MANAV RACHNA INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE OF RESEARCH AND STUDIES

(Deemed to be University)
(FORMERLY MANAV RACHNA INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSITY)

Subject: Manufacturing Technology-II

Subject Code: M-404A
Second Year – Fourth Semester
Academic Session: January 2018 - July 2018

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Faculty of Engineering & Technology
 M-404A: MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY-II
Periods/week Credits: Max. Marks : 150
L: 4 T: 0 4 Internal : 50
Duration of Ext. Exam: 3 Hrs External : 100

Pre-requisites: Workshop Practices in Machine Shop, Applied Mathematics, Manufacturing Technology I

Course Type : Program Core
Course Coordinator/Co-Coordinator: Dr. A. K. S. Chaudhary

Course Outcomes:

M-404.1 Students will be able to learn about the basic manufacturing processes and skills to apply their knowledge in solving problems
related to industries, research and other multi -displinary field.
M-404.2 Students will have in depth knowledge about the basics of metal cutting and cutting tools. They will learn about the economics of
machining which will help them in higher studies and research carrier.
M-404.3 Students will be able to understand the design of products and the equipment. They will be able to function effectively in terms and
demonstrate leadership characteristics and communication skill and can handle complex problem and projects related to
manufacturing.
M-404.4 Students will be able to identify, formulate and solve manufacturing engineering problems that will be helpful for industry.
Students will also be able to design manufacturing process to meet desired needs within realistic constraints such as economic and
environmental.
M-404.5 Students will be able to learn the function of various traditional and modern machine tools used in industries. They can analyze,
synthesize and control manufacturing operations using mathematical tool and simulation.
M-404.6 Students will be able to understand the impact of manufacturing engineering solutions in global, economic environment and social
context.
 Course Articulation Matrix

P P P PO P PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PSO1 PSO2 PSO3

CO O O O 4 O 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Statement 1 2 3 5
(M-404A)

M-404.1 3 3 3 3 - - - - - - - - 3 2 3
M-404.2 3 3 - 2 - - - - - - 2 3 3 3 3
M-404.3 - - 3 - - - - - 3 3 3 2 3 2 3
M-404.4 - 3 3 2 - - 3 3 - - 2 - 3 3 3
M-404.5 3 3 - - 3 - - - - - - - 3 3 3
M-404.6 - - - - - 3 2 - - - - - 3 3 3
 M-404A: MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY-II
PART- A
Unit-1 Basics of Metal Cutting
Orthogonal and Oblique Cutting, chip formation and types of chips, adverse effects of BUE, chip control and chip breakers, Tool
signature, Earnst-Merchant Theory: Force and velocity relationship, shear angle relationship, stress and strain in the chip, chip flow
velocity, work done in cutting, numerical. Sources of heat in metal cutting.
Unit-2 Cutting Tool and Cutting Fluid
Types and properties cutting tool materials, coated tools, Purposes and types of cutting fluids, selection of cutting fluid. Tool failure, tool
wear mechanism, tool life, Taylor’s tool life equation, numerical, factors governing tool life.
Unit-3: Machining Economics
Economics of metal machining and various relationships, Calculation of cutting speed and tool life for minimum cost and maximum
production, numerical. Machinability and machinability index.
PART-B
Unit-4 Introduction to Machine tools
Classification of machine tools, types of lathe machine, working and specification of lathe, parts of lathe machine, lathe accessories, work
holding device, parts of drilling machine, parts of milling machine, milling accessories, Principle of shapers, planner and slotter.
Unit -5 Lathe Operation
Plain and step turning methods, setting of turning tools, eccentric and taper turning, drilling on lathe, boring, reaming, knurling, grooving
and parting off, form turning, classification of single point lathe tools, tool geometry and its influence, cutting speed, feed, depth of cut,
estimating machining time.
Unit-6 Machining Operation
Drilling and milling operations, broaching, geometry of broach, geometry of drill and plain milling cutter, types of drill and milling cutter,
parts and terminology, principal angles, force system in drilling and milling, cutting speed, feed, depth of cut of drilling and milling,
estimating machining time.
Text Books/ Reference Books:
1. Workshop Technology-II -- B. S. Raghuwansi
2. Manufacturing Technology-II -- P. N. Rao
3.Production Engineering -- P. C. Sharma
4.Introduction To Machining Science -- G. K. Lal
Instructions for paper setting: Seven questions are to be set in total. First question will be conceptual
covering entire syllabus and will be compulsory to attempt. Three questions will be set from each PART-A
and PART-B (one from each unit). Student needs to attempt two questions out of three from each part. Each
question will be of 20 marks.
Software required / Web links:
http://nptel.ac.in/courses/ 112105126
http://nptel.ac.in/courses/ 112105127
nptel.ac.in/courses/112104204
Assessment Tools:
Assignment/Tutorials
Sessional tests
Surprise questions during lectures/Class Performance
Term end examination
 Lecture Plan
Unit-1 Basics of Metal Cutting

Lecture No. Topic

1 Methods of Metal Cutting
2 Essential features of Metal Cutting
3 Tool Signature
4 Mechanics of Metal Cutting
5 Velocities in Metal Cutting-stress and Strain in Cutting
6
Force Relationship in Metal Cutting
7 Heat in Metal Cutting
 UNIT-1: BASICS OF METAL CUTTING

• Overview of Machining Technology

• Theory of Chip Formation in Metal Machining
• Tool Signature
• Force Relationships and the Merchant Equation
• Power and Energy Relationships in Machining
• Cutting Temperature
 Methods of Metal Cutting

A family of shaping operations, the common feature of which is removal of

material from a starting work-part so the remaining part has the desired shape
• Categories:
• Machining – material removal by a sharp cutting tool, e.g., turning, milling,
drilling
• Abrasive processes – material removal by hard, abrasive particles, e.g.,
grinding
• Nontraditional processes - various energy forms other than sharp cutting tool
to remove material
 Machining
Cutting action involves shear deformation of work material to form a chip
• As chip is removed, a new surface is exposed

Figure 1 - (a) A cross-sectional view of the machining process

(b) tool with negative rake angle
Orthogonal Vs Oblique Cutting
 Why Machining is Important ?

• Variety of work materials can be machined

• Most frequently applied to metals
• Variety of part shapes and special geometry features possible, such as:
• Screw threads
• Accurate round holes
• Very straight edges and surfaces
• Good dimensional accuracy and surface finish
 Disadvantages with Machining

• Wasteful of material
• Chips generated in machining are wasted material, at least in the unit operation
• Time consuming
• A machining operation generally takes more time to shape a given part than
alternative shaping processes, such as casting, powder metallurgy, or forming
 Machining in the Manufacturing Sequence

• Generally performed after other manufacturing processes, such as casting, forging,

and bar drawing
• Other processes create the general shape of the starting work-part
• Machining provides the final shape, dimensions, finish, and special geometric
details that other processes cannot create
 Essential Features in Metal Cutting

• Mechanism of chip formation

• Types of chips
• Geometry of chips
• Chip control
• Forces acting on chip
 Orthogonal Cutting Model
A simplified 2-D model of machining that describes the mechanics of machining
fairly accurately

Figure 5 - Orthogonal cutting: (a) as a three-dimensional process

 Chip Thickness Ratio

to
r 
tc
Where,
r = chip thickness ratio;
to = thickness of the chip prior to chip formation; and
tc = chip thickness after separation
• Chip thickness after cut is always greater than before, so chip ratio is always less than
1.0
 Determining Shear Plane Angle

• Based on the geometric parameters of the orthogonal model, the shear

plane angle  can be determined as:

r cos 
tan  
1  r sin

Where,
r = chip ratio, and
 = rake angle
 Figure 6 - Shear strain during chip formation:
(a) chip formation depicted as a series of parallel plates sliding relative to each other,
(b) one of the plates isolated to show shear strain, and
(c) shear strain triangle used to derive strain equation
 Shear Strain

Shear strain in machining can be computed from the following equation,

based on the preceding parallel plate model:

 = tan( - ) + cot 

where,
 = shear strain,
 = shear plane angle, and
 = rake angle of cutting tool
Figure 7 - More realistic view of chip formation, showing shear zone rather than shear plane.
Also shown is the secondary shear zone resulting from tool-chip friction
 Four Basic Types of Chip in Machining

1. Discontinuous chip/ Segmental chip

2. Continuous chip

3. Continuous chip with Built-up Edge (BUE)

4. Serrated Chip
 Segmental Chip

• Brittle work materials (e.g., cast irons)

• Low cutting speeds
• Large feed and depth of cut
• High tool-chip friction
 Continuous Chip

• Ductile work materials (e.g., low

carbon steel)
• High cutting speeds
• Small feeds and depths
• Sharp cutting edge on the tool
• Low tool-chip friction
Continuous with BUE

• Ductile materials
• Low-to-medium cutting speeds
• Tool-chip friction causes portions of
chip to adhere to rake face
• BUE formation is cyclical; it forms,
then breaks off
 Serrated Chip

• Semi continuous - saw-tooth appearance

• Cyclical chip formation of alternating high
shear strain then low shear strain
• Most closely associated with difficult-to-
machine metals at high cutting speeds.
 Chip Breaker

• Long continuous chip are undesirable

• Chip breaker is a piece of metal
clamped to the rake surface of
the tool which bends the chip
and breaks it
• Chips can also be broken
by changing the tool
geometry, thereby controlling
the chip flow
 Tool Signature

 In simple words The numerical code that describes all the key angles of a
given cutting tool is called tool signature

 Convenient way to specify tool angles by use of standardized abbreviated

system is known as tool signature or tool nomenclature. The tool signature
comprises of seven elements and is specified in different systems
 Systems of description of tool geometry

1. Tool-in-Hand System
2. Machine Reference System - ASA system
3. Tool Reference Systems
• Orthogonal Rake System - ORS
• Normal Rake System - NRS
4. Work Reference System – WRS
 Tool-in-Hand System
There is no quantitative information, i.e., value of the angles.
IMPORTANT TERMS OF SINGLE POINT CUTTING TOOL
Machine Reference System - ASA system
 Symbol

• πR = Reference plane; plane perpendicular to the velocity vector

• πX = Machine longitudinal plane; plane perpendicular to πR and taken in the direction of

assumed longitudinal feed

• πY = Machine Transverse plane; plane perpendicular to both πR and πX [This plane is

taken in the direction of assumed cross feed]

• The axes Xm, Ym and Zm are in the direction of longitudinal feed, cross feed and cutting
velocity (vector) respectively.
The main geometrical features and angles of single point
tools in ASA systems
 Definition
• Rake angles
• γx = side (axial rake: angle of inclination of the rake surface from the reference plane (πR) and measured on
Machine Ref. Plane, πX.
• γy = back rake: angle of inclination of the rake surface from the reference plane and measured on Machine
Transverse plane, πY.
• Clearance angles:
• αx = side relief angle: angle of inclination of the principal flank from the machined surface and measured on
πX plane.
• αy = End relief angle: same as αx but measured on πY plane.
• Cutting angles:
• φe = side cutting edge angle: angle between the principal cutting edge (its projection on πR) and πY and
measured on πR
• φe = end cutting edge angle: angle between the end cutting edge (its projection on πR) from πX and measured
on πR
• Nose radius, r (in inch)
• r = nose radius : curvature of the tool tip. It provides strengthening of the tool nose and better surface finish.
 Symbol

• πR = Refernce plane perpendicular to the cutting velocity vector, CV

• πC = cutting plane; plane perpendicular to πR and taken along the

• principal cutting edge

• πO = Orthogonal plane; plane perpendicular to both πR and πC and the axes;

• Xo = along the line of intersection of πR and πO

• Yo = along the line of intersection of πR and πC

• Zo = along the velocity vector, i.e., normal to both Xo and Yo axes.

 Tool Signature-ASA System

• Tool signature : γy - γx- αy- αx- φe- φe-r

• Tool signature : 8 -14 - 6 – 6 - 6 – 15 -1/8
• This system does not indicate the behaviour of tool in actual practice.
• Hence actual cutting condition include the side cutting edge OR
principle cutting edge.
Orthogonal Rake System
 Symbol

• πR = Refernce plane perpendicular to the cutting velocity vector, CV

• πC = cutting plane; plane perpendicular to πR and taken along the principal cutting edge

• πO = Orthogonal plane; plane perpendicular to both πR and πC and the axes;

• Xo = along the line of intersection of πR and πO

• Yo = along the line of intersection of πR and πC

• Zo = along the velocity vector, i.e., normal to both Xo and Yo axes

The main geometrical angles used to express tool geometry in
Orthogonal Rake System (ORS)
 Definition
• Rake angles
• γo = orthogonal rake: angle of inclination of the rake surface from Reference plane, πR and measured on the orthogonal
plane, πo
• λ = inclination angle; angle between πC from the direction of assumed longitudinal feed [πX] and measured on πC
Clearance angles
 αo = orthogonal clearance of the principal flank: angle of inclination of the principal flank from πC and measured on πo
• αo’ = auxiliary orthogonal clearance: angle of inclination of the auxiliary flank from auxiliary cutting plane, π C’ and
measured on auxiliary orthogonal plane, πo’ as indicated in Fig. 3.8.
• Cutting angles
• φ = principal cutting edge angle: angle between πC and the direction of assumed longitudinal feed or πX and measured on
πR
• φ1 = auxiliary cutting angle: angle between πC’ and πX and measured on πR
• Nose radius, r (mm)
• r = radius of curvature of tool tip
• Tool signature λ, γo, αo, αo’, φ1, φ, r (mm)
Single Point Cutting Tool
Single point Cutting Tool Nomenclature
Nomenclature of Single Point Cutting Tool

The different cutting tool angles are:

• Relief or clearance angle
• Side relief
• End relief
• Rake angle
• Back Rake angle
• Side Rake angle
• Cutting edge angle
• Side Cutting edge angle
• End Cutting edge an
 Relief or Clearance angle:

• Ground on the end and side faces of a tool to prevent it from rubbing on the
work piece.
• To enable only the cutting edge to touch the work piece.
Side Relief angle:
• Angle ground directly below the cutting edge on the flank of the tool
End Relief angle:
• Angle ground from the nose of the tool
 Rake angle:

Ground on a tool to provide a smooth flow of the chip over the tool so as to move it
away from the work piece
Back Rake angle
• Ground on the face of the tool
• Influences the angle at which chip leaves the nose of the tool
• Generally 8 - 100
Side Rake angle
• Ground on the tool face away from the cutting edge
• Influences the angle at which the chip leaves the work piece
• A lathe tool has 140 side rake.
 Cutting edge angle

• Ground on a tool so that it can be mounted in the correct position for various machining
operations.
Side Cutting edge angle
• Allows flank of the tool to approach the work piece first
• Spreads the material over a greater distance on the cutting edge, thereby thinning out the chip.
• Approximately 150
End Cutting edge angle
• Allows the cutting tool to machine close to the work piece during turning operations
• Usually 20 - 300
 Nose Radius:

• Rounded tip on the point of the tool

Functions:

1. To prevent the sharp fragile tip from breaking during use.

2. To provide a smoother finish on the work piece during machining operation.

3. Preferred nose radius 0.8 mm

 Rake Angle

• Back-Allows the tool to shear the work and form the chip. It can be positive or negative

• Positive = reduced cutting forces, limited deflection of work, tool holder, and
machine

• Negative = typically used to machine harder metals-heavy cuts

• The side and back rake angle combine to from the “true rake angle”
Positive Rake Angle
• Larger positive rake angles
• Reduce compression and less chance of a discontinuous chip
• Reduce forces
• Reduce friction
• Result = A thinner, less deformed, and cooler chip.
 Negative Rake Angle

• Typical tool materials which utilize negative rakes are:

• Carbide
• Diamonds
• Ceramics
• These materials tend to be much more brittle than HSS but they hold superior hardness at
high temperatures. The negative rake angles transfer the cutting forces to the tool which
help to provide added support to the cutting edge.
 Mechanics of Metal Cutting

• Forces on chip
• Cutting Force
• Thrust force
• Forces in metal cutting
• Merchant force diagram
• Power consumption
• Energy required in metal cutting
 Forces Acting on Chip

• Friction force F and Normal force to friction N

• Shear force Fs and Normal force to shear Fn

Fig.
Forces in metal cutting: (a) forces
acting on the chip in orthogonal cutting
Resultant Forces

• Vector addition of F and N = resultant R

• Vector addition of Fs and Fn = resultant R'
• Forces acting on the chip must be in balance:
• R' must be equal in magnitude to R
• R’ must be opposite in direction to R
• R’ must be collinear with R
Coefficient of Friction

Coefficient of friction between tool and chip:

F
 
N

Friction angle related to coefficient of friction as follows:

  tan 
Shear Stress

Shear stress acting along the shear plane:

Fs
S
As
where As = area of the shear plane

t ow
As 
sin 
Shear stress = shear strength of work material during cutting
 Cutting Force and Thrust Force

• Forces F, N, Fs, and Fn cannot be directly measured

• Forces acting on the tool that can be measured:
• Cutting force Fc and Thrust force Ft

Fig. Forces in metal cutting: (b)

forces acting on the tool that can
be measured
 Forces in Metal Cutting

• Equations can be derived to relate the forces that cannot be measured to the forces that
can be measured:
F = Fc sin + Ft cos
N = Fc cos - Ft sin
Fs = Fc cos - Ft sin
Fn = Fc sin + Ft cos
• Based on these calculated force, shear stress and coefficient of friction can be determined
 The Merchant Equation

• Of all the possible angles at which shear deformation could occur, the work material
will select a shear plane angle  which minimizes energy, given by
 
• Derived by Eugene Merchant   45  
2 2
• Based on orthogonal cutting, but validity extends to 3-D machining

• To increase shear plane angle

• Increase the rake angle
• Reduce the friction angle (or coefficient of friction)
• Higher shear plane angle means smaller shear plane which means lower shear force
• Result: lower cutting forces, power, temperature, all of which mean easier machining

Figure - Effect of shear plane angle : (a) higher  with a resulting lower shear plane area; (b)
smaller  with a corresponding larger shear plane area. Note that the rake angle is larger in (a),
which tends to increase shear angle according to the Merchant equation
 Power and Energy Relationships

• A machining operation requires power

The power to perform machining can be computed from:
Pc = Fc v
where Pc = cutting power; Fc = cutting force; and v = cutting speed
 Power and Energy Relationships

In U.S. customary units, power is traditional expressed as horsepower (dividing

ft-lb/min by 33,000)
Fc v
HPc 
33,000

where HPc = cutting horsepower, hp

Power and Energy Relationships

Gross power to operate the machine tool Pg or HPg is given by

Pc HPc
Pg  or HPg 
E E

where E = mechanical efficiency of machine tool

• Typical E for machine tools =  90%
Unit Power in Machining

• Useful to convert power into power per unit volume rate of metal cut
• Called the unit power, Pu or unit horsepower, HPu

Pc or HPc
Pu  HPu 
MRR MRR
where MRR = material removal rate
Specific Energy in Machining

Unit power is also known as the specific energy U

Pc Fc v Fc
U  Pu   
MRR vt ow t ow

Units for specific energy are typically N-m/mm3 or J/mm3 (in-lb/in3)

 Heat in Metal Cutting

• Approximately 98% of the energy in machining is converted into heat

• This can cause temperatures to be very high at the tool-chip

• The remaining energy (about 2%) is retained as elastic energy in the chip
 Temperature in Metal Cutting

There are three main sources of heat when cutting:

1. Heat is produced as the tool deforms (works) the metal (Primary)
2. Friction on the cutting face (Secondary)
3. Friction on the tool flank (Tertiary)
Heat is mostly dissipated by,
1. The discarded chip carries away heat
2. Coolant will help draw away heat
3. The workpiece acts as a heat sink
4. The cutting tool will also draw away heat.
** factors 1 & 2 dissipate 75 to 80%, factors 3 and 4 dissipate 10% each
 Temperature measurement

• Several analytical methods to calculate cutting temperature

• Method by N. Cook derived from dimensional analysis using experimental data for
various work materials

0.333
0.4U  vt o 
T   
C  K 

where T = temperature rise at tool-chip interface; U = specific energy; v = cutting speed; to

= chip thickness before cut; C = volumetric specific heat of work material; K = thermal
diffusivity of the work material
 Temperature measurement

• Experimental methods can be used to measure temperatures in machining

• Most frequently used technique is the tool-chip thermocouple

• Using this method, K. Trigger determined the speed-temperature relationship to be of the

form:

T = K vm

where T = measured tool-chip interface temperature

Temperature Distribution in the Cutting Zone