Boolean Algebra

Certificate in IT BCS(2009-10)
Muhammed Jehanzaib Sultan

1
 Boolean Algebra
Boolean algebra is an algebra for the
manipulation of objects that can take on only two
values, typically true and false, although it can
be any pair of values. Because computers are
built as collections of switches that are either
“on” or “off,”
Boolean algebra is a very natural way to
represent digital information. In reality, digital
circuits use low and high voltages, but for our
level of understanding, 0 and 1 will suffice. It is
common to interpret the digital value 0 as false
and the digital value 1 as true.

2
 Boolean Expressions
In addition to binary objects, Boolean
algebra also has operations that can be
performed on these objects, or variables.
Combining the variables and operators
yields Boolean expressions. A Boolean
function typically has one or more input
values and yields a result, based on these
input values, in the range {0,1}.

3
 Boolean Operators
Three common Boolean operators are:

1. AND operator
2. OR operator
3. NOT operator

4
 Truth Table
A Boolean operator can be completely
described using a table that lists the
inputs, all possible values for these inputs,
and the resulting values of the operation
for all possible combinations of these
inputs. This table is called a truth table.

5
 Truth Table for AND Operator
• AND is typically represented
by either a dot or Inputs Outputs
no symbol at all x y xy
• The Boolean expression 0 0 0
xy is equivalent to the 0 1 0
1 0 0
expression x · y and
1 1 1
is read “x and y.”

6
Truth Table

7
NAND Gate (Usage)

8
NOR Gate (Usage)

9
 Implementation of Boolean
Functions
• Any Boolean function can be implemented in
electronic form as a network of gates. For any
given function, there are a number of alternative
realizations. Consider the Boolean function
represented by the truth table above. We can
express this function by simply itemizing the
combinations of values of A, B, and C that cause
F to be 1:

F = ABC + ABC ABC

10
 Implementation of Boolean
Functions
• There are three combination of input
values that cause F to be 1, and if any one
of these combination occurs, the result is
1. this form of expression, for self-evident
reasons is known as the sum of products
(SOP) form.

11
Boolean function of three variables

12
Sum of Products implementation
(Graphical Gates representation)

13
 Integrated Circuits
• Integrated Circuits
Computers are composed of various digital
components, connected by wires. Like a good program,
the actual hardware of a computer uses collections of
gates to create larger modules, which, in turn, are used
to implement various functions. The number of gates
required to create these “building blocks” depends on the
technology being used.
Typically, gates are not sold individually; they are
sold in units called integrated circuits (ICs). A chip (a
small silicon semiconductor crystal) is a small electronic
device consisting of the necessary electronic
components (transistors, resistors, and capacitors) to
implement various gates.

14
 Integrated Circuits …contd
Components are etched directly on the chip,
allowing them to be smaller and to require less power for
operation than their discrete component counterparts.
This chip is then mounted in a ceramic or plastic
container with external pins. The necessary connections
are welded from the chip to the external pins to form an
IC. The first ICs contained very few transistors. The first
ICs were called SSI* chips and contained up to 100
electronic components per chip. We now have ULSI
(ultra large-scale integration) with more than 1 million
electronic components per chip.

*SSI (Small Scale Integration) Integrated circuits with 10

to 100 components per chip.

15
 Combination Circuit
• A combinational circuit is of set of gates whose
output at any time is a function only of the input
at that time.
• As with a single gate, the appearance of the
input is followed almost immediately by the
appearance of the output, with only gate delays.
• Gate Delays: The propagation time of signals
through the gate.
• In general terms, a combinational circuit consist
of n binary inputs and m binary outputs.

16
 Combination Circuits ….contd
• As with a gate, combinational circuit can be
defined in three ways:
1. Truth Table: For each of the 2n possible
combination of input signals, the binary value
of each of the m output signals is listed.
2. Graphical Symbols: The interconnected layout
of gates is depicted.
3. Boolean Equations: Each output signal is
expressed as a Boolean function of its input
signals.

17
Simple SSI Circuit

18
 Half Adder
The half-adder is a very simple circuit and not really very
useful because it can only add two bits together.

Let’s begin with a very simple combinational circuit called a

half-adder. Consider the problem of adding two binary digits
together. There are only three things to remember: 0 + 0 = 0, 0 + 1
= 1 + 0 = 1, and 1 + 1 = 10. We know the behavior this circuit
exhibits, and we can formalize this behavior using a truth table. We
need to specify two outputs, not just one, because we have a sum
and a carry to address. The truth table for a half-adder is shown in
the next slide.

A closer look reveals that Sum is actually an XOR. The Carry

output is equivalent to that of an AND gate. We can combine an
XOR gate and an AND gate, resulting in the logic diagram for a half-
adder shown in the next slide.

19
Half Adder

20
 Full Adder
However, we can extend this adder to a circuit that allows
the addition of larger binary numbers.

Consider how you add base 10 numbers: You add up the

rightmost column, note the units digit, and carry the tens digit.
Then you add that carry to the current column, and continue
in a similar fashion. We can add binary numbers in the same
way.

However, we need a circuit that allows three inputs (x, y,

and Carry In), and two outputs (Sum and Carry Out). Figure
below illustrates the truth table and corresponding logic
diagram for a full-adder. Note that this full-adder is composed
of two half-adders and an OR gate.

21
 Full Adder ….contd
Given this full-adder, you may be wondering how this circuit
can add binary numbers, since it is capable of adding only three
bits. The answer is, it can’t. However, we can build an adder
capable of adding two 16-bit words, for example, by replicating the
above circuit 16 times, feeding the Carry Out of one circuit into the
Carry In of the circuit immediately to its left. This type of circuit is
called a ripple-carry adder because of the sequential generation of
carries that “ripple” through the adder stages. Note that instead of
drawing all the gates that constitute a full-adder, we use a black box
approach to depict our adder. A black box approach allows us to
ignore the details of the actual gates. We concern ourselves only
with the inputs and outputs of the circuit. This is typically done with
most circuits, including decoders, multiplexers, and adders, as we
shall see very soon.

22
 Full Adder ….contd
Because this adder is very slow, it is not
normally implemented. However, it is easy to
understand and should give you some idea of
how addition of larger binary numbers can be
achieved. Modifications made to adder designs
have resulted in the carry-look-ahead adder, the
carry-select adder, and the carry-save adder, as
well as others. Each attempts to shorten the
delay required to add two binary numbers.

23
Truth Table and Logic Diagram of a
Full Adder

24
Logic Diagram for a Ripple Carry

25
 Decoder
In fact, these newer adders achieve speeds 40% to 90% faster
than the ripple- carry adder by performing additions in parallel and
reducing the maximum carry path.

Adders are very important circuits—a computer would not be

very useful if it could not add numbers. An equally important
operation that all computers use frequently is decoding binary
information from a set of n inputs to a maximum of 2n outputs.

A decoder uses the inputs and their respective values to select

one specific output line. What do we mean by “select an output
line”? It simply means that one unique output line is asserted, or set
to 1, while the other output lines are set to zero. Decoders are
normally defined by the number of inputs and the number of
outputs. For example, a decoder that has 3 inputs and 8 outputs is
called a 3-to-8 decoder.

26
 Decoder
We mentioned that this decoder is something the
computer uses frequently. At this point, you can probably name
many arithmetic operations the computer must be able to
perform, but you might find it difficult to propose an example of
decoding. If so, it is because you are not familiar with how a
computer accesses memory.

All memory addresses in a computer are specified as

binary numbers. When a memory address is referenced
(whether for reading or for writing), the computer first has to
determine the actual address. This is done using a decoder. The
following example should clarify any questions you may have
about how a decoder works and what it might be used for.
27
 Example of A 3-to-8 Decoder
Circuit
Imagine memory consisting of 8 chips, each containing 8K bytes.
Let’s assume chip 0 contains memory addresses 0–8191, chip 1 contains
memory addresses 8192–16,383, and so on. We have a total of 8K 8, or 64K
(65,536) addresses available. We will not write down all 64K addresses as
binary numbers; however, writing a few addresses in binary form (as we
illustrate in the following paragraphs) will illustrate why a decoder is
necessary.

Given 64 = 26 and 1K = 210, then 64K = 26 210 = 216, which

indicates we need 16 bits to represent each address. If you have trouble
understanding this, start with a smaller number of addresses. For example, if
you have 4 addresses— addresses 0, 1, 2, and 3, the binary equivalent of
these addresses is 00, 01, 10, and 11, requiring two bits. We know 22 = 4.
Now consider eight addresses. We have to be able to count from 0 to 7 in
binary. How many bits does that require? The answer is 3. You can either
write them all down, or you recognize that 8 = 23. The exponent tells us the
minimum number of bits necessary to represent the addresses. 28
 Example …contd
All addresses on chip 0 have the format:
000xxxxxxxxxxxxx. Because chip 0 contains the
addresses 0–8191, the binary representation of these
addresses is in the range 0000000000000000 to
0001111111111111. Similarly, all addresses on chip 1
have the format 001xxxxxxxxxxxxx, and so on for the
remaining chips. The leftmost 3 bits determine on which
chip the address is actually located. We need 16 bits to
represent the entire address, but on each chip, we only
have 213 addresses. Therefore, we need only 13 bits to
uniquely identify an address on a given chip. The
rightmost 13 bits give us this information.

29
 Example …contd
When a computer is given an address, it must first
determine which chip to use; then it must find the actual
address on that specific chip. In our example, the
computer would use the 3 leftmost bits to pick the chip
and then find the address on the chip using the
remaining 13 bits. These 3 high-order bits are actually
used as the inputs to a decoder so the computer can
determine which chip to activate for reading or writing. If
the first 3 bits are 000, chip 0 should be activated. If the
first 3 bits are 111, chip 7 should be activated. Which
chip would be activated if the first 3 bits were 010? It
would be chip 2. Turning on a specific wire activates a
chip. The output of the decoder is used to activate one,
and only one, chip as the addresses are decoded.

30