to
x y z
x
y 2 0 1
z
x 0 2 7
y 2 0 1
z 7 1 0
cost to
x 0 2 7
y 2 0 1
z 3 1 0
x 0 2 3
y 2 0 1
z 3 1 0
x
7
cost to
x y z
from
x
y
z 7 1 0
from
x y z
x y z
cost to
node z cost to
table x y z
from
cost to
from
from
from
node y cost to
table x y z
cost to
from
from
from
node x
cost to
table x y z
Dx(z) = min{c(x,y) +
Dy(z), c(x,z) + Dz(z)}
= min{2+1 , 7+0} = 3
x 0 2 3
y 2 0 1
z 3 1 0
time
Network Layer 4-92
Distance vector: link cost changes

link cost changes:
y
node detects local link cost
4
1
change
x
z
updates routing info,
50
recalculates
distance vector
if DV changes,
t0 : y detects notify
link-costneighbors
change, updates its DV, informs its
good
neighbors.
news
travels
t1 : z receives update from y, updates its table, computes new
fast
least cost to x , sends its neighbors its DV.
t2 : y receives zs update, updates its distance table. ys least costs

do not change, so y does not send a message to z.
Network Layer 4-93
Distance vector: link cost changes

link cost changes:
node detects local link cost

change
bad news travels slow - count
to infinity problem!
44 iterations before algorithm
stabilizes: see text
60
50
poisoned reverse:
If Z routes through Y to get to X :

Z tells Y its (Zs) distance to X is infinite (so Y wont
route to X via Z)
will this completely solve count to infinity

problem?
Network Layer 4-94
Comparison of LS and DV algorithms

message complexity
LS: with n nodes, E links,

O(nE) msgs sent
DV: exchange between
neighbors only
convergence time varies
speed of convergence
O(n2)
LS:
algorithm requires
O(nE) msgs
may have oscillations
DV: convergence time varies
may be routing loops
count-to-infinity problem
robustness: what happens if

router malfunctions?
LS:
node can advertise
incorrect link cost
each node computes only
its own table
DV:
DV node can advertise
incorrect path cost
each nodes table used by
others
error propagate thru
network
Network Layer 4-95
Chapter 4: outline
4.1 introduction
datagram networks
datagram format
IPv4 addressing
ICMP
IPv6

link state
distance vector

RIP
OSPF
BGP
4.7 broadcast and

multicast routing
Network Layer 4-96
Hierarchical routing
our routing study thus far - idealization
all routers identical
network flat
not true in practice
scale: with 600 million

destinations:
cant store all dests in

routing tables!
routing table exchange
would swamp links!
administrative
autonomy
internet = network of
networks
each network admin may
want to control routing in
its own network
Network Layer 4-97
Hierarchical routing
aggregate routers
into regions,
autonomous
systems (AS)
routers in same AS
run same routing
protocol
gateway router:
at edge of its own AS

has link to router in
another AS
intra-AS routing
protocol
routers in different
AS can run different
intra-AS routing
protocol
Network Layer 4-98
Interconnected ASes
3c
3a
3b
AS3
2a
1c
1a
1d
2c
2b
AS2
1b AS1
Intra-AS
Routing
algorithm
Inter-AS
Routing
algorithm
Forwarding
table
forwarding table
configured by both
intra- and inter-AS
routing algorithm
intra-AS sets entries
for internal dests
inter-AS & intra-AS
sets entries for
external dests
Network Layer 4-99
Inter-AS tasks
suppose router in AS1

receives datagram
destined outside of
AS1:
router should forward
packet to gateway
router, but which
one?
AS1 must:
1. learn which dests are
reachable through
AS2, which through
AS3
2. propagate this
reachability info to all
routers in AS1
job of inter-AS routing!
3c
3b
other
networks
3a
AS3
2c
1c
1a
AS1
1d
2a
1b
2b
other
networks
AS2
Network Layer 4-100
Example: setting forwarding table in router

1d
suppose AS1 learns (via inter-AS protocol) that subnet x

reachable via AS3 (gateway 1c), but not via AS2
inter-AS protocol propagates reachability info to all
internal routers
router 1d determines from intra-AS routing info that its
interface I is on the least cost path to 1c
installs forwarding table entry (x,I)
x
3c
3b
other
networks
3a
AS3
2c
1c
1a
AS1
1d
2a
1b
2b
other
networks
AS2
Network Layer 4-101
Example: choosing among multiple ASes
now suppose AS1 learns from inter-AS protocol that

subnet x is reachable from AS3 and from AS2.
to configure forwarding table, router 1d must determine
which gateway it should forward packets towards for
dest x
this is also job of inter-AS routing protocol!
3c
3b
other
networks
3a
AS3
2c
1c
1a
AS1
1d
2a
1b
2b
other
networks
AS2
?
Network Layer 4-102
Example: choosing among multiple ASes
now suppose AS1 learns from inter-AS protocol that

subnet x is reachable from AS3 and from AS2.
to configure forwarding table, router 1d must determine
towards which gateway it should forward packets for
dest x
this is also job of inter-AS routing protocol!
hot potato routing: send packet towards closest of two
routers.
learn from inter-AS

protocol that subnet
x is reachable via
multiple gateways
use routing info

from intra-AS
protocol to determine
costs of least-cost
paths to each
of the gateways
hot potato routing:

choose the gateway
that has the
smallest least cost
determine from
forwarding table the
interface I that leads
to least-cost gateway.
Enter (x,I) in
forwarding table
Network Layer 4-103
Chapter 4: outline
4.1 introduction
datagram networks
datagram format
IPv4 addressing
ICMP
IPv6

link state
distance vector

RIP
OSPF
BGP
4.7 broadcast and

multicast routing
Network Layer 4-104
Intra-AS Routing
also known as interior gateway protocols

(IGP)
most common intra-AS routing protocols:
RIP: Routing Information Protocol
OSPF: Open Shortest Path First
IGRP: Interior Gateway Routing Protocol
(Cisco proprietary)
Network Layer 4-105
RIP ( Routing Information Protocol)
included in BSD-UNIX distribution in 1982

distance vector algorithm
distance metric: # hops (max = 15 hops), each link has cost 1
DVs exchanged with neighbors every 30 sec in response
message (aka advertisement)
each advertisement: list of up to 25 destination subnets (in IP
addressing sense)
w
x
D
y
from router A to destination subnets:

subnet hops
u
1
v
2
w
2
x
3
y
3
z
2
Network Layer 4-106
RIP: example
z
w
y
B
D
C
routing table in router D
destination subnet
next router
# hops to dest
w
y
z
x
A
B
B
--
2
2
7
1
....
Network Layer 4-107
RIP: example
dest
w
x
z
.
w
A
A-to-D advertisement
next hops
1
1
C
4
...
z
y
B
D
C
routing table in router D
destination subnet
next router
# hops to dest
w
y
z
x
A
B
A
B
--
2
2
5
7
1
....
Network Layer 4-108
RIP: link failure, recovery

if no advertisement heard after 180 sec -->
neighbor/link declared dead
routes via neighbor invalidated
new advertisements sent to neighbors
neighbors in turn send out new advertisements (if
tables changed)
link failure info quickly (?) propagates to entire net
poison reverse used to prevent ping-pong loops
(infinite distance = 16 hops)
Network Layer 4-109
RIP table processing
RIP routing tables managed by applicationlevel process called route-d (daemon)

advertisements sent in UDP packets,
periodically repeated
routed
routed
transport
(UDP)
network
(IP)
link
physical
transprt
(UDP)
forwarding
table
forwarding
table
network
(IP)
link
physical
Network Layer 4-110
OSPF (Open Shortest Path First)
open: publicly available

uses link state algorithm
LS packet dissemination
topology map at each node
route computation using Dijkstras algorithm
OSPF advertisement carries one entry per

neighbor
advertisements flooded to entire AS
carried in OSPF messages directly over IP (rather
than TCP or UDP
IS-IS routing protocol: nearly identical to OSPF

Network Layer 4-111
OSPF advanced features (not in

RIP)
security: all OSPF messages authenticated (to

prevent malicious intrusion)
multiple same-cost paths allowed (only one path
in RIP)
for each link, multiple cost metrics for different
TOS (e.g., satellite link cost set low for best
effort ToS; high for real time ToS)
integrated uni- and multicast support:
Multicast OSPF (MOSPF) uses same
topology data base as OSPF
hierarchical OSPF in large domains.
Network Layer 4-112
Hierarchical OSPF
boundary router
backbone router
backbone
area
border
routers
area 3
internal
routers
area 1
area 2
Network Layer 4-113
Hierarchical
OSPF
two-level hierarchy: local area, backbone.

link-state advertisements only in area
each nodes has detailed area topology; only
know direction (shortest path) to nets in other
areas.
area border routers: summarize distances to
nets in own area, advertise to other Area Border
routers.
backbone routers: run OSPF routing limited to
backbone.
boundary routers: connect to other ASs.
Network Layer 4-114
Internet inter-AS routing: BGP
BGP (Border Gateway Protocol): the de facto

inter-domain routing protocol
glue that holds the Internet together
BGP provides each AS a means to:

eBGP: obtain subnet reachability information
from neighboring ASs.
iBGP: propagate reachability information to all
AS-internal routers.
determine good routes to other networks based
on reachability information and policy.
allows subnet to advertise its existence to

rest of Internet: I am here
Network Layer 4-115
BGP basics
BGP session: two BGP routers (peers) exchange BGP

messages:
advertising paths to different destination network prefixes (path
vector protocol)
exchanged over semi-permanent TCP connections
when AS3 advertises a prefix to AS1:

AS3 promises it will forward datagrams towards that prefix
AS3 can aggregate prefixes in its advertisement
3c
3b
other
networks
3a
BGP
message
AS3
2c
1c
1a
AS1
1d
2a
1b
2b
other
networks
AS2
Network Layer 4-116
BGP basics: distributing path

information
using eBGP session between 3a and 1c, AS3 sends

prefix reachability info to AS1.
1c can then use iBGP do distribute new prefix info to all
routers in AS1
1b can then re-advertise new reachability info to AS2 over
1b-to-2a eBGP session
when router learns of new prefix, it creates entry for

prefix in its forwarding table.
eBGP session
3b
other
networks
3a
AS3
iBGP session
2c
1c
1a
AS1
1d
2a
1b
2b
other
networks
AS2
Network Layer 4-117
Path attributes and BGP

routes
advertised prefix includes BGP attributes

prefix + attributes = route
two important attributes:

AS-PATH: contains ASs through which prefix
advertisement has passed: e.g., AS 67, AS 17
NEXT-HOP: indicates specific internal-AS router to
next-hop AS. (may be multiple links from current AS
to next-hop-AS)
gateway router receiving route advertisement

uses import policy to accept/decline
e.g., never route through AS x
policy-based routing
Network Layer 4-118
BGP route selection
router may learn about more than 1 route to

destination AS, selects route based on:
1.
2.
3.
4.
local preference value attribute: policy decision

shortest AS-PATH
closest NEXT-HOP router: hot potato routing
additional criteria
Network Layer 4-119
BGP messages
BGP messages exchanged between peers over TCP

connection
BGP messages:
OPEN: opens TCP connection to peer and
authenticates sender
UPDATE: advertises new path (or withdraws old)
KEEPALIVE: keeps connection alive in absence of
UPDATES; also ACKs OPEN request
NOTIFICATION: reports errors in previous msg; also
used to close connection
Network Layer 4-120
BGP routing policy

legend:
B
W
provider
network
customer
network:
C
Y
A,B,C are provider networks

X,W,Y are customer (of provider networks)
X is dual-homed: attached to two networks
X does not want to route from B via X to C
.. so X will not advertise to B a route to C
Network Layer 4-121
BGP routing policy (2)

legend:
B
W
provider
network
customer
network:
C
Y
A advertises path AW to B
B advertises path BAW to X
Should B advertise path BAW to C?
No way! B gets no revenue for routing CBAW since neither W
nor C are Bs customers
B wants to force C to route to w via A
B wants to route only to/from its customers!
Network Layer 4-122
Why different Intra-, Inter-AS routing

?
policy:
inter-AS: admin wants control over how its traffic

routed, who routes through its net.
intra-AS: single admin, so no policy decisions
needed
scale:
hierarchical routing saves table size, reduced
update traffic
performance:
intra-AS: can focus on performance
inter-AS: policy may dominate over performance
Network Layer 4-123
Chapter 4: outline
4.1 introduction
datagram networks
datagram format
IPv4 addressing
ICMP
IPv6

link state
distance vector

RIP
OSPF
BGP
4.7 broadcast and

multicast routing
Network Layer 4-124
Broadcast routing
deliver packets from source to all other nodes

source duplication is inefficient:
duplicate
duplicate
creation/transmission
R1
R1
duplicate
R2
R2
R3
R4
source
duplication
R3
R4
in-network
duplication
source duplication: how does source determine

recipient addresses?
Network Layer 4-125
In-network duplication
flooding: when node receives broadcast

packet, sends copy to all neighbors
problems: cycles & broadcast storm
controlled flooding: node only broadcasts pkt

if it hasnt broadcast same packet before
node keeps track of packet ids already
broadacsted
or reverse path forwarding (RPF): only forward
packet if it arrived on shortest path between node
and source
spanning tree:
no redundant packets received by any node
Network Layer 4-126
Spanning tree
first construct a spanning tree

nodes then forward/make copies only along
spanning tree
A
A
B
c
D
F
G
(a) broadcast initiated at A
E
G
(b) broadcast initiated at D
Network Layer 4-127
Spanning tree: creation
center node
each node sends unicast join message to
center node
message forwarded until it arrives at a node
already belonging to spanning tree
A
A
3
c
4
F
1
D
F
(a) stepwise construction of

spanning tree (center: E)
(b) constructed spanning

tree
Network Layer 4-128
Multicast routing: problem statement

goal: find a tree (or trees) connecting routers
having local mcast group members
legend
tree: not all paths between routers used

shared-tree: same tree used by all group members
source-based: different tree from each sender to
rcvrs
group
member
not group
member
router
with a
group
member
router
without
group
member
shared tree
source-based trees
Network Layer 4-129
Approaches for building mcast

trees
approaches:
source-based tree: one tree per source
shortest path trees
reverse path forwarding
group-shared tree: group uses one tree

minimal spanning (Steiner)
center-based trees
we first look at basic approaches, then specific protocols

adopting these approaches
Network Layer 4-130
Shortest path tree
mcast forwarding tree: tree of shortest path

routes from source to all receivers
Dijkstras algorithm
LEGEND
s: source
R1
1
R2
3
router with attached

group member
R4
5
R3
R6
router with no attached

group member
R5
6
R7
link used for forwarding,

i indicates order link
added by algorithm
Network Layer 4-131
Reverse path forwarding

rely on routers knowledge of unicast shortest
path from it to sender
each router has simple forwarding behavior:
if (mcast datagram received on incoming link on

shortest path back to center)
then flood datagram onto all outgoing links
else ignore datagram
Network Layer 4-132
Reverse path forwarding:

example
s: source
LEGEND
R1
R4

group member
R2
R5

group member
datagram will be forwarded
R3
R6
R7
datagram will not be
forwarded
result is a source-specific reverse SPT

may be a bad choice with asymmetric links
Network Layer 4-133
Reverse path forwarding:

pruning
forwarding tree contains subtrees with no mcast group

members
no need to forward datagrams down subtree
prune msgs sent upstream by router with no
downstream group members
s: source
LEGEND
R1
R4
R2

group member
P
R5
R3
P
R6
R7

group member
prune message
links with multicast
forwarding
Network Layer 4-134
Shared-tree: steiner tree
steiner tree: minimum cost tree connecting

all routers with attached group members
problem is NP-complete
excellent heuristics exists
not used in practice:
computational complexity
information about entire network needed
monolithic: rerun whenever a router needs to
join/leave
Network Layer 4-135
Center-based trees
single delivery tree shared by all

one router identified as center of tree
to join:
edge router sends unicast join-msg addressed to
center router
join-msg processed by intermediate routers and
forwarded towards center
join-msg either hits existing tree branch for this
center, or arrives at center
path taken by join-msg becomes new branch of
tree for this router
Network Layer 4-136
Center-based trees: example

suppose R6 chosen as center:
LEGEND
R1
3
R2

group member
R4

group member
2
R5
R3
1
path order in which join

messages generated
R6
R7
Network Layer 4-137
Internet Multicasting Routing: DVMRP
DVMRP: distance vector multicast routing

protocol, RFC1075
flood and prune: reverse path forwarding,
source-based tree
RPF tree based on DVMRPs own routing tables
constructed by communicating DVMRP routers
no assumptions about underlying unicast
initial datagram to mcast group flooded
everywhere via RPF
routers not wanting group: send upstream prune
msgs
Network Layer 4-138
DVMRP: continued
soft state: DVMRP router periodically (1 min.)

forgets branches are pruned:
mcast data again flows down unpruned branch

downstream router: reprune or else continue to
receive data
routers can quickly regraft to tree

following IGMP join at leaf
odds and ends

commonly implemented in commercial router
Network Layer 4-139
Tunneling
Q: how to connect islands of multicast routers
in a sea of unicast routers?
physical topology
logical topology
mcast datagram encapsulated inside normal (nonmulticast-addressed) datagram

normal IP datagram sent thru tunnel via regular IP
unicast to receiving mcast router (recall IPv6 inside
IPv4 tunneling)
receiving mcast router unencapsulates to get mcast
Network Layer 4-140
datagram
PIM: Protocol Independent Multicast
not dependent on any specific underlying

unicast routing algorithm (works with all)
two different multicast distribution scenarios :
dense:
group members
densely packed, in
close proximity.
bandwidth more
plentiful
sparse:
# networks with group

members small wrt #
interconnected networks
group members widely
dispersed
bandwidth not plentiful
Network Layer 4-141
Consequences of sparse-dense
dichotomy:
dense
group membership by
routers assumed until
routers explicitly prune
data-driven construction
on mcast tree (e.g., RPF)
bandwidth and nongroup-router processing
profligate
sparse:
no membership until
routers explicitly join
receiver- driven
construction of mcast tree
(e.g., center-based)
bandwidth and non-grouprouter processing
conservative
Network Layer 4-142
PIM- dense mode

flood-and-prune RPF: similar to DVMRP
but
underlying unicast protocol provides RPF
info for incoming datagram
less complicated (less efficient)
downstream flood than DVMRP reduces
reliance on underlying routing algorithm
has protocol mechanism for router to
detect it is a leaf-node router
Network Layer 4-143
PIM - sparse
mode
center-based approach
router sends join msg to
rendezvous point (RP)
intermediate routers
update state and
forward join
after joining via RP,
router can switch to
source-specific tree
increased
performance: less
concentration,
shorter paths
R1
R4
join
R2
join
R5
R3
join
R6
all data multicast
from rendezvous
point
R7
rendezvous
point
Network Layer 4-144
PIM - sparse
mode
sender(s):
unicast data to RP,

which distributes
down RP-rooted
tree
RP can extend
mcast tree upstream
to source
RP can send stop
msg if no attached
receivers
R1
R4
join
R2
join
R5
R3
join
R6
all data multicast
from rendezvous
point
R7
rendezvous
point
no one is listening!
Network Layer 4-145
Chapter 4: done!
4.1 introduction
datagram networks
datagram format, IPv4
addressing, ICMP, IPv6

link state, distance
vector, hierarchical
routing

RIP, OSPF, BGP
4.7 broadcast and

multicast routing
understand principles behind network layer services:
network layer service models, forwarding versus
routing how a router works, routing (path selection),
broadcast, multicast
instantiation, implementation in the Internet
Network Layer 4-146

Network Layer: Computer Networking: A Top Down Approach

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Chapter 4

All material copyright 1996-2012

Chapter 4: network layer

understand principles behind network layer

network layer service models

instantiation, implementation in the Internet

Network Layer 4-2

4.5 routing algorithms

4.6 routing in the Internet

4.7 broadcast and

Network Layer 4-3

transport segment from

Network Layer 4-4

Two key network-layer

Network Layer 4-5

Interplay between routing and forwarding

routing algorithm determines

local forwarding table

forwarding table determines

Network Layer 4-6

3rd important function in some network

before datagrams flow, two end hosts and

network vs transport layer connection service:

Network Layer 4-7

Network service model

Network Layer 4-8

Network layer service models:

best effort none

Network Layer 4-9

4.5 routing algorithms

4.6 routing in the Internet

4.7 broadcast and

Network Layer 4-10

datagram network provides network-layer

call setup, teardown for each call before data can

Network Layer 4-12

packet belonging to VC carries VC number

new VC number comes from forwarding table

Network Layer 4-13

VC routers maintain connection state informati

Virtual circuits: signaling

used to setup, maintain teardown VC

Network Layer 4-15

no call setup at network layer

packets forwarded using destination host

Network Layer 4-16

Datagram forwarding table

local forwarding table

Network Layer 4-17

Datagram forwarding table

11001000 00010111 00010000 00000000

11001000 00010111 00011000 00000000

11001000 00010111 00011001 00000000

Q: but what happens if ranges dont divide up so nicely?

Longest prefix matching

11001000 00010111 00010*** *********

11001000 00010111 00011000 *********

11001000 00010111 00011*** *********

Datagram or VC network: why?

11001000 00010111 00010* *******

11001000 00010111 00011* *******