DMT 234 SEMICONDUCTOR PHYSICS & DEVICES

CONTENTS
Semiconductor.
Thermal Equilibrium.
Charge Carriers In Semiconductors.
Density Of States Function (DOS) And Fermi Dirac Probability Function.
The Intrinsic Carrier Concentration.
Position Of Fermi Level For Intrinsic Semiconductor.
Dopant Atoms And Energy Levels.
The Extrinsic Semiconductor.
Degenerate & Non-degenerate Semiconductors.
Complete Ionization.
Charge Neutrality.
Position of Fermi Energy Level.
SEMICONDUCTOR
The advent of the semiconductor has revolutionized our lives, since it is the basis
of all integrated circuits and microprocessors.
To distinguish between the electrical properties of materials we can group them
into three (3) sections :
1. Conductors.
2. Semiconductors.
3. Insulators.
The important difference between conductors, semiconductors and insulators lies
in the number of free electrons present in the material.
Perhaps the best way to consider the differences between them is to use the
band theory of solids.
As you may know, electrons in an individual atom are restricted to well-defined
energy levels and energy changes within the atom only take place between one
level and another.
SEMICONDUCTOR
In a solid the atoms are linked together and the electrons can occupy a whole
series of energy levels grouped into bands.
The difference in energy between levels within the band is very small compared
with the energy gap between the bands.
The electrical differences between one type of solid and another lie in the
different arrangements of the bands.
BANDGAP STRUCTURES

Energy band gap for solid material

INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR
In semiconductors and insulators, when an external electric field is applied the
conduction is not possible as there is a forbidden gap, which is absent in metals.
In order to conduct, the electrons from the top of the full valence band have to move
into the conduction band, by crossing the forbidden gap. Eg: Si where the forbidden
gap is about 1eV.
The field that needs to be applied to do this work will be extremely large.
The distance between these two locations is about 1 (1010 m).
A field gradient of approximately 1V/ (1010 m) = 1010Vm1 is necessary to move
an electron from the top of the valence band to the bottom of the conduction band.
The other possibility by which this transition can be brought about is by thermal
excitation.
At room temperature, the thermal energy that is available can excite a limited
number of electrons across the energy gap. This limited number accounts for semi-
conduction.
INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR
When the energy gap is large as in diamond, the number of electrons that can be
excited across the gap is extremely small.
In intrinsic semiconductors, the conduction is due to the intrinsic processes (without the
influence of impurities).
A pure crystal of silicon or germanium is an intrinsic semiconductor. The electrons that
are excited from the top of the valence band to the bottom of the conduction band
by thermal energy are responsible for conduction.
The number of electrons excited across the gap can be calculated from the Fermi-
Dirac probability distribution.
THERMAL EQUILIBRIUM
Equilibrium :
No external forces such as voltages, electric fields, magnetic fields or
temperature gradients are acting on the semiconductor.
No external forces are applied :
Electric field = 0.
Magnetic field = 0.
Mechanical stress = 0.
No light.
Dynamic situation in which every process is balanced by its inverse process :
Electron-hole pair (EHP) generation rate = EHP recombination rate.
Thermal agitation :
Electrons and holes exchange energy with the crystal lattice and each other.
Every energy state in the conduction band and valence band has a certain
probability of being occupied by an electron.
ANALOGY FOR THERMAL EQUILIBRIUM
There is a certain probability for the electrons in the conduction band to occupy high-
energy states under the agitation of thermal energy (vibrating atoms).

Sand particles
CHARGE CARRIERS IN SEMICONDUCTORS
Charge carrier (electron and hole) can contribute to a current.
Current is determined by the number of electrons in conduction band and
number of holes in valence band.
Important characteristics :
Density of these charge carriers.
It is related to density of states function and Fermi distribution function.
Density of states (DOS) tells us how many states exist at a given energy E.
The Fermi distribution function f(E) specifies how many of the existing states
at the energy E will be filled with electrons.
NUMBER OF CARRIERS (n)
How to count number of carriers, n?
Assumption :
Pauli exclusion principle.
If we know :
1. No. of energy states Density of states (DOS).
2. Occupied energy states The probability that energy states is
occupied Fermi-Dirac distribution
function.

n(E) = DOS x Fermi-Dirac distribution function

EQUILIBRIUM DISTRIBUTION OF ELECTRONS
The distribution (with respect to energy) of electrons in conduction band :
Density of allowed quantum states in the conduction band probability that a
state is occupied by an electron.
Equation 4.1 Total electron concentration per unit volume in conduction band
over entire conduction band energy.

(4.1)

Distribution of electron in conduction band.

Density of states in conduction band.
Fermi-Dirac probability function.
EQUILIBRIUM DISTRIBUTION OF HOLES
The distribution (with respect to energy) of holes in valence band :
Density of allowed quantum states in the valence band probability that a
state is not occupied by an electron.
Equation 4.2 Total hole concentration per unit volume in valence band over
valence band energy.

(4.2)

Distribution of holes in valence band

Density of quantum states in valence band
ANALOGY : EXAMPLE
Mr. Aron wanted to calculate the number of car at the parking area of C-Mart.
So, a few information are needed.
1. Total number of parking lot.
2. Possible number of car that can enter the parking slot.

Number of car
THERMAL EQUILIBRIUM DISTRIBUTION OF CARRIERS
In order to find thermal equilibrium electron and hole concentration determine
the position of Fermi energy, EF.
Lets consider an ideal intrinsic semiconductor with no impurity atoms and no
lattice defects in crystal.
At ( T=0K ), all energy states in the valence band are filled with electrons and
all energy states in conduction band are empty of electrons.
The Fermi energy lies somewhere between Ec and Ev.
As temperature increases above 0K, the valence electrons gain thermal energy.
Few electrons in valence band may gain sufficient energy to jump to the
conduction band.
Electron jumped in the conduction band hole is created in valence band.
In intrinsic semiconductor, electrons and holes are created in pairs by thermal
energy.
The number of electrons in conduction band is equal to the number of holes in
valence band.
ELECTRON AND HOLE AS CARRIER

Freely move
electrons in Ec

Freely move
holes in Ev

Breaking of a covalent bond at T> 0 K. Energy Band

DOS AND FERMI DIRAC PROBABILITY FUNCTION
DOS AND FERMI DIRAC PROBABILITY FUNCTION
DOS AND FERMI DIRAC PROBABILITY FUNCTION

Electron
having energy
above Ec

Holes
having energy
below Ev

EF; the energy below which all states are filled with electron and above
which all states are empty at 0K.
DOS AND FERMI DIRAC PROBABILITY FUNCTION

Fermi Dirac distribution function at different temperatures.

THE n0 and p0 EQUATIONS IN THERMAL EQUILIBRIUM
However, the Fermi energy can deviate from this mid gap energy but remains
within the band gap energy.
The thermal equilibrium concentration of electrons :

(4.3) EF = Fermi energy.

mn = Mass of neutron.
k = Boltzmann constant.
(3.1) = 1.38 1023 J/K.
= 8.6 105 eV/K.
(3.2) T = absolute temperature in K.

Derive Equation 4.3 using equation 3.1 and 3.2 to obtain electron concentration.
THE n0 and p0 EQUATIONS IN THERMAL EQUILIBRIUM
Thermal equilibrium electron concentration in the conduction band :

(4.11)

** Consider n(E) = no
Nc : Effective density of states function in the conduction band.

The value of Nc will vary by T3/2 2

3/2

At T = 300K, = 12
2

Silicon : Nc = 2.86 x 1019 cm-3 3/2
GaAs : Nc = 4.7 x 1017 cm-3 = 2
2

2
THE n0 and p0 EQUATIONS IN THERMAL EQUILIBRIUM
Thermal equilibrium holes concentration in the valence band :

(4.19)

** Consider p(E) = po
Nv : Effective density of states function in the valence band.

The value of Nv will vary by T3/2 2

3/2

At T = 300K, = 12
2

Silicon : Nv = 1.04 x 1019 cm-3 3/2
GaAs : Nv = 7.0 x 1018 cm-3 2
= 2
2
FERMI LEVEL FOR INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR

(a) (b) (c) (d)

a. Schematic band gap energy diagram.
b. Density of states, g(E).
c. Fermi-Dirac distribution function, fF(E).
d. Carrier concentration, n(E) = g(E) and fF(E).
INTRINSIC CARRIER CONCENTRATION
The Fermi energy level for the intrinsic semiconductor is called the intrinsic Fermi
energy, or EF = Efi
= 2

ni = intrinsic carrier concentration.

EXAMPLE 1
Calculate the probability that a quantum state in conduction band at E = EC + kT/2 is
occupied by an electron and calculate the thermal equilibrium electron concentration
in Silicon at T = 300K.
Assume Fermi Energy is 0.25eV below conduction band and Nc = 2.8 x 1019
cm-3.
Info : EC EF = 0.25eV
1
= EC + kT/2
exp exp
1 + exp

0.0259
0.25 +
2
= 3.90 x 105
0.0259

= 1.8 x 1015cm3
EXAMPLE 2
Calculate the thermal equilibrium hole concentration in silicon at T= 400K. Assume
that the Fermi energy is 0.27eV above the valence band energy. The value of Nv for
silicon at T = 300 K is 1.04 x 1019 cm-3 . The Nv is vary as T3/2.
Info :
EF EV = 0.27eV
kT = (0.0259)(400/300) = 0.03453eV
NV = (1.04 x 1019)(400/300)3/2 = 1.6 x 1019 cm-3

(4.19)

Answer : PO = 6.43 x 1015 cm-3

EXAMPLE 3
Calculate the thermal equilibrium hole concentration in silicon at T= 250K. Assume
that the Fermi energy is 0.27eV above the valence band energy. The value of Nv for
silicon at T = 300 K is 1.04 x 1019 cm-3 . The Nv is vary as T3/2.
Info :
EF EV = 0.27eV
kT = (0.0259)(250/300) = 0.02158eV
NV = (1.04 x 1019)(250/300)3/2 = 7.91 x 1018 cm-3

(4.19)

Answer : PO = 2.91 x 1013 cm-3

EXAMPLE 4
Calculate the thermal equilibrium electron and hole concentration in GaAs at T = 300K
when Fermi energy is 0.22 eV below the conduction band. Energy gap for GaAs is
1.42eV.
Info :
NV = 7.0 x 1018 cm-3
NC = 4.7 x 1017 cm-3
EC EF = 0.22eV
EF EV = 1.42 0.22 = 1.20eV
kT = (0.0259)(300/300) = 0.0259eV

Answer : PO = 0.0528 cm-3

nO = 9.61 x 1013 cm-3
EXAMPLE 5
Calculate the intrinsic carrier concentration in silicon at T = 250K. The value of Nc and
Nv for silicon at T = 300 K is 2.8 x 1019 cm-3 and 1.04 x 1019 cm-3 . Both Nc and Nv is
vary as T3/2. Energy gap for Silicon is 1.12eV.
Info :
NC = 2.8 x 1019 cm-3
NV = 1.04 x 1019 cm-3
At T = 250K :
( NCNV )T3/2 = (2.8 x 1019 cm-3)(1.04 x 1019 cm-3) (250/300)3/2
kT = (0.0259)(250/300) = 0.02158eV

Answer : ni = 8.0 x 107 cm-3

TAKE A SIT & RELAX

Please watch this video and DONT SLEEP!

VIDEO 1
INTRINSIC CARRIER CONCENTRATION
Intrinsic carrier concentration is a very strong function of
temperature.
ni = pi = intrinsic electron concentration or intrinsic hole
concentration.
ni = 1.5 1010 cm-3
The Intrinsic Fermi-Level Position :

(4.26b)

If mp* = mn* EFi near the center of bandgap.

If mp* > mn* EFi slightly above the center of bandgap.
If mp* < mn* EFi slightly below the center of bandgap.
DOPANT ATOMS AND ENERGY LEVELS

Adding small, controlled amounts of specific dopant, or impurity, atoms

Increase number of carrier (either electron or hole)

Alter the conductivity of semiconductor

Consider Phosphorus (P) and boron (B) as

impurity atoms in Silicon (Si).
DOPANT ATOMS AND ENERGY LEVELS
Phosphorus (P) as substitutional impurity (group V element; 5 valence electron).
In intrinsic Si, all 4 valence electrons contribute to covalent bonding.
In Si doped with P, 4 valence electron of P contribute to covalent bonding and
1 electron loosely bound to P atom (Donor electron).
P atom without the donor electron is positively charged.
At low temperature, the donor electron is bound to the P atom.

Donor
electron
Can easily break
the bond and
freely moves.
DOPANT ATOMS AND ENERGY LEVELS
Energy to elevate the donor electron into conduction band is less than that
for the electron involved in covalent bonding.
Ed Donor energy level (eV) is located near Ec.

As thermal energy is
added to donor electron

(a) (b)
Discrete acceptor The effect of an acceptor
energy state state being ionized.
DOPANT ATOMS AND ENERGY LEVELS
When small energy is added, donor electron is elevated to conduction band,
leaving behind positively charged P ion.
P atoms donate electron to conduction band P; donor impurity atom.
Number of electron > number of hole n-type semiconductor (majority
carrier is electron).
The electron in the conduction band can move through the crystal generating
current, while positively charged ion is fixed in the crystal.
The donor impurity adds electrons to conduction band without creating holes
in valence band.
This material n-type (n for negatively charged electron).
DOPANT ATOMS AND ENERGY LEVELS
Boron (B) as substitutional impurity (group III element; 3 valence electron).
In Si doped with B, all 3 valence electron of B contribute to covalent
bonding and one covalent bonding is empty.
When small energy is added, electron that involved in covalent bond will
occupy the empty position leaving behind empty position that associated
with Si atom.

Hole is
created
DOPANT ATOMS AND ENERGY LEVELS
Electron occupying the empty state associated with B atom does not have
sufficient energy to be in the conduction band No free electron is created.
Ea Acceptor energy level (eV) is located near Ev.

As thermal energy is
gained by valence electron

(a) (b)
Discrete donor The effect of a donor
energy state state being ionized.
DOPANT ATOMS AND ENERGY LEVELS
When electron from valence band elevate to Ea, hole and negatively
charged B are created.
B accepts electron from valence band B; acceptor impurity atom.
No. of hole > no. of electron p-type material (majority carrier is hole).
The hole can move through the crystal generating current, while negatively
charged boron atom is fixed in the crystal.
The acceptor atom generates holes in valence band without generating
electrons in conduction band.
This material p-type (p for positively charged hole).
EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR
Intrinsic semiconductor - Pure single-crystal semiconductor.
Extrinsic semiconductor - Semiconductor with dopant atoms.

Ionization energy :
The energy that required to elevate donor electron into the conduction
(in case of donor impurity atom) or to elevate valence electron into
acceptor state (in case of acceptor impurity atom).
EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR

Dopant atoms :
Group II (beryllium, zinc and cadmium) replacing Ga; acceptor.
Group VI (selenium, tellurium) replacing As; donor.
Group IV (Si and germanium) replacing Ga; donor and As; acceptor.
EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR
Extrinsic semiconductor is a semiconductor with controlled amounts of specific
dopant or impurity atoms so that the thermal equilibrium and hole
concentrations are different from intrinsic carrier concentration.
One type of carrier predominates in extrinsic semiconductor.
Adding donor or acceptor impurity atoms changes :
Distribution of electron and holes.
Fermi energy.
Density of electrons in conduction band and holes in valence band.
EF > EFi : The electron concentration is larger than hole concentration.
EF < EFi : The hole concentration is larger than electron concentration.
EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR
Since n0 > p0 :
The semiconductor n-type.
In n-type semiconductor, electrons as majority carrier and holes as
minority carrier.
Since p0 > n0 :
The semiconductor p-type.
In p-type semiconductor, holes as majority carrier and electrons as
minority carrier.
CARRIER CONCENTRATION OF EXTRINSIC S/C
When dopant atoms
are added, Fermi
energy and
distribution of
electron and hole
will change.
electron > hole electron < hole
(n-type) (p-type)

EF>EFi EF<EFi
N - Type P - Type
CARRIER CONCENTRATION OF EXTRINSIC S/C

Thermal equilibrium concentration of electron.

Thermal equilibrium concentration of hole.

Change of Fermi energy causes change of carrier concentration.

no and po equation as function of the change of Fermi energy.

ni : Intrinsic carrier concentration

Efi : Intrinsic Fermi energy
EXAMPLE 6

Thermal equilibrium concentration of electron.

Thermal equilibrium concentration of hole.

THE N0P0 PRODUCT

Mass Action Law

n and p may no longer equal ni but the products still obeys this mass action law.
Product of n0 and p0 is always a constant for a given material at a given
temperature.
NON-DEGENERATE SEMICONDUCTOR
NON-DEGENERATE SEMICONDUCTOR
When dopant is added, we assumed that the concentration of dopant
atoms added is small compared to density of host/semiconductor atoms.
The small number of impurity are spread far enough that no interaction
between donor electrons e.g. n-type material.
It is assumed impurities introduce discrete and non-interacting donor
energy states in n-type semiconductor and discrete and non-interacting
acceptor state in p-type semiconductor.
Referred to as non-degenerate semiconductor.
If the impurity concentration increases, the distances between impurity
atoms decreases and a point be reached when donor electrons interact
with each other.
DEGENERATE SEMICONDUCTOR
DEGENERATE SEMICONDUCTOR
So the single discrete donor energy will split into band of energies.
And if the donor concentration further increases, the band of donor states
widen and may overlap the bottom of conduction band.
It occurs when donor concentration becomes comparable with effective
density of states.
The concentration of electrons in conduction band exceeds the density
states Nc, the Fermi energy lies within conduction band.
Referred to as degenerate semiconductor.
STATISTICS OF DONORS
STATISTICS OF ACCEPTORS
TAKE A SIT & RELAX

Please watch this video and DONT SLEEP!

VIDEO 2
COMPLETE IONIZATION
The condition when all donor atoms are positively charged by giving up their
donor electrons and all acceptor atoms are negatively charged by accepting
electrons.

(a) Donor states (b) Acceptor states

Energy band diagram showing complete ionization process.
COMPLETE IONIZATION
Complete ionization conduction at shallow donors in Si and GaAs where they
have enough thermal energy to supply Ed or Ea to ionize all donor impurities at
room temperature, thus provide the same number of electrons in the conduction
band or holes in the valence band respectively.
Under complete ionization conduction for shallow donor impurity (n-type
semiconductor), electron density may be written as :

=
Under complete ionization conduction for shallow acceptor impurity (p-type
semiconductor), hole density may be written as :

=
COMPLETE IONIZATION
At T=0 K, all electron in their lowest possible energy state.
+ = 0 = 0

Energy
band
diagram
at T=0K

(a) N-Type (b) P-Type

Freeze-out - Condition that occurs in a semiconductor when the temperature is
lowered and the donors and acceptors become neutrally charged. The electron
and hole concentrations become very small.
CHARGE NEUTRALITY

Net charge density is zero.

Compensated semiconductor :
A semiconductor that contains both donor and acceptors at the same region.
Example :
Diffusing acceptor impurities into n-type material or diffusing donor
impurities into p-type material.
If Nd > Na N-type compensated semiconductor.
If Na > Nd P-type compensated semiconductor.
If Nd = Na Complete compensated semiconductor.
CHARGE NEUTRALITY Charge neutrality condition is expressed by
equating the density of negative charges to
the density of positive charges.

Energy band diagram of

compensated semiconductor
showing ionized and un-ionized
donors and acceptors.
CHARGE NEUTRALITY

Assume complete ionization, nd and pa are both zero ( pa=0, nd=0 ) :

From nopo = ni2 :

For a compensated p-type and n-type semiconductor, the minority carrier
electron and hole concentration can be determined from :
CHARGE NEUTRALITY
Thermal equilibrium electron concentration :

2
( )
= + + 2
2 2

Thermal equilibrium hole concentration :

2
( )
= + + 2
2 2
EXAMPLE 7
Consider an n-type silicon semiconductor at T = 300 K in which Nd=1016 cm-3 and Na= 0.
The intrinsic carrier concentration is assumed to be ni = 1.5x1010 cm-3. Determine the
thermal equilibrium electron and hole concentrations.
Answer :
For thermal equilibrium electron concentration :

For thermal equilibrium hole concentration :

EXAMPLE 8
Consider an p-type silicon semiconductor at T = 300 K in which Na=1016 cm-3 and Nd=
3x1015 cm-3. The intrinsic carrier concentration is assumed to be ni = 1.5x1010 cm-3.
Determine the thermal equilibrium hole and electron concentrations.
Answer :
For thermal equilibrium hole concentration :

For thermal equilibrium electron concentration :

EXERCISE 1
1. Consider an n-type silicon semiconductor at T = 300 K in which Nd = 5x1015 cm-3
and Na = 2x1015 cm-3. The intrinsic carrier concentration is assumed to be ni =
1.5x1010 cm-3. Determine the thermal equilibrium electron and hole concentrations.
Answer :
no = 3 x 1015 cm-3 , po = 7.5 x 104 cm-3.

2. Consider an p-type silicon semiconductor at T = 300 K in which Na=5x1015 cm-3

and Nd = 2x1015 cm-3. The intrinsic carrier concentration is assumed to be ni =
1.5x1010 cm-3. Determine the thermal equilibrium hole and electron concentrations.
Answer :
po = 3 x 1015 cm-3 , no = 7.5 x 104 cm-3.
REDISTRIBUTION OF ELECTRON

Redistribution of
electrons when donors
are added.

When donors are added, no > ni and po < ni.

A few donor electron will fall into the empty states in valence band and hole
concentration will decrease.
Net electron concentration in conduction band intrinsic electron + donor
concentration.
TEMPERATURE DEPENDENCE OF no

2
( )
= + + 2
2 2

Very strong function

of temperature.
As temperature increases, ni2 term will dominate.
Shows intrinsic characteristics :
POSITION OF FERMI ENERGY LEVEL
As a function of doping concentration and temperature.
Equations for position of Fermi level (N-type) :
Notes :

For compensated semiconductor, no = Nd - Na :

For intrinsic semiconductor (N-type) :

POSITION OF FERMI ENERGY LEVEL
As a function of doping concentration and temperature.
Equations for position of Fermi level (P-type) :
Notes :

For compensated semiconductor, po = Na - Nd :

For intrinsic semiconductor (P-type) :

Video 3
EXAMPLE 9
Silicon at T=300 K contains an acceptor impurity concentration of Na=1016 cm-3.
Determine the concentration of donor impurity atoms that must be added so that the
silicon is n-type and Fermi energy is 0.20eV below the conduction band edge.
Answer :
Concentration of donor impurity atom, Nd :
POSITION OF FERMI ENERGY LEVEL
Position of EF as function of donor concentration (N-type) and acceptor
concentration (P-type).
POSITION OF FERMI ENERGY LEVEL
Position of EF as function of temperature for various doping concentration.

As the doping level increase, the

Fermi energy level moves closer to
the conduction band for the n-type
material and closer to the valence
band for p-type material.
CHECK AND BALANCE
Ability to describe and differentiate the following idea for extrinsic and intrinsic
semiconductor :
Energy band diagram.
Density of states (DOS).
Carrier distribution.
Acceptor and donor energy level.
Electron and holes terminology.
Fermi level position.
IMPORTANT TERMS
Equilibrium :
No external forces such as voltages, electric fields, magnetic fields or
temperature gradients are acting on the semiconductor.
Carrier :
Particles that can freely move and contribute to the current flow (conduction).
Intrinsic semiconductor :
Pure crystal.
Extrinsic semiconductor :
Addition of specific impurity atom to the crystal where the dominant charge
carrier in semiconductor can either be electrons in conduction band or holes
in valence band.
IMPORTANT TERMS
Acceptor atoms :
Impurity atoms added to a semiconductor to create a p-type material.
Donor atoms :
Impurity atoms added to a semiconductor to create n-type material.
Complete ionization :
The condition when all donor atoms are positively charged by giving up their
donor electrons and all acceptor atoms are negatively charged by
accepting electrons.
Freeze-out :
The condition that occurs in a semiconductor when the temperature is lowered
and the donors and acceptors become neutrally charged. The electron and
hole concentrations become very small.
NEXT WEEK
CHAPTER 4 : Carrier Transport Phenomena.
Duration : 2 Weeks ( W5-W6 ).
Tutorial 2 : Week 6.